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COMBINATIONS AND STRIKES
FROM
THE TEACHER’S POINT OF VIEW.
BY
WILLIAM ELLIS.
^Reprinted from “ The Museum and English Journal of Education.”)
LONDON:
THOMAS NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW:
»
AND EDINBURGH.
MDCCCLXV.
�COMBINATIONS AND STRIKES FROM THE TEACHER’S POINT
OF VIEW.
N a journal not devoted to education,
some apology might be required for
introducing a subject so hackneyed
as “Combinations and Strikes.’’ This
subject, like that of education itself,
has become distasteful to the general reader, on ac
count of the flood of vague and irrelevant matter
with which our periodical literature has been
deluged, both directly from the pen, and indirectly
from speeches at public meetings, where these sub
jects have been treated of.
The subject of Combinations and Strikes can
not, however, have become distasteful to teachers
as teachers, because it has seldom found its way
into schools. And our purpose now is to invite
them to consider whether this subject do not de
serve some of their attention, and whether the
judicious treatment of it in schools will not shield
it from some of that ill-treatment outside which
it has met with so undeservedly.
If we can show teachers that correct views
upon the probable influence of Combinations and
Strikes will materially affect the future well-being
of their pupils, and also that it is quite within the
scope of school instruction that correct views shall
be formed by the pupils in their schools, we feel
quite sure of obtaining their attention; and if
we cannot do thus much, none of their atten
tion ought to be bestowed upon us, due as it may
be, nevertheless, to the matter which we shall
have failed in elucidating.
As for the importance to the young of correct
views upon the probable effect of Combinations
and Strikes, we need do little more than state
what that effect is expected to be, viz., increased
wages, or, which is the same thing, less work with
undiminished wages. Few teachers can contem
plate the present state and future prospects of
adults now at work, without desiring for their
pupils better prospective wages than those which j
widely prevail, however well they may be recon- I
efled to the modicum reasonably to be expected
at starting. Neither can teachers consider this
thought to be otherwise than a wholesome one for |
their pupils to carry into industrial life ;—w By 1
what means may we hope to become entitled to
and possessed of, such wages as will enable us, at
least, to live decently and comfortably?”
How far it is possible to qualify the young
while yet in our schools, to judge of the means
likely to be accessible to them for obtaining satis
factory wages, or for obtaining an increase of the
unsatisfactory wages which they may be com
pelled to put up with for a time, is a matter to
which a little space and attention must be de
voted before we can ask teachers to agree or to
discuss with us. We must bespeak, at the same
time, a certain amount of indulgence, if our at
tempted exposition should be more elementary
and elaborate than might appear called for be
tween teachers and teachers. They will kindly
bear in mind that we are addressing the parents
of the children in their schools as well as them
selves. We can hardly hope to escape mystifica
tion, confusion, and obscurity, except by avoiding
to use many of the general terms in common use,
or by deferring their use until we have established
the existence, and obtained a firm hold of the
ideas, for which those terms are the names. To
this precaution against admissions not warranted
by experience under cover of vague and ambigu
ous language, may be added another against the
unguarded introduction into schools of subjects
that are beyond the comprehension of the children
to be instructed in them. Such subjects might
be overlooked in a crowd. To secure inspection,
therefore, we will enumerate, one by one, some of
the subjects which, in our judgment, are at once
important to be known, and teachable to the
young. Attention will thus be fixed upon each
separately, and whatever is deemed inadmissible
can easily be objected to at once.
Assuming it to be desirable that all the young
should take from school as correct and vivid an
impression as is possible at their age, of the
nature of the life which awaits them, we will pro
ceed, briefly and succinctly, to place before our
readers some of the matters important to be under
stood, on which the young may be brought to ob
serve, and. jiudge correctly, and feel strongly, if
�COMB[XATIOWS AND STRIKES
thW’ be but under the direction of teachers cap
able qL supporting and guiding them.
1. They and all their fellow-creatures are subsisting upon the produce of past labour—partly
even of the labour of some of the men who lived
many ages ^go. If the produce of past labour
were suddenly destroyed, all men would perish,
with the exception of a few here and there in the
warmer climates, who might subsist upon the
spontaneous products of the earth.
2. They and their fellow-creatures are day by
day consuming the produce of past labour—some
things rapidly, as articles of food; others more
slowly, as articles of clothing, and furniture, and
dwellings. If, then, men are to continue to live
as comfortably, and in as large numbers, as at
present, the produce of past labour must be re
placed as fast as it is consumed. If they are to
live more comfortably, and in larger numbers, the
produce consumed must be more than replaced.
No portion of the labour, and of the knowledge
and skill to assist it, which were at work in the
past, can be spared in the present and future, if
society is not to deteriorate. More of each must
be brought to bear upon production, if society is
to be improved.
3. Maintenance of the stores of produce, and
encouragement of future production, are indis
pensable for the continued subsistence of society
as it is. Other efforts must be added to these, in
order to bring about an improved state of society.
Side by side with these truths, it has become
known to us that some men will not work to pro
duce, and will spoil and waste as well as consume.
Not only do they fail to replace what they con
sume, but they would, if not prevented, destroy
the produce of other men’s labour, and thereby
discourage their efforts to produce and save for
the future.
4. A consciousness of the existence of such illdisposed persons interspersed among the other
members of society, fear of their increase, and
alarm lest the industry, knowledge, skill, and
economy upon which the subsistence and improve
ment of society depend, should decline or perish
under their assaults, have led to efforts to resist,
and, if possible, to overcome them. Combinations
Mil. contrivances for these purposes fall within
the province of what goes by the name of government, and must ever be the work of those who
desire to defend the happiness and progress of
society against those who are indifferent or averse
to that which is indispensable for the general
welfare.
L, 5. The conclusion arniled at, and acted upon,
by those who have been accgpted_as most, com
3
petent to organize and administer the powers of
government, is, that their efforts must be directed,
First, To securing to each member of society the
undisturbed enjoyment of the produce of his
industry: implying liberty to exchan gejjEroWirei
and sell, to lend and borrow, to give£and ^.lso
to appoint, subject to some few restrictions, who,
at his death, shall succeed to his possessions. The
powers thus enjoyed under the protectiorg^of
government constitute the “rights of property.”
The declarations of these rights by government
are a portion of the laws under which we enffij
property. The products of industry being cfflMal
“wealth,” property consists of wealth, and those
titles to wealth recognised by law. The penaltrM
by which rights are protected against those who
would invade them, are another portion of laws.
Second, To securing, chiefly through the pro
motion of the teaching and training of the young,
that knowledge, skill, and good habits—the human
agents in the production, preservation, and enjoy
ment of wealth—shall as nearly as possible be co
extensive with life itself.
6. A very cursory survey of society enables us
to recognise who are the principal possessors O’m
wealth, as we see them around us, and as they have
grown up under the protection of our laws, and
also who are those that possess little or no wealth.
The former are the elders, the inheritors of wealth, I
and the more capable, that is, the more intelligent,
industrious, economical, and trustworthy. The
latter are the younger, and the less capable, that
is, the uninstructed, the indolent, the dissipated,
and the untrustworthy. It cannot be qnAstiane J
that the former are much better fitted than the
latter to hold and dispose of that wealth, the
replacement of which, as fast as it is consumed, is
so essential to the welfare of society. To entw^giM
it to the latter is impossible, and would be fatal
were it possible. Nevertheless, no human being,
whatever his disqualifications, can be entirely shnj
out from access to some portion of wealth. To
shut him out, would be to sentence him to death
by starvation. It remains to be shewn how the
“rights of property” maybe maintained while
the “ duties to humanity ” are performed
7. The difficulty in the way of performing each
of these duties, without neglecting the other, al
though by no means overcome, is seen to be
greatly diminished when once attention is directed
to the practice prevailing among a large portion
of the possessors of wealth, and a still larger por
tion of the wealthless ; the first, devoting some of
that wealth which they reserve as a provision
against future want, to the purchase of lalwnj
wherpwith to acquire more; the second, selling^
�4
COMBINATIONS AND STRIKES.
their labour for some of that wealth, without
which they could neither work nor live. The
readiness, on one side, to part with present wealth
in order to obtain increased wealth in the future,
and on the other, to surrender the direction and
produce of one’s own labour to obtain the produce
of* past labour, has been accompanied and fol
lowed by a succession of contrivances, in the form
of machinery and other instruments of production,
by which the labour purchased is made to accom
plish results otherwise unattainable, and to bring
about the continually increasing accumulations of
wealth everywhere observable. It must be evi
dent that the duties to property and to humanity
will be performed together more and more in har
mony, progressively as the wealthy become less
wasteful, and the wealthless less incapable.
8. This practice of applying wealth to the pur
pose of procuring more wealth in the future, has
given rise to a number of arrangements and bar
gains to suit the convenience and ciroumstances
of the various persons disposed to apply a portion
of their wealth to this purpose.
AV hat these arrangements and bargains are,
ought to be understood ; but it would be tedious
to describe them without using the terms in general
use ; and it is dangerous to use these terms with
out making sure of the things which the terms are
the names of. Let us, therefore, rapidly run over
these things, and mention the names which have
been given to them.
a. Wealth applied to the purpose of obtaining
ncrease is called capital. Originally, capital can
have been little more than wealth, destined by its
owners for the purchase of labour. Progressively,
larger and larger portions of capital have assumed
the form of instruments of production, among the
latest developments of which may be named rail
ways and their appendages, agricultural, mining
and manufacturing machinery, ships, docks, har
bours, and canals.
b. Wealth obtained by sale of labour is called
wages. The portion of oapital set apart for this
purpose is spoken of as a wages-fund, to distin
guish it from other portions of capital evidently
no longer available for purchasing labour.
c. The increase of wealth, looked forward to
from the application of wealth as capital, is called
' profit.
d. Many owners of capital are not administra
tors of capital; some administer the capital of
others as well as their own. Where they are not,
as in the case of those who prefer to work for
wages, of professional men, and of men conscious
of incapacity for directing labour, they lend their
capitals, surrendering their title to the larger but
uncertain return called profit, and bargaining with
the borrower for a smaller but certain stipulated
return. This smaller and stipulated return, is
called interest.
e. Besides these arrangements for facilitating
the co-operation of capital and labour in the work
of production, there are various forms of partner
ship and joint-stock association, admitting, accord
ing to the tastes, capabilities, and means of each,
the separation, partial or complete, of the elements
of the total future profit expected ; these elements
being, remuneration for the superintendence, for
the risk, and for the use, without risk, of the
capital. The latter of these elements, as before
stated, is called interest.
f. Wealth, capital, wages, profit, and interest,
are more frequently than otherwise measured in
money, and distributed with the aid of money.
They are also, spoken of, and written about, as
money. But each of them is a thing of itself, inde
pendently of money. And money is another thing.
With the assistance of these terms, bearing in
mind that they are familiar to thousands who
attach no definite meanings to them, and keeping
on our guard, so as not to be entrapped into using
them, sometimes in one sense, sometimes in an
other, quite unconscious that the matters denoted
by them have been shifted, let us proceed further
to indicate what the pupils in our schools can be
led to deduce for themselves from what they have
already observed and thought over.
9. The tendency of administrators of capital or
employers, is for them to distribute the wagesfund at their command among the labourers whom
they employ, according to the estimate which they
form of the producing powers of each. Making
use of the term “labourers” in its widest signifi
cation, employers will give to some, £5000 a-year;
to some, £10 a-week; to some, 3s. a-day; and to
others they will refuse wages or employment
altogether.
10. The total capital, and hence the total wagesfund, is a limited quantity. If it were distributed
among labourers in equal portions to each, the
portion of each could not be more than the quo
tient of the whole wages-fund divided by the
number of labourers. If this portion or wage
were considered insufficient, its increase could
only be procured by increasing the total wagesfund, or hy diminishing the number of labourers.
The latter mode of increasing average wages does
not require to be considered, and the former can
only be brought about at some future time, near
or distant, rapidly or slowly, according to oppor
tunities and the means resorted to.
11. Increase of wages to all is no more possible
�FROM THE TEACHER'S POINT OF VTEW1
at once, because the wages-fund is distributed
among labourers according to their respective
producing powers, than if it were distributed
among them equally and irrespectively of their
comparative producing powers. If more than the
average share be given to some, there must re
main less than the average share for others. But
there are two compensating circumstances at
tached to the apportionment of wages according
to producing powers. Greater future wealth is
produced, and as the wages fall into the posses
sion of more capable men, they are more likely to
be well used, and to be partly added to capital
forthwith.
12, Employers and employed,—they who have
bought and they who have sold labour,—it will
be observed, are two classes much more distin
guishable than capitalists and labourers. In every
country where the industrial virtues flourish, and
in proportion as they flourish, labourers, except
ing the youngest, whose power of earning and
hence of saving is as yet undeveloped, are capi
talists. They lend their capitals because they
can earn more through wages and interest than
they see their way to earn by administering their
own capitals, either separately or in co-operation
with other capitalists. The savings banks alone,
with their deposits of more than £40,000,000, are
proofs apparent to everybody, and many more
might be produced, of the extent to which, in a
community still deplorably afflicted with ignor
ance and misconduct, labourers are capitalists.
The chart of life, and the sailing directions
which the young will take out of schools where
they receive this kind of instruction, points to
wealth as the reward of intelligence and good
conduct,—wages small at first, because producing
power is small, but growing with the growth of
the estimate formed of producing power. The
capable labourer does no damage to his less capa
ble fellow-labourer. He assists in the increase,
so urgently required, of future capital. If he
save, a portion of his wages becomes capital at
once, wherewith employers distribute more wages.
The incapable, he assists to support. Lessons
easy and pleasant to learn in schools become difficult and painful if deferred till those who never
learned such lessons begin to suffer from their
ignorance. To children who leave school with
correct chart and good sailing directions, with
capacity for using them and resolution to act
upon them, the world opens not as a scene of
storm and tempest,"in which shipwreck can with
difficulty be escaped, but as an arena for the exer
cise of industry, intelligence, and the other social
5
virtues, with probable success in the future, and
certain satisfaction from the performance of duty
in the present. Little comfort can be derived by
the victims of ignorance and vice from the know
ledge, if communicable to them, that their desti
tution and suffering are the consequences of
previous mistaken conduct. In the presence of
misery, it would be brutal, if possible, to trace to
the sufferers the causes, no longer removable, of
their sufferings.
Taking our leave of school days, we will accom
pany the young as they leave the schools in which
they had received instruction such as we have
faintly sketched. Four out of every five of them
will be more or less dependent for subsistence
upon the sale of their labour. They will rejoice
rather than complain that there are employers to
be found able and willing to buy their labour, and
able and willing to afford them opportunities of
increasing their powers of usefulness. They may
regret, if service satisfactory to themselves and
their friends is not easy to be found, that capital
and employers are not more abundant. They
will surely not murmur if employers, with capital
at command, are so much in want of labour that,
not waiting to be sought, they apply at the schools
to obtain recruits likely to be made efficient la
bourers and deserving of wages.
They have entered upon their industrial career
With the assistance of their friends they have
sought the best service accessible, in the estimate
of which neither prospective nor present advan
tages will have been overlooked. Some will be
less successful than others in the selection of the
employments offered to therm Employers also
will not always find the services which they have
hired worth the wages which they have bargained
to pay. Shiftings and re-engagements will be of
frequent occurrence. But in subsequent, as well
as in original engagements, there will be one
thought prevailing among employers and la
bourers. Each will wish to do the best for them
selves; and if their efforts in this direction are
made intelligently, they will also do the best for;
one another, the employers seeking labourers
whose labour will produce most in proportion to
the wages paid, and the labourers seeking em
ployers whose service is most likely to lead to
those industrial rewards of which immediate wages
are hut a part.
There is an incessant and, we may say, a
healthy activity of thought and effort for in
dividual and general advancement. It is felt
that there is room for improvement. Th era is
no denying that a very large number of people
are inadequately fed, clothed, and lodged; that
�6
COMBINATIONS AND STRIKES.
they have no capital; and that, thrown entirely
upon the wages-fund for support, they obtain
wages insufficient for decent and wholesome liv
ing. It would be a sadder spectacle to see this
state of things contentedly and inertly put up
with, than even to be compelled to acknowledge
that efforts at amelioration were taking a wrong
^direction. In this country, happily, there is no
danger of such passive submission, on the part
either of the immediate sufferers, or of society in
general. But efforts at amelioration will probably
be not wholly either in the right or in the wrong
direction ; susceptible, therefore, of better direc
tion. And it is desirable that the young should
be prepared to form a correct judgment upon the
plans submitted to them for obtaining increase of
wages, and for bettering their condition in other
respects.
We may now ask the specific question whieh
we had in our thoughts at starting : How should
the young, instructed as we say they ought to be,
deal with proposals to them to unite in combina
tions and strikes ?
We mention combinations and strikes together
because they are so commonly brought to our
notice together. But we may dismiss “strikes”
in a few words, and without much ceremony.
Strikes are acknowledged by everybody to be
evils, and they are resorted to only, as many other
evils are, to avert greater—as the destruction of
buildings to check the spread of conflagration, as
a jettison to preserve from foundering, or as am
putation to save life. Because strikes bring to
our notice the existence of combinations, it must
not be forgotten that many combinations exist
keeping clear of strikes. And it is contended
that all might be so managed as to keep clear of
strikes.
We may be quite sure that when combinations
are formed, the prevailing wish must be to keep
clear of strikes. Strikes are no more intended by
labourers who combine, than indigestions by the
hungry who eat. Proposals, accordingly, will
be made to the young to unite in a combination
by itself, and not in conjunction with a strike in
vidiously tacked to it. But before they could
accede to any such proposal, they would wish to
understand what advantages might be reasonably
expected by them and their fellows, and what
ought not to be expected, if they would escape
disappointment.
They might begin by considering the probable
effect of a combination upon wages. It ’ would
not increase the wages-fund. It could not, there
fore, increase general wages. If it were to alter
the distribution of the wages-fund, it would only
do so by interfering with the efforts of employers
to distribute the wages-fund among labourers
according to their several producing powers.
But that would be to diminish future wealtre, and
hence to check the growth of the future wagesfund.
But might it not maintain a high level of wages
in particular branches of business, or raise the
level of wages previously felt to be too low? It
could only do this by excluding additional labourers from access to those branches, or by
bringing additional capital into them. But additional capital cannot be attracted into a business
except by the prospect of profit equal to or greater
than that seen to be obtainable elsewhere. And
with this prospect, capital would flow in, not in
consequence, but in spite of a combination which
prevents labourers from following or accompany
ing the capital to share in the advantages offered by
it. The forcible exclusion of labourers from par
ticular branches of business can only mean con
demnation of the labourers excluded, to lower
wages, in order to maintain or to raise the wages
of those in possession.
Combinations among labourers, so far as they
can influence wages, can only do so by preventing
that distribution of the wages-fund which would
be made by employers left uncontrolled in their
efforts to employ their capitals to the greatest ad
vantage. Combinations among labourers can
scarcely, then, be said to be so much against emplovers as against other labourers, since they
can only control employers by withholding from
labourers permission to be employed. If decrease
of production be the consequence, future wages
will decrease also.
It will not be lost sight of that employers strive
to distribute the wages-fund among labourers
according to their respective producing powers,
i. e. according to the estimate formed of their re
spective industrial virtues. If the authority of
employers be susperseded by that of a combina
tion of labourers, will they also wish to distribute
the wages-fund so as to reward and encourage
the industrial virtues ? If so, which of the two,
the employers or the labourers, are, from their
experience and position, more likely to form a
correct estimate of industrial merits ? If not, the
development of those qualities upon which the
happiness and progress of communities depend
would scarcely be promoted by combinations
among labourers.
One can conceive of a combination among
labourers in which attempts to encroach upon the
prerogative of employers should neither be made
nor contemplated. Its object might be to dis-
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�FROM THE TEACHER'S POINT OF VIEW.
countenance ill conduct, to contribute out of their
wages towards the maintenance of those tem
porarily incapacitated, to introduce promising
recruits, to find other employment for super
numeraries, to form their capitals into a joint
stock, or to add them to a joint stock already
formed. A combination of labourers thus directed
would be a co-operation of labourers with capi
talists, and also of capitalists with one another.
Combinations have been formed, we are not
sure that some are not in existence still, to ex
clude machinery, or new contrivances for making
labour more effective, from particular branches of
business. Our intelligent young people could not
possibly enter into a combination for such a purposa. They would not be misled by the com
plaint, that it was wished to supersede labour by
machinery. Their intellectual exerdises will have
brought to their notice, that language may be used
to conceal a fallacy, as well as to express a truth.
The spade, the plough, and the thrashing-machine
make labour more effective, they do not supersede
it. And the pumping-engine which drains a
mine, which, without it, must remain submerged,
makes labour possible where it was previously im
possible. To obstruct employers in their efforts
to make the labour which they purchase as re
munerative as possible, is to obstruct the growth
of the wages-fund, from which alone general im
provement in wages is to be expected.
There are, and will continue to be, epochs in
most branches of industry, when, from the flow of
capital faster than that of labourers into them,
wages will rise; and also when, from the flow of
capital faster than that of labourers out of them,
wages will fall. If combinations, by spreading
information and organising facilities, could expe
dite the influx and efflux of labourers, to make
them correspond with the movements of capital,
they would unquestionably be useful, by assisting
to diffuse the benefits anticipated from the altered
applications of capital, and to diminish the suffer
ing of those who were about to be abandoned by
the capital upon which they depend for wages.
But if combinations attempt to make labourers
refuse to accommodate themselves to the move
ments of capital, they can only succeed by exclud
ing some from opportunities for bettering their
(condition, and by condemning others to look on
and clamour for undiminished wages, and, per
haps, pine in want, while the tide of capital is
flowing towards other parts, to confer increased
wages upon those who choose to accompany it.
When the workmen of employers who remain to
the last in a declining branch of business, or who
persist in conducting it by means since surpassed
by others, are compelled to submit to lower wages,
can it be said with propriety that capital has
w triumphed” ?
If combinations be so much less capable than
they have been imagined to be, of improving the
condition of under-paid and over-worked labourers, \
is there, it may be asked, no escape for them from
their misery in the present, and no hope of re
dress in the future? Before attempting to an
swer that appeal, it may be observed that there
are few instances of misery so sad that they might
not be made much sadder, and few lots so dark
that they might not be made darker; and com
binations would rather work in those directions
or encourage hopes doomed to disappointment.
There are expressions familiar to us all, which,
whether manufactured on purpose, or diverted
from former uses, have helped to blind us to our
follies and mistakes.* Restrictions on trade were
recommended to us under the name of “protec
tion.” Persistence in error so long as our neigh
bours chose to go wrong, was advised under the
name of “reciprocity.” The free circulation of
capital between borrowers and lenders was long
prevented through fear of the “extortions of
usurers.” And now, combinations among work
men are recommended as bulwarks against the
“tyranny of capitalists.”
The young should leave our schools qualified
not only to use language to express their own
thoughts appropriately, but to detect the misuse
of language by which they might otherwise be
confounded and misled. A tyrant, they know, is
supposed to be an oppressor. When they make
* For specimens of this use of language see letters from Mr
Fawcett in the Times of 17th and 22d March 1865. Some mat
ters are referred to by Mr Fawcett upon which, although beyond
the scope of our text, we would gladly have a little more in
formation. Mr Fawcett, speaking of the labourer of the present
times, says:—
“ He hears our statesmen eloquently describing the vast in
crease in the nation’s wealth, and he does not find that his own
lot is perceptibly improved; mechanical inventions have caused
untold wealth to be created, and yet his hours of toil have not
been materially shortened ; he hears glowing descriptions of
the growth of this mighty metropolis, and at the same time he
knows that the home of the London working man is not more
comfortable, because, as new streets are opened and other im
provements are introduced, places where the labourers can
dwell are more and more restricted.”
Is it true that labourers have not been benefited by “ the vast
increase in the nation’s wealth,” and are less comfortably
lodged in this metropolis ? If these statements cannot be made
with truth of labourers in general, to which in particular will
they apply 1 and why have some been excluded from participa
tion in the blessings enjoyed by others ? If he will tell us what
becomes of the labourers who are refused admittance to, or dis
missed from, the establishments of such employers as Sir Fran
cis Crossley, and thriving co-operative societies, and why they,
in common with the crowds at our dock gates, are thus unfor
tunately situated, he will assist us, and perhaps himself also, to
the information of which we are in search.
�8
COMBINATIONS AND STRIKES
their first attempts to sellltheir^abour, they
scarcely believe themselves. ioB™n the look out
for tyrants. When they obtain an advance of
wages, they do not become conscious of any
tyranny. When some new employer, hearing of
their efficiency, offers them better wages than
their former employers [can afford to give, they do
not suspect the tyrant. W hen employers attract
labourers from districts where they are earning
ten jfflEnings a-weekf by the promise of twenty
shillings; or when enterprising labourers, unsoli
cited by others, quit places where they were
earning ten shillings and apply for employment
at twenty shillings, the acceptance of their ser
vices will not appear tyrannical to them, unwel
come and tyrannical as it may appear to other
labourers in the receipt of thirty shillings.
We have no thought of escaping criticism or
refutation by affirming, that the expositions which
we have attempted are consistent with “ the prin
ciples of political economy,” or are correct appli
cations of those principles. Principles of political
economy, in common with all other principles,
are liable to be misinterpreted and misapplied,
and we do not seek shelter, accordingly, behind
them. Nor shall we be greatly alarmed by those
who do no more than assert that we have sinned
against political economy. Calculations can be
verified, and the analysis of a compound can be
tested by experiment, without ostentatiously ap
pealing to “ the principles of arithmetic or che
mistry.” We beg that our estimate of the probable
influence of combinations upon wages and well
being may be examined by similar methods.
We doubt whether any political economist, master
of his subject, would find much to dissent from in
what we have written. If he would not, he
certainly ought to refrain from the use of such
expressions as “antagonism between capital and
labour,” the effect of which must be to make
truth and sound doctrine unpalatable.
We were told, on one occasion, when comment
ing, perhaps a little warmly, upon this mischievous
trifling with matters of life and death, that such
11 bosh" did ~ot deserve our attention. To this
we replied, it may be very well for you to despise
“ bosh,” but those who listen to bosh as if it were
sense may rush to their ruin, and those who talk
bosh will never know nor talk sense till they can
see through their own bosh.
.
The expression, “ antagonism between capital
and labour,” must have been invented to foster a
prejudice rather than to recommend a truth. We
might as well talk of the antagonism between
food and appetite, or between the shivering body
and clothes. Passing from capital and labour to
capitalists and labourers, they seem to us to be
more attracted towards, than repelled from, each
other. Their respective wants and means of sup
plying wants draw them together. Apart they
are powerless. Buyers and sellers, borrowers
and lenders, are similarly drawn towards each
other. The antagonism, if there be any, is be
tween capitalists and capitalists, labourers and
labourers, buyers and buyers, sellers and sellers,
borrowers and borrowers, lenders and lenders,
each contending for a common object, and appear
ing to frustrate those against whom they contend.
We will not close this paper without reminding
teachers, that the subjects which we have been
urging upon their attention cannot be left un
heeded by their pupils. They, at the close of
school-life, will be compelled to act. The alter
native before them is not action or inaction, but
judicious or injudicious action, the one leading
towards well-being, the other away from it.
Surely there is misery enough caused by wilful
misconduct, and by “ the ills which flesh is heir
to.” Its increase through ignorance is a reproach
to those by whom the ignorance might have been
prevented. It is more in sorrow than in anger
that we blame the courageous, enduring, and
energetic men, who are adding misery to misery
by their mistaken efforts to obtain relief. But
we cannot suppress our anger at the apathy of
those instructors of youth, who persist in a course
of instruction, the end of which is to leave their
pupils in ignorance upon matters, a knowledge of
which is indispensable to good self-guidance
well-being.
�
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Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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Pamphlet
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Title
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Combinations and strikes from the teacher's point of view
Creator
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Ellis, William
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publiction: London and Edinburgh
Collation: 8 p. ; 23 p.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Reprinted from 'The Museum and English Journal of Education'. Printed in double columns. Date in Roman numerals.
Publisher
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Thomas Nelson and Sons
Date
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1865
Identifier
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G5620
Subject
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Education
Working conditions
Rights
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Combinations and strikes from the teacher's point of view), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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application/pdf
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Text
Language
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English
Conway Tracts
Education
Political Economy
Strikes
Working Classes
-
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Text
® t s f i in £rn i HI s
IN FAVOUR OF THE
■M.
REV. JOHN BURNELL PAYNE, \A.,
CANDIDATE FOR THE PROFESSORSHIP
OF ENGLISH
LITERATURE
AND HISTORY AT OWEN’S COLLEGE, MANCHESTER.
�INDEX.
I. Professor Birkbeck.
II. E. E. Bowen, Esq.
III. Rev. W. G. Clark.
IV. Rev. T. L. Kinsbury.
V. F. T. Palgrave, Esq.
VI. H. Sidgwick, Esq.
VII. C. A. Buchheim, Ph.D.
VIII. H. Lee Warner, Esq.
IX. Henry Jackson, M.A.
X. A. Sidgwick.
XI. Oscar Browning.
XII. F. C. Hodgson.
XIII. A. C. Swinburne.
XIV. Thos. Woolmer.
XV. Thos. Hodgson.
XVI. A. W. Benson.
XVII. T. H. Fisher.
XVIII. Joseph Bickersteth.
XIX. De Guingand.
�Wellington College,
May 12, 1866,
Gentlemen,
In forwarding for your inspection my Testimonials, I beg
to state a few other particulars which I think may be important.
I am 27 years of age, and unmarried.
In 1858 I took the Degree of B.A. in the University of London,
with Classical Honours.
I had previously studied for two years at University College,
London. The length of time since my connection with University
College ceased, alone prevented my troubling the Trustees with
Testimonials from my Tutors there, who were good enough to
help me to gain a position as private tutor shortly after my
leaving there.
In 1860 I entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, which I left
in 1862, on gaining a Scholarship, open to the whole University,
at Downing College,
In 1864 I took the Degree of B.A., and was in the Second
Class in Classical Honours, First Class in the Moral Sciences
Tripos.
After Christmas 1864-5 I became an Assistant-Master here,
and at the Christmas Ordination 1865-6 I was ordained Deacon
by the Bishop of Oxford.
Trusting that if I receive the honour of your selection I may
deserve it, and assured that my best efforts will in that case be
devoted to the service of your College,
I remain, Gentlemen,
Your obedient Servant,
J. B. PAYNE,
The Trustees of Owen’s College, Manchester,
��TESTIMONIALS.
*
I
Downing College,
June Is?, 1864.
My dear Sir,
From the opportunity I have had of forming an opinion,
I believe you possess very considerable knowledge of English
and General Literature, as well as the power of expressing your
views with facility and clearness. I have no doubt that you
would perform with much ability the duties of the office for
which you are a candidate.
Believe me, my dear Sir,
Yours very sincerely,
W. Ll. birkbeck,
Downing Professor of Laws in the
University of Cambridge.
To J. B. Payne, Esq.
* This Testimonial and others marked with an asterisk were presented in
support of an application for the Professorship of English Literature at Lam
peter College.
B 2
�6
II *
Harrow, N.W.
Gentlemen,
Having been informed that my friend Mr. J. B. Payne is
a candidate for the Professorship of English Literature and
History at Owen’s College, I have no hesitation in stating
my belief that the College will be most fortunate should it
succeed in obtaining his services.
Everyone who has known Cambridge for the last few
years must be aware of the reputation which Mr. Payne
has acquired for proficiency in these and kindred subjects. I am
not in a position to speak with authority on his classical attain
ments, to which he will of course find many to do justice ; but
I know him to be well versed in the literature of our own
country as well as that of others, and to be, both in speaking
and in writing, no mean master of the language.
By his knowledge, fluency, and taste, Mr. Payne is eminently fitted for lecturing a class; and his general ability and
high character will be esteemed by every student.
I have the honor to be, Gentlemen,
Your obedient Servant,
E. E. BOAVEN,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; AssistantMaster in Harrow School.
HI.
Cambridge.
Mr. J. Burnell Payne, B.A., of Downing College, and
late of Trinity, informs me that he is a candidate for the vacant
Professorship at Owen’s College.
I have much pleasure in stating that in my opinion he is well
qualified for such an office. He has excellent abilities, and an
extensive knowledge of Modern Literature, English, German, and
French. As he is also able to express himself with fluency, he
would, in my opinion, be an effective lecturer.
W. G. CLARK,
Tutor of Trinity College {Public Orator
in the University').
�7
.
*
IV
Trinity College, Cambridge.
I have known Mr. Payne intimately for some years, and
have great pleasure in expressing my conviction that he is
eminently fitted by his literary tastes and habits, an extraordinarily
wide range of reading, and his familiar acquaintance with other
modern literatures beside that of his own country, to discharge
with peculiar efficiency and credit the duties of the post for
which he is a candidate.
Having received his education partly in Germany, he has
diligently availed himself of the opportunities thus afforded him
of acquiring a familiar and accurate knowledge of the language
and literature of that country, and his proficiency in both
respects is such as even the most cultivated Englishmen very
rarely attain to.
T. L. KINGSBURY,
Chaplain of Trinity College.
N
Whitehall.
• Having had the pleasure of knowing Mr. J. B. Payne
for some years, and having myself had considerable experience
in the line of work which he is desirous of carrying on at
Manchester, I think that I may, without presumption, express
the opinion that he possesses more than common qualifications
for a “ Professorship of English Literature, Language, and
History.” In English Literature, which has more frequently been
discussed between us, he seems to me to have an unusually wide
and accurate range of knowledge, with a lively power of criticising
what he has read. I think him a man successful in giving
others the interest which he himself feels in literature, and that,
as a teacher, he would be eminently likely to lead his pupils to a
broad, and, at the same time, an accurate knowledge of his
subject.
F. T. PALGRAVE,
Late Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and VicePresident of the Kneller Hall Normal
Training School; at present Examiner in the
Education Office.
�8
*
VI
Gentlemen,
I am requested to testify to the qualifications of Mr. J. B.
Payne for the Professorship of English and General Literature.
I have known Mr. Payne intimately for some years, and am con
vinced that he is unusually well qualified for such a post. His
acquaintance with our own literature, especially the earlier
writers, is very extensive. His knowledge of the French and
German languages is accurate and complete, and his familiarity
with the best writings in those languages remarkable in an
Englishman. He has a sensitive perception of style, and a sound
and cultivated judgment of literary merit of all kinds. He has
laboriously mastered the writings of the most important thinkers
in England and on the Continent, since the re-awakening of
thought in Europe ; and has successfully trained his mind to take
profound and philosophic views of all subjects upon which he
employs it. He, moreover, combines with this capacity for wide
and general views a strong interest in the individualties of
different authors, and a genuine enthusiasm which would prevent
the study of literature from ever becoming a dry and lifeless one
in his hands.
I cannot blit add, that he possesses in a high degree the power
of stimulating other minds with which he comes into contact,
and of communicating to them his own vivid intellectual interest.
This faculty, combined with the clearness of head and readiness
of expression that he possesses, can hardly fail to render him a
successful teacher.
I am, Gentlemen,
Faithfully yours,
HENRY SIDGWICK,
Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College,
Cambridge.
�9
VII.
King’s College London,
May Yith, 1866.
Enjoying the privilege of a personal acquaintance with
Mr. Payne, of Wellington College, I have much pleasure in
bearing testimony to his high literary attainments, and to his
perfect knowledge of the history and literature, not only of his
own country, but also of that of Germany and France. As a
further recommendation of Mr. Payne, for whom I entertain the
highest respect both as a scholar and a gentleman, I beg to add
that he possesses in an eminent degree a sincere devotion to the
educational profession, and that he is fully acquainted with the
best methods of teaching.
C. A. BUCHHEIM, Ph.D.,
Professor of the German Language and Literature
in King's College; and Examiner in German
to the University of London.
VIII.
Rugby,
May 10, 1866.
My Dear Payne,
I have much pleasure in being able to testify to my
belief that you know more of English Literature than most of
your and my contemporaries at Cambridge. If I am at all
qualified to judge, your knowledge was of a very superior kind;
and of this I am certain, that 1 often derived great instruction
from a walk or a talk with you. Of your fitness for the place, as
regards the interest you take in the subject, no one could doubt.
Of your proficiency I have no doubt.
Believe me,
Yours sincerely,
H. LEE WARNER,
Fellow of S. John's College, Cambridge, Assistant
Master in Rugby School.
�10
IX.
Having been informed that Mr. J. B. Payne, of Downing
College, Cambridge, is a candidate for the vacant Professorship
of English Language and Literature at Owen’s College, Man
chester, I have great pleasure in testifying to my belief of his
fitness for the post. During the last three years I have had
frequent opportunities of forming an estimate of his knowledge
and abilities. He has read extensively in all branches of
literature : in particular he has studied vour early authors with
unusual care. I well remember his acute and just criticisms
upon certain of our less known poets. His own style is fluent
and lively. His love of the artistic, which amounts to
enthusiasm, joined with a remarkable faculty of continuous
exposition and great fertility of illustration, cannot fail to
interest any audience.
I may add that Mr. Payne is well acquainted with the
literature of Greece and Rome, and with the principal languages
of modern Europe.
HENRY JACKSON, M.A.,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
X.
Rugby,
May 10, 1866.
Gentlemen,
Mr. J. B. Payne was an intimate friend of mine during a
considerable part of my residence at Cambridge, and I am there
fore in a position to speak of his abilities not without confidence.
His acquaintance with English Literature is unusually exten
sive ; and he is at the same time possessed of a vividness and
fluency in his powers of expression which cannot fail to stimulate
all whom he has to teach.
His critical powers are sensitive and developed; and he
belongs to that small class, even among cultivated men, whose
minds can be said to be really active.
As a teacher of any subject he knows, he would be un
doubtedly good; of a subject with which he is so well acquainted
as English Literature he would be most excellent.
Believe me,
Yours obediently,
ARTHUR SIDGWICK.
�11
XI.
Eton College,
May 11.
I am extremely glad to hear that my friend the Rev. J. B.
P^yne is a candidate for the Professorship of English Language,
Literature, and History at Owen’s College, Manchester, as, from
his great knowledge of English and Foreign Literature, his
cultivated taste for beauty, and his clearness and facility of
expression, he appears to me admirably suited to fill such a post
with credit.
OSCAR BROWNING,
Assistant Master at Eton College.
XII.
May 11, 1866.
I have very great pleasure in stating that I believe
Mr. J. B. Payne, who is now a Candidate for the Professorship
of English Language and Literature at Owen’s College, to be
exceedingly well qualified by a wide acquaintance with English
Literature for that position. I believe also that his intimate
knowledge of the Language and Literature of France and Ger
many, as well as of the results of the Science of Comparative
Philology, would render him highly qualified for the scientific
Teaching of the English Language.
F. C. HODGSON,
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
XIII.
I have enjoyed for some time the acquaintance of
Mr. J. Burnell Payne. No man who can say the same could fail
to perceive and to admire his varied and accurate knowledge,
his fine and critical relish of the higher literature. Few have
ever seemed to me so fit to hold, so certain to adorn, an office in
which this taste and this talent would find scope at once and use.
A. 0. SWINBURNE.
Author of Atalanta tn Ceylon ” and u ChartelardA
�29, Welbeck Street, W.,
May 10, 1866,
I have been acquainted with the Rev. J. B. Payne for
about eleven years, and, from numerous conversations during
that time, believe him to possess not only an unusually extensive
knowledge of English Literature, both prose and poetical, but
likewise an exceedingly vivid power of expressing his own views
upon the subject, and awakening a similar interest in his audience
to that which he himself feels.
THOS. WOOLNER,
Author of “ My Beautiful Ladyf
XV.
May 10, 1866.
Gentlemen,
Though my acquaintance with the Rev. Mr. Payne is
of recent date, and though I have never had an opportunity of
hearing him lecture, I have been frequently, in intercourse with
him, been much impressed by the evidence he has incidentally
given of his extensive knowledge and thoughtful appreciation of
English Literature, and of the amount of reading- that he has
accomplished, not in careless haste, but with profitable result.
From all that I know or have heard of him, I am much disposed
to believe that if he were entrusted with the Professorship to
which he aspires he would speedily earn a reputation for him
self, to the great gain of the Students and the honour of the
College.
I remain,
Yours respectfully,
W. B. HODGSON, L.L.D.,
Vice-President of the College of Preceptors,
Examiner in the University of London, fyc.
�13
XVI.
May 10, 1866.
The Rev. J. B. Payne has been a year and a half a
Master on the Modern side of Wellington College, and now has
the most important part in the administration and teaching of the
Modern Classes.
He is an excellent modern linguist, and is both widely read
and most deeply interested in Modern Literature, English and
Foreign. He is fond of teaching in itself as an art, and has
most successfully cultivated it. I know, indeed, very few men
whom I consider to be equally apt in catching a student’s diffi
culties, weighing them, and meeting them by clear and lucid
statement.
He has great promptness, and fluency of expression, and is
happy in illustration.
Both by knowledge, therefore, and by cultivation, Mr. Payne
appears to me to be excellently adapted for the public duties of
the post which he now seeks; and at the same time his influence
and example would, I am sure, be exceedingly stimulating to the
private studies of his class.
E. W. BENSON,
Master of Wellington College,
Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
XVII.
Wellington College,
May 11.
Gentlemen,
I have been associated here with Mr. Payne since he
has been at the College, and have had opportunity of observing
his knowledge of History, and his extensive acquaintance with
English Literature ; and if conversation be any criterion for public
lecturing, I can also bear witness to his great dexterity in
weaving his literary knowledge into what he says to those about
him. He has, besides, always had among us the reputation of
an excellent teacher.
I have the honour to be,
Yours obediently,
T. H. FISHER,
Mathematical Master
�14
XVIII.
May 10th, 1866.
The Rev. J. B. Payne, attended my lectures in the
Moral Sciences in St. John’s College, and appeared to me to
show not only great interest in the subject, but remarkable
freshness of thought and power of expression. I believe that
the Examiners for the Moral Sciences Tripos formed the same
estimate of Mr. Payne’s ability from the papers which he sent
up in that examination.
I have little doubt that he would prove an effective lecturer.
JOSEPH BICKERSTETII MAYOR M.A.,
Head Master of Kensington School; late Fellow and
Tutor of St. John's College, Cambridge.
XIX
Mon cher Monsieur Payne,
Si vous me demandez ce que je pense de votre connaissance
de la langue et de la litterature Fran^aise, je repondrai a cela,
toute consideration de camaraderie mise de cote, que je vous
crois aussi bien verse dans la litterature Franc;aise qu’aucun de
nous ; que de plus vous savez fort judicieusement en apprecier la
valeur, et qu’enfin vous possedez notre langue de maniere
a l’ecrire et a la parler presqu’aussi bien qu’un Francis, et
qu’un Fran^ais instruit.
Votre tout devout,
DE GUIGNAND.
Professor of French at Wellington College.
�LONDON:
PRINTED BY HARRISON AND SONS,
st. martin’s lane.
��
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Testimonials in favour of the Rev. John Burnell Payne, M.A., candidate for the professorship of English literature and history at Owen's College, Manchester
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Payne, John Burnell
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London
Collation: 14 p. ; 21 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Publisher
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[s.n.]
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1864
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G5682
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Education
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Testimonials in favour of the Rev. John Burnell Payne, M.A., candidate for the professorship of English literature and history at Owen's College, Manchester), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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English
Conway Tracts
Education
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’ I M.AG
National Secular Society Tract
No. 6.
Mr. RAMSAY MACDONALD on
SECULAR
EDUCATION.
Report of a Speech delivered in support of
Secular Education at a meeting held under the
auspices of the Secular Education League, in
the St. James1 Hall, London, December io, 1908.
z | AHE case for the secular solution is a logical
I
case, it is a just case. This is a question
which concerns more particularly the
children of the working classes. I am bound to say
that nothing made me'feel so1 disgusted as when I
listened in the House of Commons, the other day, to
gentlemen whose feet had never crossed the threshold
of a Board School, who told us about the tre
mendous amount of concern they had for the quality
of the moral and religious teaching given to other
people’s children. All I can say is, I wish they would
look after their own children. If they had only
shown the same anxiety for their own children and
seen that they were well educated in morality and re
ligion, well bred, trained in the knowledge of what
was right and wrong, and had left us to do the same
with our children, modern society would have been a
much holier affair than it is to-day.
I am not
one of those who believe in peace at any price. I am
in favour of a just and lasting peace, a peace that has
been secured after the State and Church make up
their minds to look after their own business. There
is nothing more preposterous than that the State
should attempt to do the work of the Church unless
it is that the Church should actually expect the State
to do its work. Let us suppose that we are all pro
foundly religious and that we are simply burning
with anxiety to get the minds of our children, using
the word in its very best sense, converted. The
children have religious instruction for three quarters
of an hour each day, and we are going to say : ‘ What
�a blessed religious exercise they have had. How en
lightening it has been to their souls.’ Three quarters
of an hour’s instruction in Jewish history—very
ancient—and the child might say : ‘ Thank God, if I
did not know that David was the King of Judah, I
might have been a thief.’ We have a right to test
education by results.
We hear a great deal about
science nowadays. I would like to hear Mr. Hal
dane, who is a leader in science, give his genuine
opinion as a scientist, from the point of view of a
man who believes in the scientific method, as to the
effect of Bible reading in the schools from the re
ligious point of view. Let us begin on a secular
basis. Let us secularize our schools. Let us bring
in, not Bills to allow sectarian strife, but Bills to> in
crease the efficiency of education.
Let us make a
real beginning in the State care of children. Let us
try to devise some means by which the wisdom,
knowledge and power and the financial strength of
the State, can build up a physical, intellectual and
moral character in our children so that when they are
no longer children they shall be powerful men and
women, prepared to face life in all its aspects. Bring
in Bills to do that and peace will naturally follow.
If we could get our education ministers to tear out
from the official volumes, all records of those round
table conferences and barterings, and forget them,
and simply go, day after day, to our schools, see the
children, see the teachers and the buildings, and go
from those schools to' the factories and workshops and
see the conditions under which the youth of the
country has to work, and with that experience go
back to the conference room, and construct an Edu
cation Bill which would enable them to meet those
conditions, then you would have an education of the
right kind. You would have peace, you would have
a settlement which was not a surrender, and the
whole country would benefit enormously as the re
sult of those efforts.”
/
Printed and Published by The National Secular Society,
62 Farringdon Street, E.C.4.
�
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Victorian Blogging
Description
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A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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Title
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Mr Ramsay Macdonald on secular education : report of a speech delivered in support of secular education at a meeting held under the auspices of the Secular Education League, in the St. James' Hall, London, December 10, 1908
Creator
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Macdonald, Ramsay
Description
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Place of publication: London
Collation: [2] p. ; 19 cm.
Series: National Secular Society tract 6
Notes: Printed by The National Secular Society.
Publisher
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National Secular Society
Date
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1908
Identifier
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G5481
Subject
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Secularism
Education
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<p class="western"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br />This work (Mr Ramsay Macdonald on secular education : report of a speech delivered in support of secular education at a meeting held under the auspices of the Secular Education League, in the St. James' Hall, London, December 10, 1908), identified by <span style="color:#0000ff;"><span lang="zxx"><u>Humanist Library and Archives</u></span></span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</p>
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Text
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English
Education
Secularism
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37bef7a29b8cacb6a1699046c0f65fed
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—---------------------------------------------------------
CATALOGUS
SENATUS
ACADEMICL,
ET EORUM
QUI MUNERA ET OFFICIA ACADEMICA GESSERUNT,
QUIQUE ALICUJUS GRADUS LAUREA DONATE SUNT,
COLLEGIO DICKINSONIENSI,
CARLE OLI,
IN
REPUBLICA PENNSYLVANIENSI.
PHILADELPHIA:
-
MDCCCLXIV.
FEDERATE AMERICA! BEIPUBLICi SUMMA! POTESTATIS
ANNO LXXXVII.
�MONITUM.
Magistrates summi et optimates maiusculis:
Evangelii ministri literis Italicis, impressi:
Jurisconsulti, litera j, designati sunt.
Qui nullo titulo notantur Baccalaurei sunt.
Qui e vivis cesserunt, stelligeri sunt.
PHILADELPHIA:
TYPIS, COLLINS, 705 JAYNE STREET.
�CATALOGUS SENATUS ACADEMIC!
CURATORES.
ACCESSUS.
*
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1783
*Johannes Dickinson, LL. D.................................................. 1807
1783
*Henricus Hill.......................................................................1798
1783
*Jacobus Wilson, LL. D........................................................ 1798
1783
*Gulielmus Bingham .
1783
*Benjamin Rush, M. D., LL. D. .
.
.
.
.
.
. 1804
.
.
.
. 1813
1783
*Jacobus Boyd...................................................................... Yl&l
1783
*Johannes McDowell............................................................ 1825
1783
*Henricus-Ernestus Muhlenberg, S. T.D. .
.
. 1815
1783
^Gulielmus Hendel............................................................. 1802
1783
*Jacobus Jacks...................................................... . 1802
1783
*Johannes Black............................................................. 1802
1783
*Alexander Dobbins............................................................ 1809
1783
*Johannes McKnight, S. T. D.............................................. 1794
1783
*Jacobus Ewing...................................................................... 1810
1783
*Robertus McPherson................................................... 1789
1783
*Henricus Slagle............................................................. 1810
1783
*Thomas Hartley...............................................
. 1801
1783
*Michael Hahn...................................................................... 1792
1783
*Johannes King, S. T. D........................................................ 1813
1783
*Robertus Cooper, S. T. D...........................................1805
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
4
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
A.D.
A. D.
......
.
1798
■.......................................
.
1807
1783
*Gulielmus Linn, S. T. D.................................
.
1787
1783
*Johannes Linn................................................
.
1821
1783
*Johannes G. Armstrong
.
1794
1808
1794
1783
*Jacobus Lang
1783
*Samuel Waugh
....
1783
*Johannes Montgomery
....
.
1783
*Stephanus Duncan......................................
.
1783
*Thomas Smith ...
.
.
1809
.
1790
.
1815
1783
*Robertus Magaw......................................
1783
*Samuel A. McCoskry
1783
Christophorus-Emanuel Shulze .
.
1788
.
1794
.
.
1788
....
.
1794
.
.
1796
.
1792
.
.
. .
1783
*Petrus Spyker................................................
1783
Johannes Arndt .
1783
*Gulielmus Montgomery
.
1783
*Gulielmus Maclay
1783
*Bernardus Dougherty
....
1783
*David Espy
...
.
1795
1784
1788
.
.
.
1783
*Jacobus Sutton .
.
.
.
.
1783
*Alexander McClean .
.
.
.
1783
*Gulielmus McOleerv......................................
.
1788
1784
Nicholas Kurtz................................................
.
1796
1787
*Josephus Montgomery
.
1794
1787
*Jacobus Latta, S. T. D....................................
.
1801
.
1803
.
.
.
.
1788
*Gulielmus Irvine
1788
*Robertus Johnston......................................
.
1808
1788
*Patricus Alison, S. T. D. .
.
1788
1788
*Jacobus Snodgrass......................................
.
1833
*Johannes Creigh......................................
.
1813
1788
.
.
.
�5
OATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
. ..................................
.
1799
1790
*Thomas Duncan, LL. D............................................
.
1816
1792
*Georgius Stevenson, M. D.......................................
.
1&27
1792
*Ephraimus Blaine................................................
.
1804
1794
*Robertus Cathcart, S. T. D......................................
.
1833
1794
*Nathanael-R. Snowden......................................
.
1827
1794
*Samuel Laird.........................................................
/ 1807
1794
*Carolus M cClure
1789
*Josephus Thornburg
.
.
.
1794 *Jacobus Hamilton................................................
1794
*Michael Ege
.
•
•
1811
.
•
1820
.
• * •
1815
1821
1795
*Samuel Weakley................................................
.
1796
*Johannes Campbell, S. T. D.....................................
.
1820
1796
*Jacobus Armstrong................................................
.
1826
1802
1798
* Thomas McPherrin,
......
.
1798
*Jacobus Riddle................................................
,
1833
1798
*Franciscus Gurney................................................
.
1815
1799
*Carolus Smith, LL.D................................................
.
1824
1801
*David Denny.........................................................
.
1833
1801
*David Watts..........................................................
.
1820
1802
*Joshua Williams, S. T. D.
.
1821
1802
^Johannes Young
......
.
1803
1802
*Robertus Coleman................................................
.
1826
1802
David McConaughy, S. T. D....................................
.
1834
1803
*Hugo-H. Brackenridge......................................
.
1816
1803
Franciscus Herron, S.T. D......................................
.
1816
1804
*J onathan Walker................................................
.
1824
1805
*Nathan Grier...............................................
.
1814
1807
*Jonathan Helfenstein......................................
.
1826
.
�6
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
A. D.
A. D.
. .
.
.
1808
.
1820
1807
*Jacobus Duncan
1808
*Jacobus Gustine................................................
1808
*Gulielmus Alexander......................................
.
1814
1833
.
.
1808
*Jacobus Hendel................................................
.
1809
*Robertus Davidson, S. T. D.
.
1812
1809
Gulielmus-M. Brown................................................
.
.
.
' .
.
1827
.
1826
1811
*Robertus Blaine
1814
*Andreas Carothers................................................
.
1833
1814
*Johannes Lind.........................................................
.
1825
.
1828
.
...
1814
*Franciscus Pringle .
1815
Nathaniel Chapman, M. D.........................................
.
1833
1815
*E dvardus-J acobus Stiles....................................... '
.
1827
1815
*Johannes McKnight, S.T. D...................................
.
1820
1815
Albertus Helfenstein................................................
.
1826
1815
Georgius-A. Lyon................................................
.
1833
1816
*Johannes-Bannister Gibson, LL. D. .
.
1829
1816
Amos Ellmaker..........................................................
.
1821
1820
Georgius Duffield, S. T. D.
.
1833
1820
*Henricus-R. Wilson................................................
.
1825
1820
Johannes Swartzwelder......................................
.
1825
1820
*Isaias Graham
.
1834
1820
Johannes Moodey
................................................
.
1834
1820
Isaacus-B. Parker................................................
.
1833
1820
Alexander Mahon................................................
.
1827
1820
*Josephus Knox..........................................................
.
1827
1820
Gulielmus-N. Irvine................................................
.
1833
1820
*Jacobus Alter..........................................................
.
1823
1820
*Andreas Boden................................................
.
1827
.
.
...
...
�7
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1821
Gulielmus-R. Dewitt, S. T. D...................................
.
1834
1821
*Johannes Reed, LL.D.............................................
.
1828
1821
Johannes-S. Ebaugh................................................
.
1833
1821
Gulielmus-C. Chambers, M.D...................................
.
1833
1823
*Ashbel Green, S. T. D., LL. D................................
.
1826
1824
^Michael Ege.........................................................
.
1827
1824
Benjamin Keller................................................
1824
*Johannes-F. Grier, S. T. D....................................
1824
Jacobus Hamilton................................................
.' 1833
1825
* Georgius Lochman, S. T. D....................................
.
1826
1825
Georgius Metzger................................................
.
1833
1825
Johannes-Duncan Mahon......................................
.
1834
1826
Redmond Conyngham.......................................
.
1827
1826
Benjamin Stiles......................................
.
1827
1826
Ricardus Rush.........................................................
.
1832
1827
David Elliott, S. T. D.......................................
.
1829
1827
*Johannes Nevin
.
1830
1827
Samuel Agnew, M.D.......................................
.
1832
1827
*Johannes McClure................................................
.
1833
1827
*Johannes Creigh................................................
.
1833
1827
Georgius Chambers................................................
.
1834
1827
Carolus-Bingham Penrose......................................
.
1833
1827
*Samuel Alexander................................................
.
1833
1828
Samuel-S. Schmucker, S.T. D.
.
1833
1833
.
.
\
.
.
.
1833
.
.
.
1829
1828
*Calvinus Blythe................................................
.
1828
Fredericus Watts................................................
.
1833
1828
*Gabriel Hiester................................................
.
1833
*Jacobus Coleman................................................
.
1833
1828
�OATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
8
EXITUS.-
ACCESSUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1829
Jacobus-M. Haldeman
........................................... 1833
1829
*Samuel Baird
........................................... 1833
1829
Johannes Paxton, M.D.
........................................... 1833
1829
*Alexander Fridge
........................................... 1833
1829
*Johannes-V.-E. Thorn
........................................... 1833
1830
Alexander Nisbet
........................................... 1833
1831
Jesse-Duncan Elliott .
........................................... 1833
1833
*Rt.-Rev. Johannes Emory, S.T. D..................................... 1836
1833
*Johannes McLean, LL.D. Cur. Sup. Feed. Iud. Ads.
1833
*Stephanas-Georgius Roszel
........................................... 1841
1833
*Josephus Lybrand
........................................... 1844
1833
Alfredus Griffith
1833
*Samuel Harvey .
1833
Job Guest
1833
*Henricus Antes .
1833
*Theodorus Myers, M. D.
...........................................1839
1833
*Johannes-M. Keagy, M.D.
........................................... 1835
1833
*Samuel Baker, M. D. .
........................................... 1836
1833
Johannes Davis
1833
*Johannes Phillips
...................................... 1860
1833
Matthaeus Anderson, M. D.
........................................... 1838
1833
Ira Day, M.D.
1833
*Ricardus Benson
........................................... 1844
1833
*Thomas Sewall, M. D.
........................................... 1845
1833
Henricus Hicks .
........................................... 1837
1833
Georgius-W. Nabb
...........................................1840
1833
Samuel-H. Higgins
........................................... 1837
1833
Carolus-A. Warfield
1855
........................................... 1848
......
........................................... 1836
.
.
.
.
1840
.......................................... 1843
.
.
...........................................1837
�9
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
Jacobus Roberts.........................................................
.
1835
1833
Jacobus Dunlop.........................................................
.
1839
1833
*Benjamin Matthias
.
1850
1846
1833
I
.
.
'.
1833
*Carolus McClure................................................
.
1833
Samuel-E. Parker................................................
.
1835
1833
*Gulielmus-M. Biddle................................................
.
1855
1833
Thomas-A. Budd................................................
.
1843
1833
*Thomas-Emerson Bond, M.D..................................
.
1835
1833
Jacobus-B. Longacre
1833
Josephus Holdich, S. T. D..........................................
.
1835
1833
* Carolus Pitman,
.
1854
1834
Henricus Boehm .......
.
1838
1834
Gulielmus Hamilton................................................
.
1838
1834 Jacobus Watson.........................................................
.
1839
.
1847
1834 *Johannes Harper
1834
....
.
.
.
.
.
1837
.
1836
.
.
1837
Jacobus Massey.........................................................
.
1834
'
Carolus-F. Mayer
1835
Thomas-Chapman Thornton
1835
Josephus-S. Carson .
1835
Solomon Higgins................................................
.
1838
1835
Matthaeus Sorin ...
.
1838
1835
Thomas-Jefferson Thompson
1835
Jacob Weaver......................................
.
1850
1836
Rt.-Rev. Jacobus-Osgood Andrew, S.T. D.
.
1839
1836
Comfort Tiffany.........................................................
.
1858
1836
Samuel-B. Martin, M.D..............................................
.
1838
1836
*Georgius-Grimston Cookman .
.
1840
1837
Samuel Ashmead................................................
.
1855
...
...
.
.
.
�10
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1837
Henricus Holden ....
.
1840
1837
Alexander-L. Hays
.
1841
1837
Jacobus Wright .
.
1859
1837
Thomas-B. Sargent, S. T. D.
1837
Johannes-A. Elkinton, M.D.
.
1840
1838
*Ricardus Battee
.
1848
1838
Martinus-W. Bates, LL. D.
.
1851
1838
Johannes-S. Porter
.
1855
.
1838
Edmundus-S. Janes
.
1839
1838
Manning Force .
.
1843
1838
*Johannes Davis
.
1854
1839
Levi Scott
.
1841
.
.
.
.
1839
*Gulielmus-D. Seymour
.
1841
1839
Robertas Morris .
.
1841
1839
*Rt.-Rev. Beverly Waugh, S. T. D.
.
1858
1839
Jacobus-S. Owens
'.
1845
1840
Jacobus Carrigan
.
1857
1840
Johannes Herr
.
1845
1840
Johannes Buckman
.
1842
1841
Gulielmus Hamilton, S.T.D.
1841
*Robertus Emory, S.T.D.
.
1845
1841
Johannes Kennaday, S. T. D.
.
1852
1841
Jacobus Bishop .
.
1861
1841
*Henricus Antes
.
1856
1841
Fredericus Watts
.
1844
1842
Carolus-W. Roberts
.
1845
1843
Garolus-B. Tippett, S. T. D.
1843
Ricardus-W. Dodson .
.
1847
.
�11
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
.
1851
1843
Archibaldus Wright................................................
1844
Jacobus-J. Boswell................................................
.
1850
1844
Edvinus-L. Janes................................................
.
1845
1844
*Johannes-J. Myers, M.D..........................................
.
1854
1845
Thomas Browne
......
.
1850
1845
David Creamer
1845
Andreas Hay.........................................................
.
1857
1845
*Stephanus-Asbury Roszel......................................
.
1852
1845
Johannes-Price Durbin, S. T. D.
1846
Jesse Bowman.........................................................
.
1859
1846
Ricardus-H. Carter................................................
.
1848
1847
Albertus-J. Ritchie, M.D..........................................
.
1856
1847
Abrahamus-Herr Smith
1848
Daniel-Moore Bates
.
1859
.
1857
.
1860
.
1856
1848
Walker-P. Conway
1848
Johannes McClintock, S.T.D....................................
1848
S.-A. Barton, M.D.
1850
G-ulielmus-H. Allen, M. D., LL. D.
1850
Johannes Whiteman
1850
Christianus Stayman
1850
Johannes-F. Bird, M. D.
1850
Spencer-F. Baird, D. P. S...........................................
1851
Alexander Cummings .
.
•
/ •
1852
Franciscus Hodgson, S.T.D.
1852
Jesse-Truesdale Peck, S.T.D....................................
1854
Aquila-A. Reese, S.T.D.
1854
Johannes Tonner
1855
Pennel Coombe
�12
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
A.D.
A. D.
1855
. 1855
Gulielmus-H. Miller
Daniel Pierson.
1857
1855
Carolus-Josephus Baker
1856
Hon. Augustus-O. Hiester
1856
Johannes-Armstrong Wright
1857
W.-E. Tunison .
1857
Edvinus Wilmer
1857
Johannes-O. Harkness.................................................... 1859
1858
Gulielmus-E. Perry
1858
1858 Hon. Johannes-H. Phillips
1858 Hon. Georgius-F. Fort..................................................... 1862
1858
Samuel-A. Williams, M.D.
1858
Bev. Bernardus-Harrison Nadal, S.T.D.
1858
Rt.-Rev. Levi Scott, S.T.D.
1859
Johannes Carson
1859 Gulielmus-Ryland Woodward
1859 Samuel-Y. Munroe
1859
Jacobus Rheem
1860
Isaacus-P. Cook
1861
Jacobus-Fowler Rusling
1862
Josephus-C. De Lacour
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
13
Curatorum numerus integer...........................................265
Ex officio decesserunt.............................................................. 225
Supersunt adhuc......................................................................... 40
Evangelii Ministrorum numeros............................................. 95
Ex officio decesserunt................................................................ 72
Supersunt adhuc......................................................................... 13
PRESIDES CURATORUM.
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
A. D.
A. D.
*Johannes Dickinson, LL.D......................................
.
1808
1808
*Johannes King, S.T.D.............................................
.
1808
1808
*Jacobus Armstrong................................................
.
1824
1824
*Johannes-Bannister Gibson, LL.D. .
.
1829
1833
1783
1829
*Andreas Carothers
.....
.
1833
*Johannes Emory, S.T.D......................................
.
1834
1834
Johannes-Price Durbin, S.T.D. »
.
1845
1844
1847
1842
*Robertus Emory {pro tern.)
....
.
1845
*Robertus Emory, S. T. D..........................................
.
1848
*Rt.-Rev. Beverly Waugh, S.T.D. {pro tern.) .
.
1848
1849
Jesse-Truesdale Peele, S.T.D...................................
.
1852
1852
Carolus Collins, S.T.D..............................................
.
1860
1860
Uerman-Merrills Johnson, S.T.D.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
14
SCRIB ZE.
EXITUS.
ACCESSVS.
A. D.
A. D.
.
1784
.
1792
1783
* Gulielmus Linn, S. T. D. .
1784
*Thomas Duncan, LL.D.
1792
*Thomas Creigh .
.
1796
1796
*Jacobus Duncan
.
1806
1806
*Alexander-P. Lyon
.
.
1808
1808
*Andreas Carothers
.
.
1814
1820
•
.
1814
Isaacus-B. Parker
.
1820
Jacobus Hamilton
.
1824
1824
Fredericus Watts
.
1828
1828
Samuel-A. McCoskry, S.T.D.
.
1831
1831
*Gulielmus-M. Biddle .
.
1833
1833
Carolus-Bingham Penrose .
.
1837
1837
Johannes McClintock .
.
1848
1848
Gulielmus-Henricus Allen .
.
1850
1850
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall
.
1854
1854
Otis-Henricus Tiffany
.
1857
1857
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall
.
1858
1858
Gulielmus-Laws Boswell.
THESAURARII.
1784
*Samuel Laird
.
1790
1790
*Samuel Postlethwaite
.
1798
1798
*Johannes Montgomery
.
1808
1808
*Johannes Miller
.
1821
1821
Andreas McDowell
.
1833
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
15
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A.D.
....
1833
*Johannes-Jacobus Myers, M.D.
1841
*Gulielmus-D.Seymour..................................................... 1854
1854
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall.......................................... 1861
1861
Samuel-Dickinson Hillman.
1841
BIBLIOTHECARII.
1784
*Jacobus Ross, A.M.................................................... 1792
1794
*Gulielmus Thomson, A. M...........................................1804
1804
Johannes Borland, A.M..........................................................1805
1807
Johannes Hayes, A. M............................................................. 1809
1809
*Henricus-R. Wilson, A.M................................................... 1813
1813
Josephus Shaw, A/AL................................................... 1815
1815
Gerardus-E. Stack, A.M......................................................... 1816
1822
*Josephus Spencer, A.M........................................................ 1830
1830
Carolus-Dexter Oleaveland, A.M......................................... 1832
1834
*Robertus Emory, A..AL........................................................ 1840
1840
Johannes McClintock, A.M...................................................1848
1848
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall,A.M........................................ 1860
1860
Gulielmus-Laws Boswell, A.M.
�PRIM ARII.
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1784
* Carolus Nisbet, S. T. D.............................................
.
1804
1804
*Robertus Davidson, S. T. D. (pro tem.)
.
1809
1809
Jeremias Atwater, S. T. D.
.
1815
1815
*Johannes McKnight, S. T. D. (pro tem.)
.
1816
1821
Johannes-Mitchell Mason, S. T. D.
.
1824
1824
Gulielmus Neill, S. T. D.............................................
.
1829
1830
Samuel-B. How, S. T. D.............................................
, 1832
1833
Johannes-Price Durbin, S. T. D.
.
1845
1845
*Robertus Emory, S. T. D.
.
1848
.
.
1848
Jesse-Truesdale Peck, S. T. D.
1852
Carolus Collins, S.T.D...............................................
1860
Herman-Merrills Johnson, S. T. D.
.
.
1852
.
1860
PROFESSORES.
PHILOSOPHIC MORALIS
1809
Jeremias Atwater, S.T.D. ;
.
.
1815
1815
*Johannes McKnight, S.T.D...................................
.
1816
1821
*Johannes-Mitchell Mason, S.T.D.
.
1824
1824
Gulielmus Neill, S.T. D..............................................
.
1829
1830
Samuel-B. How, S. T. D..............................................
.
1832
1833
Johannes-Price Durbin, S. T. D.
.
1845
�17
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1845
*Robertus Emory, S. T. D. . -
1848
.
.
1848
Jesse-Truesdale Peck, S.T D....................................
.
1852
1852
Carolus Collins, S. T. D..............................................
.
1860
1860
Herman-Merrills Johnson, S.T.D.
LINGUARUM LITERARUM GRH3CZE ET LATINZE.
1784
*Jacobus Ross, A. M.
.
1792
1794
*Gulielmus Thomson, A. M.
.
1804
1804
Johannes Borland, A. M.
...
.
1805
1807
*Johannes Hayes, A. M....................................
.
1809
1809
*Henricus-R. Wilson, A. M.
.
1813
1813
Josephus Shaw, A. M.
.
1815
1816
Gerardus-E. Stack, A. M. (pro terni) .
.
1816
1822
*Josephus Spencer, A.^IL..................................
.
1830
1830
Carolus-Dexter Cleveland, A. M.
.
1832
1834
*Robertus Emory, A. M..................................
.
1840
1840
Johannes McClintock, A. M.
.
1848
1846
Georgius-Ricardus Crooks, A.M. (Adjunct).
.
1848
1848
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall (Adjunct).
.
1850
1850
Jacobus Gulielmus Marshall
.
1860
HISTORI2E, GEOGRAPHIZE, CHRONOLOGIZE
ET RHETORICZE.
1785
* Robertas Davidson, S. T. D.
.
1804
MATHESIS ET PHILOSOPHIZE NATURALIS.
1786
*Robertus Johnston, A. M.
1792
1821
.
>
.
1787
*Jacobus McCormick, A. M.
.
1811
Henricus Vethake, LL. D.
2
.
1829
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
18
PHILOSOPHIC NATURALIS.
EXITUS.
ACCESSUS.
a.
A. D.
1804
* Robertas Davidson, S.T.D.
n.
•
1811
.
1814
MATHESIS.
1811
*Jacobus McCormick, A. M.
1814
Eugenius Nulty, A. M.......................................
1830
Alexander McFarlane, A. M.
1834
*Merritt Caldwell, A. M...................................
1836
Johannes McClintock, A. M.
1840
*Thomas-Emory Sudler, A. M.
1816
•
1840
.
.
1832
•
.
1851
1836
1848
Otis-Henricus Tiffany, A. M. (Adjunct)
■
1851
1851
Otis-Henricus Tiffany, A. M.
•
1857
1857
Gulielmus-Laws Boswell, A. M.
•
1860
1860
Samuel-Dickibson Hillman, A. M.
.
CHEMISE ET PHILOSOPHIC NATURALIS.
1811
*Thomas Cooper, M. D., LL. D.
.
1815
1828
Johannes-K. Finley, M.D.
•
1829
1830
Henricus-D. Rogers, A. M.
•
1831
1835
*Johannes-M. Keagy, M. D.
.
1836
1836
Gulielmus-Henricus Allen, A. M., M. D.
.
1848
1848
Spencerus-F. Baird, A.M., M.D.
•
1850
1850
Erastus Wentworth, A. M., S. T. D. .
1854
Gulielmus-Carlisle Wilson, A. M.
1854
LINGUC ET LITERARUM GRCCARUM.
1811
Johannes Borland, A. M....................................
1812
�19
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
LINGUARUM RECENTIORUM.
ACCESSUS.
EXITUS.
A. D.
A. D.
1814
Claudius Berard, A. M.
1825
.
Ludovicus Mayer, S. T. D.
, .
.
.
.
.
1816
.
.
.,
.
.
1826
RHETORICS, METAPHYSICORUM ET ETHICORUM.
1821
Alexander Me Clelland, S. T. D.
....
1829
JURISPRUDENTI2E.
1834
Johannes Reed, LL.D.............................................................. 1850
1862
Jacobus-Hutchison Graham, LL. D.
METAPHYSICORUM ET ECONOMISE POLITICAL
1836
*Merritt Caldwell, A.M............................................................ 1848
LINGU2E ET LITERARUM LATINARUM.
1837
*Stephanus-Asbury Roszell, A. M.......................................... 1838
LINGUARUM ORIENTALIUM ET RECENTIUM.
.
1846
Carolus-Edvardus Blumenthal, A.M., M.D.
1854
Alexander-J. Schem, A.M............................................ 1860
.
1854
PHILOSOPHIES ET LITERARUM ANGLICARUM.
1848
Gulielmus-Henricus Allen, A.M., M.D.
.
.
.
1850
1850
Herman-Merrills Johnson, A.M., S.T.D. .
.
.
1860
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
20
LINGUARUM LATINH5 ET GALLI CHI.
EXITUS.
ACCESS US.
A. D.
A. D.
1860
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall, A.M....................................
1862
1861
Johannes-Keagy Stayman, A.M. (Adjunct).
1862
1862
Johannes-Keagy Stayman, A.M.
1860
Gulielmus-Laws Boswell, A. M.
LINGUARUM GRH1CHJ ET GERMANICHS.
TUTORES ET PKTCEPTORES.
1785
Robertus Johnson, A. M......................................................
1786
1788
*Jacobus McCormick, A. B................................................
1792
1792
Carolus Huston, A. B.................................................
1793
1793
Henricus-L. Davis, A. B.......................................................
1794
1805
Johannes Hayes, A. B..........................................................
1807
1810
Fredericus Aigster, A. B.
1810
Johannes McClure, A. B......................................................
1811
1812
Robertus-C. Grier, A. B........................................................
1813
1826
Johannes-W. Vethake, A.M., M.D. Chem. Prcel.
1827
1827
Johannes-K. Finley, M.D. Chem. Prcel.
1828
1831
1811
.
Olmstead, A. M. Ghem. Prcel.. .
1832
1838
Thomas-Verner Moore, A. B..............................................
1839
1839
*Johannes Zug, A. B.................................................
1840
1839
Gulielmus-Smith Waters, A. B...........................................
1840
1851
Amos-Forry Musselman, A. B............................................
1854
1854
Benjamin Arbogast, A. B.
1856
.......................................
�1864:.
PRIMARIUS.
HERMAN-MERRILLS JOHNSON, S.T.D
PROFESSORES.
GULIELMUS-CARLILE WILSON, A. M.,
CHEMI® ET PHILOSOPHISE NATURALIS PROFESSOR.
GULIELMUS-LAWS BOSWELL, A.M.,
LINGUARUM GR®C® ET GERMANIC® PROFESSOR.
SAMUEL-DICKINSON HILLMAN, A. M.,
MATHESIS PROFESSOR.
JOHANNES-KEAGY STAYMAN, A. M.,
LINGUARUM LATIN® ET GALLIC® PROFESSOR.
JACOBUS-HUTCHISON GRAHAM, LL.D.,
JURISPRUDENT!® PROFESSOR.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
1787.
*Isaias Blair, A. M.
*Johannes Boyce.
*Johannes Bryson.
*Robertus Duncan, A. M.
*Jacobus Gittings.
*David McKeehan, A. M.
*Steel Semple, A. M.
*Jonatban Walker, j, A. M.
*David Watts, j, A. M.
1788.
*Johannes Boyd.
*Thomas Creigh, j, A. M.
* David Denny, A. M.
*Jacobus Duncan, j, A. M.
*Isaacus Grier, A. M.
*Jacobus McClanahan.
*Jacobus McClean.
*Johannes McPherrin.
^Matthceus Sinclair.
*Gulielmus Speer, A. M.
* Johannes Young, A. M.
1789.
Samuel Brown.
*Jacobus Calhoun, A. M.
Jacobus Crawford.
*David Hoge.
*Carolus Huston, j, Tutor, Reip.
Penn. Cur. Sup. Jurid.
*Samuel Mahon.
*Jacobus More.
* Alexander Sanderson.
Jacobus Scott.
9
1790.
* Gulielmus Baldridge.
9 Jacobus-P. Boyd.
*Jacobus-B. Brotherton, A.M.
*Franciscus Dunleavy.
*Josephus-S. Galbreath.
Ricardus Henderson.
*1809. *Thomas-G. Peachey.
*1845. *Johannes Purviance, j.
*Johannes Shippen.
*Robertus Smith.
Johannes Thompson.
*Robertus-G. Wilson, S.T.D.,
Coll. Neo-Caes. 1818., Univ. Ohio
Praeses.
*1851.
12
11
1792.
^Johannes Brackenridge.
*Robertus Callender, A. M.
Gulielmus Carcaud.
*David Casset, j, A. M.
*Johannes Creigh, M. D. Univ.
Penn., A. M.
*1848—75.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
23
*Franciscus Herron, A. M., S.T.D.
*Samuel Davidson.
Coll. Jeff.
*1860.
Georgius Dugan.
*Callender Irvine.
Hayden Edwards.
Johannes Jack.
*J ohannes Foulke.
*Ricardus Johns.
Jacobus Gilleland.
Robertus Knox.
Jacobus Hemphill.
*Franciscus Laird.
*Gulielmus Hunter.
*Gulielmus Laird, M. D.
*Jacobus Laird.
Austin Leake.
*Josias Leake.
*Johannes Lyon, Rhet. et Ment. Randall McGavock.
Jacobus McGill.
Phil. Prof. Un. Op. Coll.
*Alexander Nisbet, j, A. M.
Maxwell McDowell, A. M.
*Gulielmus Noland.
Johannes McJimsey.
*Gulielmus Patten.
*Johannes McKesson.
Austin Wharton.
Jacobus Me Knight.
Jesse Wharton, Reip. Faed. Sen.
Johannes Moore.
20
*Jacobus Postlethwaite.
Samuel Reynolds.
1795.
Carolus Ross.
Austin Smith.
Gualterus Breden.
Jacobus Smith.
*Samuel Bryson.
*Andreas Steel.
*Abrahamus Craig.
*Gulielmus Steel, A. M.
Gulielmus Creighton.
Johannes Steel, A. M.
*Patricus Davidson, A. M.
Johannes Todd.
Samuel Donald.
Isaacus Wayne, A. M.
Gulielmus-Aston Harper.
Robertos Whitehill, e Cong. Jacobus Hasson.
Repr.
*Jacobus Irvine, A. M., M. D.
Johannes Wilson.
*Johannes Kennedy, j, Reip. Penn.
* Gulielmus Woods.
33
Cur. Sup. Jurid.
*Johannes Lyon, j.
1794.
*Thomas McClelland.
McConaughy, A. M,
Gulielmus Brown.
S.T.D., Coll. Jeff., Coll. Wash.
*Ma tthae us Bro wn, S. T. D., C oil.
Neo-Caes. et Coll. Wash. 1823;
Praeses.
LL.D. Coll. Hamilt. 1835 ; Coll. Andreas Moore.
Wash, et Jeff. Praeses.
*1852. *Johannes Nevin.
*Henricus Lyon Davis, S. T. D. Johannes Passmore.
*Georgius Reid, A. M.
Coll. Sane. Johann. Praes.
*Gulielmus-O. Sprigg.
*Alexander Dow.
Gulielmus Sterret.
David Hayes, A. M.
�24
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Gulielmus Stuart.
Rogerus-Brooke Taney, j, A. M.,
LL.D. 1831, Reip. Faed. Civ.
Sec., Attorn. Prine., et Cur. Sup.
Jurid. Prine.
*Josias Williams, A. M., S. T. D.
Coll. Jeff.
Josua Williams.
Edvardus Work.
24
1797.
* Gulielmus Breden.
*Jacobus Graham.
* Thomas Grier.
*Robertus Kennedy, A. M.
*Thomas McComb.
*Moses Montgomery,
Edvinus Putnam, A. M.
Henricus-M. Ridgeley, A. M.,
Reip. Faed. Sen.
Jacobus Thompson, A. M.
9
1798.
■
*Jacobus Adair.
*Samuel Agnew, A. M., M. D. Coll.
Jeff. Med.
*Johannes-B. Alexander, j.
*Jacobus Brady, A. M.
*Andreas Buchanan.
*Levi Bull, S. T. D.
Johannes Cooper.
*Gulielmus Downey, M.D. Univ.
Penn.
Jacobus-D. Greason, A. M.
*Jacobus Gustine, A. M., M. D.
Jacobus Guthrie.
*Georgius Hayes.
*Thompson Holmes, A.M., M.D.
Univ. Penn.
*Robertus Houston. M. D.
Josua Knight.
*Amos-A. McGinley, S.T.D.
*Gulielmus-F. Mitchel.
* Alexander Monteith.
*Robertas Proudfit, A. M., S. T. D.,
Lingg. Graec. Rom. q. Prof. Coll.
Cone.
* Gulielmus Rainey.
*Thomas Stockton.
*Johannes Waugh, A. M.
*Renricus-R. Wilson, A. M.,
S. T. D., Lingg. Graec. Rom. q.
Prof.
*Johannes Wright.
*185524
1799.
*Samuel Ball.
* Alexander-H. Boyd, A. M.
Armstrong Brandon.
* Carolus Cummins, A. M., S. T. D.
Coll. Sane. Johann. 1830.
*1863—86.
Jacobus Gilleland.
Thomas Hood.
Johannes Preston.
*Stewart Williamson, A. M.
8
1800.
*Jesse Duncan.
*Georgius-D. Foulke, A.M., M.D.
Isaacus Grier.
*Johannes Hillyard.
* Georgius Stevenson.
5
1802.
Samuel Bell.
* J acobus-Rice Black, A. M., Reip.
Del. Cur. Sup. Jurid.
*Johannes Hutchinson.
* Johannes Lind, A. M.
*Johannes McClure, A. M., Tut.
Gulielmus Patterson.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
25
David Elliot, A. M., S. T. D.,
Coll. Jeff., Coll. Wash., et Acad.
Theol. Occid. Praeses.
*Johannes Fisher.
1803.
Jacobus-H. Miller, M.D. Univ.
*Alexander Boyd, A. M.
Penn., Praes. et Prof. Anat. et
*Jacobus Buchanan.
Physiol. Univ. Wash. Balt.
*Johannes-Ferguson Grier, A. M., *Franciscus Pringle.
S.T.D.
*Jacobus Pringle.
Johannes- 0 'Neil.
*Henricus Shippen, A. M.
* Jacobus Sharon.
*1843. *Jasper Slaymaker.
Johannes Williamson.
11
Crawford White.
Samuel Woods.
8
1805.
(VIII. CAL. MAI.)
1809.
*Georgius Clark, A. M.
Alexander Brackenridge, j, A. M.
*Johannes Clark, A. M.
Jacobus Buchanan, j, A.M., LL.D.
*Robertus Graham.
1842, et Coll. Rutg. 1849 et Neo*Ricardus Gustine.
Caes. 1850, e Cong. Reip. Faed.
*Johannes Hayes, A. M., Tutor,
Repr. Etiam. Sen., Apud. Caes.
Rom. etGraec. Lingg.etLitt.Prof.
Russ. Legatus., Apud. Maj. Brit.
* Georgius Stewart, A. M.
Legatus, Reipublic^e F^ederat^e
Prases.
(vn. CAL. OCT.)
*Henricus-M. Campbell, j, A. M.
*Gulielmus Barr.
*Alfredus Foster, A. M., M.D.
Georgius Buchanan, A. M.
Johannes-N-Caldwell Grier,S.T.D.
Stephanus Duncan, M. D.
Johannes-Hays Grier.
Jacobus Linn, A. M., S. T. D.
Johannes-Walker Grier, Reip.
*Alexander Mahon, j.
11
Faed. Nav. Capel.
Robertus-Smith Grier.
1806.
*Gulielmus Irwin.
Robertus Laverty.
*Jesse Magaw, M.D.
*Gulielmus Mcllvaine.
*David Pringle,
Lloyd Noland.
*Andreas-K. Russell.
Johannes Smith, A. M. et Tutor Samuel Parke.
Neo-Caes.
4 *Gulielmus Williamson.
*Jacob Zell.
15
1808.
*Johannes-W. Armor.
*Gulielmus-A. Boyd.
*Samuel-P. Duncan.
1810.
'
*Johannes-E. Grier, M. D.
Paulus-S. Pierce.
�26
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
*Samuel-D. Ramsey.
*Thomas-Bull Smith.
Samuel-A. Marsteller, j.
4 Carolus-F. Mayer, j, A. M.
*Jacobus McCormick.
Gulielmus-S. McPherson, j.
1811.
Robertus Patton, j.
Benjamin Collett.
*Georgius-L. Potter.
*Gulielmus Findley, j.
*Jacobus D. Riddle.
*Carolus-P. Gordon, j, A. M.
Jacobus-Sproat Green, j, A. M. Jacobus Sykes.
Neo-Caes. ibique Curat, et Juris- Jesse Taylor.
prud. Prof., Reip. Faed. Dist. Neo- *Georgius Travers.
Gulielmus-M. Worthington, A.M.
Caes. Attorn.
26
Timotheus-J. Harrison.
Johannes-A. Henderson.
1813.
*Georgius-R. Hopkins.
^Johannes Knox, S. T. D. Coll. *Jacobus-B. Beverly.
Wash.
*1858. Lenox Birckhead.
*Jacobus-S. Craft, j, A.M.
*Thomas-M. Read.
*Thomas-B. Veazey, A. M.
10 *Harmar Denny, j, e Cong. Repr.
*1852.
Jacobus-B. Finley, A. M.
1812.
*Dennis Hagan.
*Samuel Alexander, j, A. M.
Josephus-A. Maybin, j, A.M.
Addison Belt.
*Gulielmus McFarlane.
Gulielmus-B. Beverly.
*Jacol)us-G. McNeiley, A.M. Gram.
Thomas-T. Blackford, M.D. Univ.
Sch. Prim.
Penn.
*Gulielmus-D. Mercer, M. D.
*Calvinus Blythe, j, A.M., Sec. Pol. Isaacus-A. Ogden, A. M.
et Att. Gen. Reip. Penn.
*Robertus Ralston.
Johannes Brown.
Jacobus Somerville.
Colin Cooke.
Ricardus Wootton.
*Jacobus Dunlop, j, A. M.
*Gulielmus Young.
15
*Gulielmus Goldsborough, M. D.
Thomas-J. Graham.
1814.
Robertus-C. Grier, j, A.M., Tutor,
LL. D., Reip. Faed. Cur. Sup. *Samuel-D. Blackiston.
*Ephraimus-M. Blaine, M.D. Univ.
Jurid. Ads.
Penn.
Jacobus Hamilton, j, A.M.
Jacobus Brown.
Alexander-L. Hays, j, A. M.
* Johannes Carothers, M.D. Univ.
Jeremias-Furman Learning.
Penn.
Ricardus-Henricus Lee, A. M.
1826, LL. D. 1854, Rhet. Prof. *Jesse-Y. Castor.
*Gulielmus Chambers, M. D.
Coll. Wash.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
*Jeremias Chamberlain, S. T. D.
Coll. Cent., Coll. Louis, et Coll.
Oakl. Praeses.
*1850.
Josias Clapham.
*Thomas-B. Cobean, M. D. Univ.
Penn.
*Gulielmus-H. Denny, M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Festus Dickinson.
Josias Hawkins.
Johannes-J. Linton.
*Johannes-Duncan Mahon, j, A.M.
*1861.
Mardochaeus McKinney, j, A. M.
Humphredus-B. Powell.
Ricardus-R. Randolph.
Jacob Snyder.
Carolus-F. Spoering.
Gulielmus Tingle.
Johannes-F. Tyler.
*Stephanus-Duncan Walker, j, A.M.
*Jacobus S. Woods, S. T. D. *1862.
23
1815.
Franciscus-W. Brooke.
Julius Forrest.
*David-W. Huling, j.
Petrus-H. Ihrie, e Cong. Repr.
David-N. Mahon, A. M., M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Georgius-T. Martin, M. D.
*Carolus-N. McOoskry, M. D. Univ.
Penn., Reip. Faed. Exerc. Chir.
Georgius-W. Nabb.
*Alder Piper.
*Gulielmus-M. Sharp^M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Georgius Sweeny, e Cong. Repr.
Gulielmus Thomas.
David Wills.
13
27
*1816.
Georgius-C. Harrison, j.
Thomas-O. Kelly, A. M.
Johannes-E. Page.
Jacobus Smith.
Gulielmus Stuart.
Ross Wilkins, j, Reip. Faed. Cur.
Dist. Mich. Jurid.
6
1822.
*Thomas-R. Lee.
*Jacobus-Hall Mason.
2
1823.
Johannes-Holmes Agnew, A. M.,
S. T. D., Lingg. Graec. Rom. q.
Prof. Nov. Arc. et Coll. Wash,
et Univ. Mich.
Alfredus Armstrong, A. M.
* Georgius-W. Bethune, A. M., S.
T. D. 1823 et Univ. Penn., Sem.
Neo-Brun. Theol. Past. Prof.
*1862.
Ira-Condit Boice, A. M.
*Gulielmus Cahoone, A.M.
*Alexander-B. Codwise, A.M.
Gulielmus-L. Helfenstein, j, A. M.,
LL.D.
Jacobus Holmes, A. M., S. T. D.
Talbot Jones, j, A. M.,
Abrahamus-J. Labagh, A. M.
Isaacus-P. Labagh, A. M.
* Erskine Mason, A. M., S. T. D.
Coll. Columb., Eccl. Hist. Prof.
Ext. Acad. Theol. Nov. Ebor.
*1851.
*Daniel McKinley, A. M., S. T. D.
*1855.
Johannes-G. Morris, A.M., S. T. D.
Coll. Penn.
*Digby-D.-B. Smith, j, A. M.
�28
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Cornelius Van Cleef, A.M.
Carolus Whitehead, A. M.
Gulielmus-H. Williams, A. M.
*Johannes-C. Young, A. M.,
S. T. D. Coll. Neo-Oses. 1839, Coll.
Cent. Ky. Praeses.
*1857.
19
1824.
Gulielmus Annan, S. T. D.
*Johannes-E. Annan, A. M. Math.
Prof. Univ. Miami.
*1826.
Samuel Boyd, M. D. Coll. Med.
Nov. Ebor.
Robertus Bridges, A. M., M. B.
Univ. Penn., Coll. Pharm. Phil.
Ohim. Prof.
Gulielmus-Porter Cochran, A. M.
*Jacobus Culbertson, A.M., M.D.
Univ. Penn.
*1857.
Johannes-M. Dickey, A.M., S.T.D.
Johannes-R.-W. Dunbar, A. M.,
M. D. Univ. Penn., Anat. et
Chirur. Prof. Univ. Wash. Balt.
David Eyster, A. M.
Jacobus Knox, A. M.
*Robertus-P. Lee, A. M.
*Carolus McClure, j, A. M., e
Cong. Repr.
Samuel-A. McCosery, A.M., S.
T. D. Coll. Oolumb., Eccl. Episc.
Dios. Mich. Episcopus.
Isaacus Mcllvaine, A. M.
Samuel Montgomery, A. M.
Gulielmus-B. Norris, j, A. M.
*Jacobus Nourse, A. M.
*1855.
Andreas Parker, j, A. M., e Cong.
Repr.
*Matthceus-B. Patterson, A. M.
*Matthaeus-V. L. Ramsey.
Samuel Smith, A. M.
*Paris Spohn, A.M.
Henricus-M. Watts, j, A.M.
Moses Williamson, A. M.
24
1825.
Johannes-W. Campbell, j, A.M.
Johannes Chamberlain, A.M.
*Johannes-T.-Marshall Davie,
A.M.
*1852.
Pelatias-W. Gordon, A. M.
Gulielmus-H. Gray, A. M.
Josephus-G. Gray, A.M., M.D.
Univ. Penn.
Henricus Haverstick, A. M.
Mattliceus-H. Henderson, A. M.
Samuel-Buthford Huston, A. M., in
Graec. Mission.
Gulielmus-H. Kurtz, j, A. M., e
Cong. Repr.
Georgius-A. Lyon, A. M., S. T. D.
Samuel Maclay, A. M., M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Alexander Macbeth, j, A. M.
Johannes-W. McCulloch, A.M.
Gulielmus-B. Mcllvaine, A. M.
Johannes-C. Reynolds, A. M.
*Nicholas-G. Sharretts, A. M.
Robertus-E. Taylor, A. M.
*Georgius-S. Whitehill, A.M.
Thomas Williams, in Cong. Repr.
20
1826.
Henricus-Ludovicus Baugher,
A.M., S.T.D. 1848, Ling, et Litt.
Graec. Prof. Coll. Penn, et nune
ejusd. Praes.
*Georgius-W. Buchanan, j, A. M.,
Reip. Faed. Dist. Occid. Penn.
Attorn.
Thomas-L. Cathcart, A. M.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Thomas Craighead, A. M.
Ludovicus Eichelberger, A. M., S.
T. D.
Gulielmus-W. Gerhard, A.M., M.D.
Univ. Penn, ibique Prof.
*Adamus Gilchrist, A. M.
*1861.
Gulielmus-N. Johnston, A.M.
*Robertus-J. Poulson, A.M. *1862.
9
' 1827.
*Ricardus Armstrong, A. M., in
Sand. Inss. Mission, et Instruc.
Pub. Min.
1 Jacobus-M. Campbell, j, A. M.
*Daniel Denny, A. M.
*Petrus-H. Engle, A. M.
Sidneius-Georgius Fisher, j, A.M.
Jacobus-Hutchison Graham, j,
A.M., LL.D. 1862, Jurisp. Prof.
*Alexander Gwin, j, A. M.
*Lorenzo-N. Henderson, A. M.
Augustus-F. Hinsch, A. M.
Jacobus-M. Hopkins, A.M.
Johannes-M. Krebs, Gram. Sch.
Prim., A.M., S.T.D. 1841.
Samuel-M. Magraw, A. M.
Josephus Mahon, A. M. et Coll.
Jeff., Gr. Sch. Prine.
*Gulielmus-B. McClure, j, A. M.
*Jacobus-X. McLanahan, j, A. M.,
e Cong. Repr.
*1862.
Gulielmus-V. Neill, A. M.
Gulielmus-M. Nevin, A. M. Ling.
Lat. Prof. Fran, et Mar. Coll.
Johannes-H. Price, j, A. M.
Daniel-M. Smyser, j, A.M.
Matthaeus Spencer, A. M.
*Alexander-M.tSterritt, j, A.M.
Franciscos West, A. M., M. D.
Univ. Penn.
22
29
1828.
*Jacobus-G. Brackenridge, A. M.
Madison Brown, j, Faed. Cur. Jurid.
Ter. Neb.
*Robertus Bryson, A. M.
-Eefoardus-Pountj Buchanan,KM.
*Jacobus Burnside, j, A.M. *1861.
Gulielmvs-H. Campbell, A. M.,
S.T.D., Sem. Theol. Neo-Brun.
Heb. Prof., Coll. Rutg. Praes.
Thomas Creigli, A. M., S. T. D.
Robertus Davidson, A. M.,
S.T.D., Univ. Tenn. Praes.
*Benjamin Gerhard, j, A. M.
*Johannes-A. Gray.
Augustus-Otto Hiester, j, A. M.
*Johannes-C. Jenkins, A.M., M.D.
Univ. Penn.
Jacobus-Miller McKim, A.M.
Josephus-C. Neid6, A. M.
Benjamin Patton, j, A. M. e
Cong. Repr.
Samuel Pollock, M.D. Univ. Penn.
*Edvardus Ritchie.
*Baker-J. Ross.
*Gulielmus-J. Thompson, A.M.
Jacobus Vanhorn, A.M.
Nathan-G. White, A. M.
21
1829.
David Agnew.
Johannes-R. Agnew.
Robertus Birch, A.M. Yal.
*Jacobus-Hall Bready, A. M.
Josephus Briggs.
Andreas-B. Buchanan.
Thomas-K. Bull, A. M.
*Thomas-A. Carothers.
Jacobus-K. Davidson, M.D. Univ.
Penn.
�30
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Gulielmus-H. Davis.
Thomas Forster.
Ludovicus-W. Foulke, M. D. Univ.
Mar., A. M.
*Carolus-Franciscus Himes.
Gulielmus-J. Holmes, M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Edvardus C. Humes.
Johannes-A. Inglis.
*Cyrus-H. Jacobs.
*1836.
*Jacobus-Franciscus Latta, M. D.
Univ. Penn.
*1862.
*Edvardus-J. Lowrey.
Samuel McCulloch.
Johannes-C. McKinney.
Robertus McClelland, Reip.Mich.
Gub., Reip. Fsed.. Sec. Int.
Gulielmus-S. McPherson, A. M.,
M. D. Univ. Penn.
Philippus-N. Meade.
Hiester-Henricus Muhlenberg,
1831.
*Jacobus-W. Bell.
Gulielmus-Steel Bishop, A. M.
*Gulielmus-S. Frisby.
Thomas-Bently Jacobs.
*Armstrong McGinnis.
5
1837.
Gulielmus-M. Baird, j, A.M.
Thomas Bowman, A.M., S.T.D.
Ohio Wes. Univ. 1853, Univ.
Asciburg. Prseses.
Edvardus-Anderson Lesley, j, A. M.
Josua-Albertus Massey, A. M.
*Gulielmus-Brown Parker, A. M.
*1862.
Joshua Sweet, A. M., S. T. D. alibi.
*Johannes Zug, Tutor, A. M.,
LL. B. 1840.
7
M. D. Univ. Penn., A. M.
1838.
Gulielmus-F. Nelson.
Benjamin-M. Nyce.
Albertus-Brown Clark.
Jacobus-O. Palmer.
Carolus Denison, j, in Cong. Repr.
Johannes-B. Patterson.
Georgius-Purnell Fisher, j, Att.
Jacobus-A. Slaymaker.
Gen. et Sec. Pol. Reip. Del., e
*Johannes-Christian Spayd, M.D.
Cong. Repr., Feed. Cur. Dam.
Univ. Penn.
J urid.
Isaacus Van Bibber.
32 *Edvardus-Emilius Leclerc, j.
Benjamin-Addison Massey.
Thomas-Verner Moore, A.M. Tu
1830.
tor, S. T. D. 1853.
Carolus-Wesley Pitman, j, e
Henricus Aurand, A. M.
Cong. Repr.
*Jacobus Bell.
Alfredus Creigh, j, A.M., LL.D. Josephus-Clubine Rhodes, j, A. M.
Amos Slaymaker, j.
Univ. Kent. 1862.
Jacobus-R. Irvine, A. M., M. D. Jacobus-McFarlane Thompson,
M. D. Univ. Penn.
Univ. Penn.
Gulielmus-Smith Waters, Tutor,
Johannes-L. McKim.
A. M., LL. B. 1842.
Johannes Owens.
6
�31
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Georgius-Alexander Coffey, j, A.M.,
Gulielmus-Ryland Woodward,
Reip. Faed. Att. Ori. Dist. Penn.
LL. B. Harv. 1842.
Johannes-Armstrong Wright. 13 Georgius-Ricardus Crooks, A. M.,
S.T. D. 1857.
* Georgius-Bowman Denison, A.M.
1839.
*Uenricus-Mandeville Denison,
A.M.
Samuel Baird, A. M.
Daniel-Elzey-Moore Bates, j, A.M. David-G. Eshleman, j, A. M.
Jacobus-Dundas Biddle, A. M.
Samuel-Georgius Hare, A.M.
Gulielmus-Henricus Butler, A. M. Samuel-Alexander Harrison, A. M.,
Carolus-Manning-Force Deems,
M. D. Univ. Penn.
A. M.,S.T. D. Coll. R. M. et Prof. Ricardus-Beale McAllister, j, A.M.
Jacobus-Gilbreath Hamilton, A.M. *Henricus-Augustus Muhlen
Jacobus-Alfredus Inness, A. M.
berg, A.M., e Cong. Repr. *1854.
* Gulielmus Lyon, A. M.
*1862. Carolus O’Neill, j, A.M., in Cong.
Johannes Lyon, A. M.
Repr.
Arthurus- Wellington Milby, A. M. Johannes Phillips, A. M.
Johannes-Proctor Officer, A. M. Johannes-Mansfield Sims, A.M.
Abrahamus-Herr Smith, j, A. M.
1857.
Gulielmus-Fletcher Roe, j, A. M. Jacobus-Norton Temple, A. M.
19
1855, Lingg. Ant. Shelb. Coll., Jacobus Wallace, j, A. M.
Lingg. Ant. et Log. et Metaphys.
Mand. Coll., Lingg. Rec. El.
Fem. Coll. Prof.
Jacobus-Brown Scouller, A.M.
Lemuel Todd, j, A.M., e Cong.
Repr.
*Gulielmus Toy, A. M.
*Georgius-Ross Veazey, j, A.M.
Thomas Wright, j, A. M.
17
1840.
Clemens-Edvinus Babb, A. M.
Edmundus-Burke Babb, A. M.
Spencer-Fullerton Baird, A. M.,
M. D., D. P. S. 1856, Chim. et
Phil. Nat. Prof., Smith. Inst.
Sec. Adj.
Johannes-Franciscus Bird, A. M.,
M. D. Univ. Penn.
1841.
Carolus-Josephus Baker, A. M.
Benjamin-FranklinBrooke, A. M.
David-Evans Bruner, A. M.
Georgius-Griffin Butler, A M.
Gulielmus-Brown Carr, A. M., Coll.
Rand. Mac. Lingg. Ant. Prof.
Georgius-David Cummins, A. M.,
S. T. D. Coll. Neo. Caes. 1857.
Albertus-Troup Emory, j.
Henricus-BakerHarnsburger, A.M.
Georgius-Washington Knox, j,
A.M.
Jacobus Lesley, A. M.
Ricardus-Van-Boskick Lincoln,
A. M.
Thomas-Edvinus Massey, A. M.
*Benjamin-Morsell McConkey,
A.M.
*
�32
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Carson-Courtland Moore, j.
Banister-Gibson Peacock, A. M.
Johannes-Henricus Reed, A. M.
Wilson-Lee Spottswood, A. M.
Johannes-Keagy Stayman, A.M.,
Lingg. Lat. et Gal. Prof.
Gulielmus-Henricus Stewart, j.
Edvardus Stout, A. M.
Carolus-Henricus Tilghman.
Augustus-Baker Tizzard, A. M.
Gulielmus-Ryland White, A. M.
23
Robertus McPherson.
Robertus-Henricus Pattison, A. M.
Jonas-Johannes Potts, A. M.
Josias Snow, A. M.
Gulielmus-Lebbeus Whitney, j,
A.M.
Leonardus Woodward, A. M.
Gulielmus-Smith Young.
14
1844.
Grafton-Marsh Bosley, A.M., M.D.
Johannes-Davis Boswell, A.M.
Henricus-Donnell, j.
1842.
Jacobus-Morrill Follansbee, A.M.
Alexander-Blain Anderson, j, A. M.
Univ. Soule Prof.
Johannes-Summerfield Battee,
*Johannes-Stansbury Gorsuch,
M.D.
A. M.
*1852—29.
Ricardus-Ridgely Battee, j, A. M.
* Gulielmus-Armstrong Graham,
Perry-Gardner Buckingham.
A. M.
*1857—33.
Jonathan-E. Bulkley, A. M.
Ebenezer-Denny Harding, A. M.
Gulielmus-Rufus Creery, A. M.
Diego-Johannes-Miller Loop, A. M.
Archer-Gifford Miller.
Perley-Ray Lovejoy, A. M. Univ.
*Robertus-Frazer Morris.
Newt. Prof.
Johannes-Ricardus Pattison, A.M.
Josephus-Henricus Martin, A.M.
*Thomas-W.-P. Rider, M.D.
Georgius-Hankins McCabe, j, A.M.
Carolus-P. Wilkins, A. M.
Alfredus-Brunson McCalmont, j.
Benjamin-F. Wright.
12
IsaiasWillis McCord, A.M.
Thomas-Brown Parker, j, A. M.
Gulielmus-M. Penrose, j.
1843.
Samuel-Jacobus Powell.
Ricardus-Hughlett Bryan, A. M.
OtisSenricus Tiffany, A.M., S. T.
Joliannes-Franciscus Chaplain,
D. 1858, Math. Prof.
17
A.M.
Isaac Dillon, A. M.
1845.
Johannes-Lyttleton Harmanson,
Gulielmus-Donland Agnew.
M.D.
Warren Holden, A. M. 1861, Coll. *Johannes-Ha.ys Blair.
Johannes Carson,-j, A. M.
Gir. Math. Prof.
Robertus-Alexander Lamberton, j, Jacobus-Wallace Duncan, j.
A.M.
Josephus Dysart, A.M.
Jacobus R. Finch, A. M.
Washington Lee, j, A. M.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
*Georgius-Willis Foulke, A. M.,
M.D.
*Jacobus-Biddle Gordon, j, A.M.
Johannes Gracy.
Samuel-Henricus Griffith, A. M.
Robertus-Miller Henderson, j,
A. M.
David Knox.
Robertus-Samuel Maclay, A. M.,
Miss, in Chin.
*Johannes McClure.
Josephus Benson McEnally,j, A.M.
*Johannes-Horace Stevens, A. M.
*1860.
Carolus-Henderson Stinson, j.
Isaac-Newton Urner, A.M. 1855,
Coll. Miss. Praeses.
18
1846.
Johannes-Davenport BtackweU,
A. M.
Gulielmus-Plummer Bird, A. M.,
M. D. Univ. Md.
Carolus-Mifflin Boyd, A. M.
*Carolus-Henricus Brown, A. M.
Stephanus-Tilton Brown, A. M.
Robertus-Laurenson Dashiel,ANL
*J acobus-Andreas Devinney, A.M.,
Gram. Sch. Prim.
*1852—32.
Alexander-Severus Gibbons, A. M.
Carolus Hall.
J ohannes-Gulielmus-Fletcher
Hank, M. D. Univ. Penn., A. M.
1859.
*Jacob-Brandt Keller, A. M.
Johannes-Roberts Kennaday, j,
A.M.
Ricardus-Alexander-F. Penrose,
A. M., M. D., Obst. Univ. Penn.
Prof.
Johannes-Arthur Phelps.
3
33
Alfredus-Gulielmus Sims.
*Beverly-Roberts Waugh, A. M.
*1861—38.
16
1847.
Carolus-Wesleius Carrigan, j.
Wesleius Cochran, A. M.
*Gulielmus Field,j, A.M.
Josephus-Lord Gates.
Norman Hall.
Jehu-Newman Hank, Huntsv. Fem.
Coll. Prof, et vice Praes.
Johannes-Lemon Harper.
*Samuel Levis.
DeWitt-Clinton Lloyd, j, A. M.
Jacobus-Andreas McCauley, A. M.
Carolus-Jacobus-Thompson McIn
tire, j, A. M.
Johannes Mitchel Robinson, j.
Moses Walton, j.
Edvinus-Hanson Webstee, A. M.
in Cong. Repr.
Samuel-C. Wingard, j.
15
1848.
Thomas-Montgomery Biddle, A. M.
Gulielmus-Laws Boswell, A. M.,
Nov. Arc. Coll, et Gen. Coll.
Lingg'. Graec. et. Lat. Prof.,
Math., Lingg. Graec. et Germ.
Prof.
Johannes-Neff Coombs, A. M. 1851.
JOHANNES-AnDEEAS JACKSON CrESwell, j, A.M. 1851, in Cong.
Repr.
Henricus-Clay Dallam, j.
Gulielmus Daniel, j, A. M.
Johannes Summerfield Deale, A.M.
Johannes Greenbank.
*Jacobus-Bernardus Hank.
�34
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Garrick-Mallery Harding, j.
Henricus-Martyn Harman, A. M.
J ohannes-Wesleius Heisley, j, A. M.
Gulielmus Ing, A. M.
*Carolus-Gulielmus Keesee, A. M.
Franciscus-Alexander Macartney,
j, A.M.
Jacobus-Gulielmus Marshall, A. MLingg. antiq., Lingg. Lat. et Gall.
Prof.
Benardus-Harrison Nadal, A. M.
Hon. Caus. Eod. An., S. T. D.
1857, Univ. Asciburg. Phil, et
Rhet. Prof.
Jacobus-Gulielmus Nicholls.
Elijah-Barrett Prettyman, A. M.
1853.
Samuel-Aaron Rawlings, j, A. M.
Jacobus-Groves Sewell.
Benjamin-Franklin Snow, A. M.,
Ill. Wes. Univ. Ling. Lat. Prof.
Thomas-Snowden Thomas, A. M.
Johannes Wilson, A. M. Wes. Fem.
Coll. Praeses.
Henricus-Merryman Wilson, A.M.,
M.D.
Johannes-Ogden Winner, A. M.
Archib aldus-Wesleius Wright,
A.M., M. D.
Carolus-Bedford Young, A-. M. 28
Samuel-Alexander Graham, j, A. M.
Thomas-Talbot Hutchins, j, A. M.
Johannes-Jeremias Jacob, A. M.
1854.
Johannes-Henricus Kauffman.
Georgius-DeBonneville Keim, j.
Caleb-Burwell-Rowan Kennerly,
A.M.
Nathaniel-T.-C. Lupton, A. M.
Johannes-Gulielmus Medairy, j,
A.M.
Marcus-Junius Parrot, j, e Cong.
Deleg. e Terr. Kans.
Henricus-Bascom Ridgaway,A.M.
Henricus-Gere Smith.
Jacobus-Henricus Thomas, A. M.,
M. D.
Georgius-Washington Waesche.
Johannes-Henricus Watters, M. D.,
Sane. Lud. Med. Coll. Phys, et
Med. Jurisp. Prof.
21
1850.
Flavel-Clingan Barber, A. M. 1854.
Jesse-Gulielmus Barrett, A.M. 1859.
*Josua-Soule Bowman, j.
*1853Jacohus-McHenry Caldwell, A. M.
Benjamin-Davenport Chenoweth, j.
Josephus-Conner Collinson, A.M.
Jacobus-Basil Duke.
1849.
Gulielmus-Thomas Gough.
Alexander-McNutt Hamilton.
Alfredus-Augustus-Heno Ames,
Arminius-Summerfield Hank.
A.M., M.D.
Jonathan-Perrv Harrison, A. M.
Chapman-Vinson Brooks.
Ricardus-Gassaway Chaney, A.M. Samuel-Dickinson Hillman, A. M.
1851 lion, caus., Gram. Sch. Prim.,
Gulielmus-Daniel Conn, j.
Moncure-Daniel Conway, re. M
Math. Prof.
Gulielmus-Jacobus Hiss, A. M.
Johannes-Redman Coxe, j, A. M.
Phil-Moore Leakin.
Georgius Duffield, A. M.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Gulielmus-Jacobvs Maclay,
A.M. 1854, Univ. Pacif. Praes.
Johannes-Gideon Markle.
Arcliibaldus-Gifford Marlatt,
A.M. Univ. Wes., Irv. Fem.
Coll. Praes.
Samuel-Ricardus Peale, j.
Samuel-Henricus Reynolds, A. M.
Granville-Ross Rider.
Ricardus-DQrsey Sellman.
Ludovicus-Griffith Sparrow, M.D.
Dugald Thompson.
Carolus-Comfort-Tiffany, A. M.
Gulielmus- Van-Bergan Tudor,
A.M.
Simpson-Talbot Van-Sant, j, A. M.
Gulielmus-Carlile Wilson, A. M.,
Nat. Sci. Prof.
27
35
1852.
Henricus Anderson, M. D.
Jacobus-Taylor Carlile.
Theodorus-M. Carson.
Thomas-Green Chattie, M. D.
Georgius-Jacobus Conner, A. M.,
1860.
Reuben-B. Dietrick, A. M.
Gulielmus-Lutherus Haller.
Ulysses Hobbs, j. A.M.
Christianus-Philippus Humrich, j.
Carolus-Brown Lore, j.
*Jethro-Gorsuch Lynch, M. D.
Thomas-Lyttle ton Lyon, A. M.
Johannes McCarty.
*Theophilus-Norman McCeney, j.
*Samuel-H. Peach, j.
Jonathan-Knowles Peck, A.M.
1861.
'
1851.
Ralph Pierce, A. M., Miss, ad Ind.
Johannes-Maxwell Bailey, A. M.
Thomas Sherlock, A. M.
Georgius-Ricardus Bibb.
Gulielmus-Andreas Snively, A. M.
Johannes-Price Clark, A.M. 1858. Johannes Weller, j, A. M.
Georgius-Banghart Day, A. M.
Josephus-Blake Wilson.
21
Israel-Smyser Diehl, A. M. 1856.
Decius-Wadsworth Edmonston,
1853.
A.M.
Gulielmus-Henricus Engel, A. M. Johannes-Wesleius Awl, j, A. M.,
Jacobus-Munroe Kimberlin, Univ.
1857.
Pacf. Lingg. Antiq. Prof.
Johannes-Emory Clawson, A. M.,
Georgius-Henricus Lowe.
M.D.
Gulielmus-Bumgardner McGilvray, *Jonathan-Jacobus Melson, A. M.
A.M.
*1858—25.
Amos-Forry Musselman, Tutor, j, Gulielmus-Cyrus Rheem, j, A. M.
Agib Ricketts, j, A. M.
A.M.
Philippus Myers, j, A. M.
Albertus Ritchie, j, A. M.
Daniel-F. Rohrer.
Caleb-Sipple Pennewill.
Gulielmus-Carolus-F. Reed, A. M. Augustus Marion Sawyer, j, A. M.
Martin-Thomas Rohrer.
Edmundus-Bayley Seymour, j, A.M.
Jacobus-Sewall Thomas
16 Jacobus-Mitchell Shearer, A. M.,
M. D.
io
�36
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
1854.
Carolus-Franciscus Himes, A.M.,
Univ. Troj. Math. Prof.
Nathaniel-Garland Keirle, M. D.,
A. M. 1863.
Josias-Forrest Kennedy, A. M.,
M. D. Univ. Penn., Reip. Fsed.
exerc. Chir.
Joliannes-Moore Leonard, A. M„,
Univ. Orient. Tenn. Lingg. Re
cent. Prof.
Sewell-Taylor Milbourne, j, A.M.
Johannes-A. Munroe, A. M.
Georgius-Philippus Rhinehart.
Augustus-S. Sassaman, A. M.
Henricus-Robinson Torbert, j, A.M.
Johannes-Southgate Tucker, A. M.
1860, Univ. Misso. Prof.
Jacobus-Douglass Wade.
Henricus-Young Weems.
Archibaldus-Georgius Wilson.
Thomas Wilson, A. M.
23
Benjamin Arbogast, A. M.
Gulielmus-Jacob us Bowdle, A.M.,
M.D.
Noah Bowlus, j.
*Samuel-Gulielmus Emory, j, A. M.
*1862—29.
Nehemiah Fountain.
Georgius-Tankard Garrison, A. M.
Asher-Davidson Gibson.
Otis Gibson, A. M. 1860, Miss,
in Chin.
Ferdinandus-Jacobus-Samuel Gorgas, A. M.
Gulielmus-Duffield Halbert, j.
Johannes-Loren Heysinger, A. M.
Johannes-Fletcher Hurst, A. M.
1858.
Johannes Peach, M.D.
Josephus-Benson Perrie, A. M.
Henricus-Hamilton Pfeiffer.
Jacobus-Fowler Rusling, j, A. M.
1856.
Alfredus-Christopher Stone.
David-Harrison Walton.
*Gulielmus-R. Aldred, A. M.
Marcus White, A. M.
20
*1862—33.
Rignal-W. Baldwin, j.
Isaacus-D. Clark, A. M.
Marvinus-Emory Clark, j, A. M.
1855.
Samuel-Middleton Dickson, A.M.
-Noel Eccleston.
E.
Gulielmus-Tell Barnitz, A. M.
Johannes-Calhoun Gilmore, A. M.
Jacobus-Hervey Barton, A. M.
Gulielmus-W. Harnsberger.
Shadrach-Leacock Bowman.
Andreas-Hemphill Dill, j, A. M. Jacobus-Edvardus-D. Jester.
Jacobus-Pede Marshall, A. M.
1859.
Gulielmus-Henricus Eckels, j, A.M. Gulielmus-M. Parsons, A. M.
Johannes-Robertus Effinger, A. M. Jacobus-F. Purvis, A. M.
1859.
Adamus-F. Townsend, A. M.
Jacobus-W. Troxel, A.M.
Thompson-Prettyman Ege, A. M.
Gulielmus-B. Walston.
Ludovicus-McKendree Griffith.
*Cyrus-Franklinus Gulden. *1357—27. Jacobus-D. Waters.
�OATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
1857.
Cornelius-Fletcher Barnes, A. M.
1862.
Gustavus-Claggett Bird.
Gulielmus- W. Brim, A. M.
Daniel-S. Burns, A. M.
Thomas-Nelson Conrad, A. M.
Georgius-W. D. Davis, A.M.
O.-Irving Ditty, j.
Gulielmus-H. Effinger, j.
Franciscus-S. Findlay.
Valentinus Friese, A.M.
Edvinus-Lycurgus Griffith.
Johannes Hays, j.
*Owen Johnson.
*1858—22.
Samuel-J. Jones, A.M., M.D. Univ.
Penn., Reip. Faed. Nav. Chir.
Georgius-B. Keen.
Gulielmus-Fletcher Perrie, A.M.
Benjamin-Franklin Pursel, j.
Josephus-Culbertson Snively.
Andreas-Jackson Wilcox, j.
19
1858.
Josephus-Benson Akers, A. M.
Robertus-Newton Baer.
Silas-Benson Best, A. M.
Jacobus-Iverson Boswell.
Josephus-E. Broadwater.
Johannes-C. Brooking, A. M.
Samuel-Cushman Caldwell, j.
Thomas Care.
Daniel-Mountjoy Cloud.
Philippus-W. Downes, j.
Jacobus-Kent Dukes.
Robertus-Newton Earhart.
Daniel-Webster Friese.
Gulielmus-Henricus Getzendaner,j.
Marcus-Lucius Gordon.
Henricus-Dorsey Gough.
16
37
Thomas-Morris Griffith, A. M.
Gulielmus-Hamilton Griffith, A. M.
*Samuel-O. Hopkins, A.M., M.D.
*1862—27.
*Jennings-Marion- Clarke Hulsey,
*1862—28.
Horatio-Collins King, j, A.M. 1863.
Johannes-Henricus Leas, A. M.
Benjamin- Crispinus Lippincott,
A. M.
Joshua Allen Lippincott, A.M.
Carolus-E. Maglaughlin, j.
Henricus Marriott, M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Johannes-H. Martin, M.D.
Samuel-M. McPherson, M. D. Univ.
Penn.
Alfredus - Foster Mullin, A. M.,
Gram. Sch. Prine.
Thomas-Sargent Reese, A. M.
Albertus-H. Slape, j.
Gulielmus-Jacobus Stevenson.
Gulielmus- Theophilus-Lofthouse
Weech.
Johannes-J. White.
Josephus-P. Wright, A. M., M.D.,
Reip. Feed. Mil. Chir.
35
1859.
Daniel-A. Beckley.
Jeremias-Howard Beckwith, A. M.
1863.
Gulielmus-Emory-Fisk Deal, A. M.
*Zebulon Dyer.
*1862—25.
Alexander-Hemphill Ege, A. M.
David-Clarke John.
Georgius-Whitefield John, Univ.
Asciburg. Lingg. Recent. Prof.
Samuel-L. Lupton, A. M. 1863.
*Gulielmus-Wallace Merrick.
*1862—24.
�38
CATALOGUS DIOKINSONIENSIS.
Isaacus-Brown Parker, A. M.
Thomas-Sargent Parker, j, A.M.
1863.
Jacobus-J. Patterson.
Clayton-O. Penuel.
Jacobus-Alexander-Ventress Pue.
Duke Slavens.
David D. Stone.
Joshua-Dorsius Warfield.
David-Stone Woods.
Johannes-Wesleius Wright.
Georgius-Henricus Zimmerman,
A.M.
20
Petrus-H. Whisner.
Seth-Hart Yocum.
24
1861.
Jacobus-Glasgow Archer.
Jacobus Barton, j.
Henricus-Clay Cheston, A. M.
1863, Gr. Sch. Prim.
Carolus-Henricus Gere.
Elbridge-Hoffman Gerry, M. D.
Gulielmus-Franciscus Godwin,
M.D.
Henricus-Harrison Gregg.
Levi Haverstick.
Gulielmus-Henricus Maxwell.
Johannes-Edvardus McCahan.
1860.
Thomas-Jefferson McOants.
*Henricus-Stoner Munroe. *1861—24.
Henricus- Winslow Abbott.
Benjamin-Franklin Ball.
Carolus-Wesleius Neff.
Georgius Baylor.
Franciscus-Benjamin Sellers.
Philippus-A.-H. Brown.
Carolus-R. Snyder.
David-B. Bruner, A.M.
Johannes-Brown Storm.
*Gulielmus-Laws Cannon. *1863—24. Gulielmus-Henricus Zimmerman.
Georgius-B. Creamer.
17
Jacobus-L. Crook.
Hugo-A. Curran.
1862.
Merritt Eckman.
Jacobus-Valentinus Gotwaltz.
Johannes-Horatius Buckner.
Johannes-H. Grabill.
Thomas-Morris Chaney.
Thomas-Morris Gunn, A.M.
Wilmer Coffman.
Carolus Heydrick.
Gulielmus-Oliver Cornman.
Amos-Preston Gilbert.
Olarentius-G. Jackson, j.
Johannes-Weslieus Landis, j, A. M. Martinus-Christianus Herman.
Josephus-Benson Parker, A.M.,
Jacobus-Henricus Loomis.
M. D., Reip. Feed. Nav. Chir.
Daniel-Webster McCurdy.
Jacobus-W. Sanders.
Isaacus McCurley.
Georgius-Troxel Motter.
Rufus-Edmondus Shapley, j.
Gulielmus-Miller Ogilby.
J.-Lester Shipley.
Alfredus-Newton Weir.
Ricardus-Southron Shreve.
Gulielmus-Princeton Willey.
13
Johannes-S. Stamm.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
1863.
39
1864.
ADSECTURI GRADUM ANNO CURRENTE.
Gulielmus-Reed Cisna.
Asburius-Jones Clarke.
Gulielmus-Daily Clayton.
Georgius-Nathaniel Glover.
Johannes-Criswell Graham.
Jacobus Hart.
Henricus-Francis Isett.
Thomas-Baltzell Long.
Leander Makely.
Gulielmus-Leander McDowell.
Ben-Pulaski McIntyre.
Edvinus-Franklinus Pitcher.
Henricus-Clay Speake.
Augustinus Bierbower.
Sebastianus Brown.
Albertus-Tayler Canfield.
Jacobus-Smith Elliott.
Gulielmus Hamilton.
Johannes Hood.
Henricus-Quincy Keyworth.
Gulielmus-David Luckenbach.
Moses-Allen Points.
Niles-Harrison Shearer.
Gulielmus-Sylvanus Smith.
Theodorus-Tyler Wing.
13
Josephus-B. Zeigler.
12
�CATA10GUS
LEGUM BACCALAUREORUM,
QUI SINGULIS ANNIS PRO MERITO LAUREATI SUNT.
Jacobus-H. Bull.
Jonathan-K. Cooper, A.B. Coll.
J.-N. McAllister.
Jeff.
Gulielmus-P. Orbison, A. B. Coll.
Jonathan-K earsley Henderson,
Jeff.
A. B. Coll. Jeff.
1836.
Jacobus-M. Johnson.
Jacobus-H. Carter.
Gulielmus-C. Lawson.
Hiatt-P. Hepburn.
Alexander Ramsey.
Hugo-W. Reynolds, A. B. Coll.
1837.
Jeff.
A.-Adams Anderson, A. B. Coll.
Thomas-C. Sharp.
Jeff.
Nathan-B. Smithers, A. B. Coll.
Andreas-Gregg Curtin, Reip.
La Fay.
Penn. Gub.
Gulielmus-M. Stewart, A.B. tloll.
Robertus-A. McMurtrie, A.B. Coll.
Jeff.
Jeff.
Johannes Zug, A. B. 1837.
Alfredus Nevin, A. B. Coll. Jeff.
1834, S. T. D. Coll. Laf. 1858.
1835.
1841.
Gulielmus-Smith Waters, A. B.
1838.
1838.
-E. Bailey, A. B. Coll. Jeff.
F.
Edgar-B. Wakeman, A. M.
F.-W. Hughes.
*1862.
Johannes-Jacob Myers,
M. D. *Gulielmus-B. Knox.
Univ. Wash. Balt.
1839.
1842.
Thomas Wright.
Carroll Spense.
Josephus-S. Dillenger.
Jacobus-M. Duncan, A.B. Coll.
Neo-Ctees.
1843.
Johannes-Brown Parker, A. B.
Gulielmus-H. Lamberton.
Univ. Penn.
1840.
*J.-Ellis Bonham.
Johannes Breitenback.
1846.
Henricus-Edgar Keene.
Johannes-Penn Brooke.
�LAUREATI
QUI ALIBI INSTITUTI FUERUNT VEL APUD NOS GRADU
HONORARIO SUNT DONATI.
1810.
1789.
*Robertus Cunningham, A. B.
*Alexander-W. Martin, A.B.
1790.
2
*Jacobus McCormick, Math, et
Phil. Nat. Prof., A. M.
1814.
*Nathaniel-R. Snowden, Coll. Neo. *Gulielmus Watson, A.M.
Caes. 1787, A. M., Curat. *1850.
1816.
1792.
Samuel-Brown Wylie, Prof. Heb.
Graec. et Rom. Lingg. Univ.
. *Robertus Cooper, Coll. Neo. Caes.
Penn., S.T.D.
1763, S.T.D.
*1797.
*Johannes King, S.T.D.
1823.
*Jacobus McCormick, Tut. A. B.,
1810 A. M., Math, et Phil. Nat. *Adamus Hays, A.M., M.D. Univ.
Penn.
Prof.
*Phtlippus Lindsly, Neo. Caes.
*Samuel-Eusebius Maccorkle, Coll.
1804 et A. M. ibique Tut. Lingg.
Neo. Caes. 1772, S.T.D. *isn.
Prof, et Vice-Praes., S. T. D.,
Jacobus Waddell, S.T. D.
5
Univ. Nash. Prteses., in Acad.
Theol. Nov. Alb. Jud. Archaeol.
1800.
Bibl. et Polit. Eccl. Prof. *1855.
Robertus Black, S. T. D.
2
1806.
1824.
Paulus Immel Hettick, A. M.
* Thomas Scott, S.T.D.
1808.
Jacobus-R. Butler, A. B.
1826.
Johannes Buchanan, LL. D., Cur.
Sup. Reip. Md. Jurid. Prine.
�42
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
Thomas Duncan, LL.D., Cur. Sup.
Reip. Penn. Jurid.
Ricardus-Henricus Lee, 1812, A.M.
*Jacobus McGraw, S. T. D.
Gulielmus Paxton, S. T. D.
*Johannes Sargeant, Neo. Caes.
1795 et A.M., LL.D, et Cone.
1822 et Harv. 1844, e Cong.
Repr., ad Panam. Conv. Amer.
Legatus.
*1852.
6
1827.
1831. •
*Jacobus-C. Biddle, A. M.
Alexander McLeod, A. M.
Jacobus Schoonmaker, S. T. D.
Rogerus Brooke Taney, 1796,
LL.D.
4
1839.
Franciscus Hodgson, A.M., S.T.D.
Del. Coll.
Reverdy Johnson, LL. D., Reip.
Faed. Sen.
2
1840.
David Kirkpatrick, A. M.
Johannes Vethake, Chem. Prsel., *Thomas-Emory Sudler, A. M.,
Acad. Mil. Reip. Faed. ibique
A. M., M. D., Chem. Prof. Univ.
Math. Prof., Math. Coll. Sanet.
Wash. Balt.
2
Johan, et Dick. Coll. Prof.
1828.
Josephus-A. Maybin, A. M.
1841.
*Johannes-A. Collins, A. M.
Edvardtts Cooke, Univ. Wes.'
1838., A.M. et Univ. Wes., S.T.D.
1829.
Coll. McKend, 1854, et Harv.
R.- W. Cushman, A. M.
1855., Univ. Laurent. Praes.
Alexander McFarland, A. M.
2 Jacobus Floy, A.M., S.T.D. Univ.
Wes. 1847.
JohannesM. Krebs, S. T. D. 1827.
1830.
4
Edvardus-H. Barton, A. M., M. D.
1842.
Univ. Penn.
Alexander McClelland, A. M. Coll. Jacobus Buchanan, 1809, LL. D.
Neo. Caes. et Cone., S. T. D. et Lutherus Kidder, A. M.
■ Cone., Rhet. Metaphys. Eth. q. Gulielmus Kingston, A.M., Math.
Viet. Coll. Prof.
Prof., Lingg. Rutg. Coll. Prof.,
et in Acad. Theol. Nov. Bruns. Howard Malcolm, A. M. et Univ.
Brun. 1827, Cone. S.T.D. etUniv.
Crit. Bibl. Prof.
Virid. 1843., Georgiop. Coll, et
Gulielmus-H. Price, A.M.
Univ. Ludob.Praes.,LL.D. Univ.
Johannes Reed, LL.D., Coll. ^Vash.
Ludob. 1857.
Leg. Prof.
4
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
43
Robertus Newton, S.T.D. etUniv. Gulielmus-M. Harvard, A. M.
West. 1843.
5 Hugh-Holmes McGuire, A. M.
Henricus-Graham McGuire, A. M.
Bernardus-Harrison Nodal, 1848,
1843.
A.M.
6
* Georgius- W. Bethune. 1823, S.
T. D.
*1862.
Gulielmus-Balthrop Edwards,
1849.
A. M.
Robertus-S. Ashby, A. M.
Edmundus-S. Janes, A. M.
J. L. Kemp, A. M., Math. Univ. Henricus Hickok, A. M.
Josephus-Asbury Morgan, A.M.
Trans. Adj. Prof.
3
J. N. McLeod, S.T.D.
5
1844.
1850.
Johannes-H. Dashiel, A. M.
Gulielmus Arthur, A. M.
Thomas Jackson, S. T. D.
*L ucien- W. Berr 7, S. T. D., Univ.
Elmundus-S. Janes, A. M. 1843,
Ascib. et Univ. Misso. Praeses.
*1861.
S. T. D.
Eccl. Meth. Episc.
Gulielmus Pennington Burgess,
Episcopus.
* Gulielmus Wicks, S. T. D. *is62.
A.M.
3
4
1845.
Gulielmus-H. Gilder, A. M.
Ricardus-A. Morgan, S. T. D.
C.-C. Van-Arsdale,S.T.B.
1847.
1851.
Carolus Collins, Univ. Wes.1837
et A.M., S.T.D., Coll. Em. et
3
Hen. atq. Coll. Dick, et Coll.
Fem. Tenn. Praeses.
Job R. Tyson, LL.D.
2
Johannes Beecham, S. T. D.
Henricus Brewerton, LL. D., Supt.
et Comt. Acad. Mil. Reip. Faed.
1852.
Edvardus Neville, S. T. D.
Osmon-Cleander Baker, A. M.
Josephus Salkeld, A.M.
4
Univ. Wes. 1837, S. T. D. et Univ.
Wes., in Acad. Theol. Cone. Neo1848.
Hant. Prof, et Praeses, Eccl.
Meth. Episc. Episcopus.
Henricus-L. Baugher, 1826,
Johannes P. Gray, M. D., A. M.
S.T.D.
Alexander-Crawford Donaldson, Samuel-Dickinson Hillman, 1850,
A.M.
3
A.M.
�44
CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
1853.
A. B. Ivins, A. M.
Johannes-R. Jarboe, A. M.
Thomas-Verner Moore, 1838,
S.T.D.
1854.
Georgius-Ricardus Crooks, 1840,
S. T. D.
Gulielmus Elliott, A. M.
Bernardus-Harrison Nadal, 1848,
S. T.D.
3
Conway-Phelps Wing, Coll. Ham.
1828, S. T. D.
5
Ricardus-Henricus Lee, 1812,
1858.
LL.D.
Nelson Rounds, Coll. Cone. 1830,
Gulielmus Butler, S. T. D., Miss, in
A. M. Univ. Wes. 1833, S. T. D.
Ind.
2
Robertus-Daniel Chambers, A. M.
1855.
Alfredus Cookman, A. M.
*Gulielmtjs Darlington, M. D., Gulielmus Cox, S. T. D.
e Cong. Repr., LL. D. Yal. 1848, Gulielmus-H. Goodwin, S. T. D.
D. P. S.
*1863-80. Littleton-F. Morgan, S. T. D.
Thomas Daugherty, M. D., A. M. Isaacus- W. Wiley, M. D., A. M.,
Stearns Patterson, A. M., Wilm.
Miss, in China.
7
Fem. Coll. Prof.
*Jacobus-H. Perry, Reip. Fsed.
1859.
Acad. Mil., S. T. D.
*1862.
J. A. Reubelt, A. M., Lingg. Recent.
Georgius-F. Brown, S. T. D.
Prof. Coll. La. et Ascib. Univ.
Thomas Carlton, S. T. D.
Gulielmus-H. Rule, S. T. D.
Gulielmus-G. Deale, M.D., A.M.
*Carolus-H. Zchiegner, A. M. *1860.
Ebenezer-E. Jenkins, A. M., Miss.
7
in Ind.
1856.
Johannes McClintock, Univ.
Spencerus-Fullerton Baird, 1840,
Penn, et A. M. et S. T. D. 1848,
D. P. S.
LL.D., Math, et Lingg. Antiq.
Jonathan-Townley Crane, Neo.
Prof., Univ. Troj. Prseses.
Cses. et A. M., S. T. D.
Otis-Henricus Tiffany, 1844,
Gulielmus-Balthrop Edwards,
S. T. D.
6
A. M. 1843, S. T. D. .
Edvardus-C. Seymour, A. M., in
1860.
Polytech. Nov. Ebor. Prof.
Elias Welty, A. M. .
5 David-W. Bartine, M.D., S.T.D.
Benjamin-Franklin Crever, A.M.
1857.
Gulielmus Dyson, LL. D.
Josephus Castle, A. M. Coll. Hamil. Henricus Slicer, S. T. D.
T.-R.Vickroy, A.B.
5
1835, S.T.D.
�CATALOGUS DICKINSONIENSIS.
1861.
Edvardus Bannister, Univ.Wes.
1838 et A. M., S. T. D., Univ.
Pacf. Praeses.
Edvardus Bates, LL. D. et Harv.
1858, e Cong. Faed. Repr., Reip.
Faed. Attorn. Prine.
* Gulielmus-H. Brisbane, A.M.
*1862.
Alexander-E. Gibson, A. M.
Georgius-S. Grape, A. M.
Georgius-F. McFarland, A. M.
45
Gulielmus Mann, S. T. D.
*1862.
Enoch-Hooven Supplee, A. M.
8
1862.
Gulielmus Cooper, S. T. D.
Jacobus-Hutchison Graham, 1827,
LL.D.
Thomas Sewell, S. T. D.
Gulielmus-Henricus Shock, A. M.
Benjamin Shoemaker, A. M.
5
�SUMM ARIUM.
Numerus integer................................................................................. 1157
E vivis cesserunt stelligeri .
.
.
.
.
.
.318
Supersunt adhuc................................................................ 839
Alumnorum numerus integer....................................................... 988
E vivis cesserunt stelligeri................................................................ 292
Supersunt adhuc
................................................................ 696
Legum Baccalaureorum numerus integer
....
35
E vivis cesserunt stelligeri.................................................................... 2
Supersunt adhuc.................................................................. 83
Alibi institutorum et honorariorum numerus integer
.
.
134
E vivis cesserunt stelligeri.................................................................. 24
Supersunt adhuc..........................................................110
Ecclesiarum pastorum numerus integer
....
317
E vivis cesserunt stelligeri.................................................................. 92
Supersunt adhuc................................................................ 225
Ecclesiarum pastorum alumnorum numerus integer
.
.
241
E vivis cesserunt stelligeri.................................................................. 80
Supersunt adhuc
.
.
.
•
•
.161
�INDEX
CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
a indicat Laureatos, qui alibi instituti fuerunt, vel apud nos gradu honorario donati.
I indicat Legum Baccalaureorum, qui singulis annis pro merito laureati
sunt.
Armstrong
Abbott
1823 Alfredus
1827 Ricardzes
1860 Henricus-W.
Adair
Arthur
1798 Jacobus
Bannister
a 1861 Edvardus
Ashbey
1798 Samuel
1823 Johannes-H.
1829 David
1829 Jolianves-R.
1845 Gulielmus-D.
Barber
a 1849 Robertus-S.
Aurand
1830 Henricus
Akers
Awl
1858 Josephus-B.
1835 Wesleius-J.
Aldred
Babb
1856 Gulielmus-R.
1840 Clemens-B.
1840 Edmundus-B.
Alexander
1798 Johannes-B.
1812 Samuel
1858 Robertus-N.
1849 Alfredus-A-BI,
1 1838 F-E.
1831 Johannes-M.
Z 1837 A.-Adams
1842 Alexander-B.
1852 Henricus-A.
Baird
1837
1839
1840
«1856
Annan
1824 Gulielmus
1824 Johannes-E.
Gulielmus-M.
Samuel
Spencer-F.
Spencer-F.
Baker
Argobast
1841 Carolus-J.
a 1852 Osmon-C.
1854 Benjamin
Baldridge
Archer
1790 Gulielmus
1861 Jacobus-G.
I
1857 Cornelius-F.
Barnitz
1855Gulielmus-T.
Barr
1805 Gulielmus
a I860 David- W.
Barton
Bailey
Anderson
1850 Flavel-C.
Barnes
Bartine
Baer
Ames
1808 Johannes-W.
1799 Samuel
1860 Benjamin-F.
a 1850 Gulielmus
Agnew
Armor
Ball
Baldwin
1856 Rignal-W.
a 1830 Edvardus-H.
1855 Jacobus-H.
1861 Jacobus
Bassett
1850 Jesse-G.
Bates
1839 Daniel-E.-M.
a 1861 Edvardus
Battee
1842 Johannes-S.
1842 Ricardus R.
Baughei’
1826 Henricus-L.
�48
INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
Blackford
Baylor
I860 Georgius
Beckley
1859 Daniel-A.
Beckwith
1859Jeremias-H.
Bedell
a 1830 Gregorius- T.
Beecham
a 1847 Johannes
Bell
1802 Samuel
1830 Jacobus
1831 Jacobus-W.
Belt
1812 Addison
Berry
a 1850
Best
Lucien-~W.
1858 Silas-B.
Bethune
1823 Georgius-W.
a 1843 Georgius-W.
Beverly
1812 Gulielmus-B.
1813 Jacobus-B.
Bibb
1851 Georgius-B.
Biddle
a 1831 Jacobus-O.
1839 Jacobus-D.
1848 Thomas-M.
Bierbower
1864 Augustinus
Birch
1829 Robertus
Birckhead
1813 Lennox
Bird
1840 Johannes-F.
1846 Gulielmus-F.
1857 Gustavus-C.
Bishop
1831 Gulielmus-S.
Black
a 1800
Robertus
1802 Jacobus-R.
1812 Thomas-T.
Blackinston
1814 Samuel-D.
Blackwell
1846Johannes-D.
Blaine
1814 Ephraimus-M.
Blair
1799 Armstrong
Bready
1829 Jacobus-H.
Breden
1795 Gualterus
1797 Gulielmus
Breitenbach
l 1840 Johannes
Brewerton
1787 Isaias
1845 Johannes-H.
Blythe
a 1847 Henricus
Bridges
1824Robertus
1812 Calvinus
Briggs
1829 Josephus
Boice
1823 Ira-Condit
Bonham
1 1840 J.-Ellis
Bosley
1844 Grafton-M.
Boswell
1844 Johannes-D.
1848 Gulielmus-L.
1858 Jacobus-J.
Bowdle
1854 Gulielmus-J.
Bowlus
1854 Noah
Bowman
1837 Thomas
1850 Jesse-S.
1855 Shadrach-Jj.
Boyce
1787 Johannes
Boyd
1788
1790
1799
1803
1808
1824
1846
Brandon
Johannes
Jacobus-P.
Alexander
Alexander
Gulielmus-A.
Samuel
Carolus-M.
Brackenridge
1792 Johannes
1809 Alexander
1828 Jacobus-G.
Brady
1798 Josephus
Brim
1857 Gulielmus- W.
Brisbane
a 1861 Gulielmus-H.
Broadwater
1858 Josephus-E.
Brooke
1815 Franciscus
1841 Benjamin-F.
1 1846 Johannes-P.
Brooking
1858 Johannes-C.
Brooks
1849 Chapman-V.
Brotherton
1790 Jacohus
Brown
1789
1794
1794
1812
1814
a 1816
1828
1846
1846
a 1859
1860
1864
Samuel
Gulielmus
Matthaus
Johannes
Jacobus
Samuel
Madison
Carolus-H.
Stephanus-T. Georgius-F.
Philippus-A.-B.
Sebastianus
Bruner
1841 David-E.
1860 David-B.
Bryan
1845 Ricardus-H.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
Bryson
Cannon
1787 Johannes
1795 Samuel
' 1828 'Robertus
Carcaud
Buchanan
Care
1798
1803
1805
1809
1826
a 1826
’ 1828
1829
al842
Andreas
Jacobus
Georgius
Jacobus
Georgius-W.
Johannes
Edvardus- Y.
Andreas-B.
Jacobus
Buckingham
1842 Perry-G.
Buckley
1842 Jonathan-E.
Buckner
1862 Johannes-H.
Bull
1798 Levi
1829 Thomas-K.
I 1840 Jacobus-H.
Burgess
a 1850 Gulielmus-P.
Burns
1857 Daniel-S.
Burnside
1828 Jacobus
Butler
<z 1808
1839
1841
<2 1858
Jacobus-R.
Gulielmus-H.
Georgius-G.
Gulielmus
Cahoone
1823 Gulielmus
Canfield
1864 Albertus-T.
Caldwell
1850 Jacobus-McH.
1858 Samuel-C.
Calhoun
1789 Jacobus
Callender
1792 Robertus
Campbell
1809
1825
1827
1828
Henricus-M.
Johannes-W.
Jacobus-M.
Gulielmus-H.
4
1860 Gulielmus-L.
1792 Gulielmus
1858 Thomas
Carlisle
1852 Jaeobus-T.
Carlton
a 1859 Thomas
Carothers
1814 Johannes
1829 Thomas-A.
Carr
1841 Gulielmus-B.
Carrigan
1847 Carolus-W.
Carson
1845 Johannes
1852 Theodorus-RL.
Carter
1 1836 Jacobus-H.
Cassat
1792 David
Castor
1814 Jesse-Y.
Cathcart
1826 Thomas-L.
Chamberlain
1814 Jeremias
1825 Johannes
Chambers
Clapham
1814 Josias
Clark
1805 Georgius
1805 Johannes
1838 Albertus-B.
1851 Johannes-P.
1856 Isaacus-D.
1856 Marvinus-E.
1863 Asburius-J.
Clawson
1853Johannes-E.
Clayton
1863 Gulielmus-D.
Cloud
1858 Daniel-M.
Cobean
1814 Thomas-B.
Cochran
1824 Gulielmus-P.
1847Wesleius
Cod wise
1823Alexander-B.
Coffey
1840Georgius-A.
Coffman
1862Wilmer
Collett
1811 Benjamin
Collins
<2 1841 Johannes-A.
a 1851 Carolus
1814 Gulielmus
<2 1858 Robertus-D.
Collinson
Chaney
Conn
1849 Ricardus-G.
1862 Thomas-M.
Chaplin
1843 Johannes-F.
Chattie
1852 Thomas
Chenowith
1850 Benjamin-D.
Cheston
1861 Henricus-C.
Cisna
1863 Gulielmus-R.
1850 Josephus-C.
1849 Gulielmus-D.
Conner
1852 Georgius-J.
Conrad
1857 Thomas-N.
Conway
1849 Moncure-D.
Cooke
1812 Colin
a 1841 Edvardus
Cookman
a 1858 Alfredus
49
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
50
Coombs
1848 Johannes-N.
Cooper
a 1792
1798
11840
a 1862
Robertus
Johannes
Jonathan-K.
Gulielmus
Corn man
1862 Gulielmus-O.
Cox
a 1858 Gulielmus
Coxe
1849 Johannes-R.
Craft
1813 Jacobus
Craig
1795 Abrahamus
Craighead
1826 Thomas
Crane
a 1846 Jonathan- T.
Crawford
1789 Jacobus
Creamer
I860 Georgius-B.
Creery
1842 Gulielmus-R.
Creigh
1788 Thomas
1792 Johannes
1828 Thomas
1830 Alfredus.
Creighton
1795 Gulielmus
Creswell
1848Johannes-A.-J.
Crever
a 1860 Benjamin-F.
Crook
1860 Jacobus-L.
Crooks
1840 Georgius-Ricardus
a 1857 Georgius-R.
Culbertson
1824 Jacobus
Cummins
1799 Carolus
1841 Georgius-D.
Cunningham
a 1789 --------
Curran
I860 Hugo-A.
1814 Gulielmus-H.
1827 Daniel
Devinney
1846 Jacobus-A.
Dickey
1824 Johannes-M.
Dickinson
1814 Festus
Curtin
1 1837 Andreas-G.
Cushman
a 1829 R------ W.
Dallam
1848Henricus-C.
Daniel
1848 Gulielmus
Darlington
a 1855 Gulielmus
Dashiel
Dickson
1856 Samuel-M.
Diehl
1851 Israel-S.
Dietrick
1852 Reuben-B.
Dill
1855 Andreas-H.
Dillinger
1 1839 Josephus-S.
a 1844 Johannes-H.
1846Robertus-L.
Dillon
Daugherty
Ditty
a 1855 Thomas
Davidson
1792
1795
1828
1829
Samuel
Patricus
Robertus
Jacobus-K.
Davie
1825 Johannes-T.-M.
Davis
1794 Henricus-L.
1829 Gulielmus-H.
1857 Georgius-W.-D.
Day
1851 Georgius-B.
1843 Isaacus
1857 C.-Irving
Docharty
a 1851 Gerardus-B.
Donald
1795 Samuel
Donaldson
a 1848 Alexander-C.
Donnell
1844 Henricus
Dow
1794 Alexander
Downes
1858 Philippus-W.
Deale
Downey
1848 Johannes-S.
1859 Gulielmus-E.-F.
a 1859 Gulielmus-G.
Duffield
Deems
Dugan
1839 Carolus-M.-F.
Denison
1838 Carolus
1840 Georgius-B.
1840 Henricus-M.
Denny
1788 David
1813 Harmar
1798' Gulielmus
1849 Georgius
1792 Georgius
Duke
1850 Jacobus
Dukes
1858Jacobus-K.
Dunbar
1824 Johannes R.-W.
«.
�51
INDEX CATALOGI DICSBSOXIEXSIS.
Duncan
1787 Roberins
3788 Jacobus
1800 Jesse
1805 Stephanus
1808 Saaoel-P.
a 1826 Thomas
11839 Jaeobus-AL
1845 Jacobus-W.
Dnnleavy
1812 Jacobus
Dyer
1859 Zebulon
Dysart
1845 Josephus
Dyson
a I860 Gulielmus
Earhart
1S5S Robertus-N.
Eccleston
1856 E.-Noel
Eckels
1855 Gulielmus-H.
Eckman
1860 Alerritt-D.
Edmonston
1851 Decius-W.
Edwards
1792 Haden
a 1843 G-tilielmus-B.
a 1856 G-ulielmus-B.
Effinger
1855 Johannes-R.
1857 Gulielmus-H.
Ege
1855 Thompson-P.
1859 Alexander-H.
Eichelberger
1826 Ludovicus
Elliott
1808 David
a 1857 Gulielmus
1864 Jacobus-S.
Emory
1841 Albertus-T.
1854 Samuel-G.
1837 Josephus-L.
I Engle
|
Gere
1827 Perrus-H.
Eshleman
1846 Durid-G.
1 Eyster
I
I
1861 Car^us-H.
Gerhard
1826 Gulielmus-W.
1338 Benjamin
j
'Gerry
1824
1861 Elbridge-H.
Field
1790 Frmtdscus
Dunlop
Gates
Engel
1351 Gulidma^-H.
1847 Gulielmus
* Getzendaner
I Finch
|
1858 Gulielmus-H.
Findlay
I
Gibbons
1845 Jaeobus-B.
1S57 Franeis-S.
i Finley
1811 Gulielmus
1813 Jacobus-B.
1845
Gibson
1
1854 Asher~D.
1S54 Otis
a1861 Alcjaander-E
Usher
ISOS Johannes
1S27 Sidneius-G.
1833 Georgius-P.
Floy
Gilbert
1862 Amos-P.
Gilchrist
1826 Adamus
a 1841 Jacobus
Follansbee
1844 Jacobus-M.
Forrest
1815 Julius
Forster
1829 Thomas
Gilder
<i 1845 GvliclmHs-H.
Gilleland
1792 Jacobus
1799 Jacobus
Gilmore
1S56 Johannes-C.
Gittings
Foster
1S09 Alfredus
Foulke
1792
1800
1829
1S45
I
I
Johannes
Georgius-D.
Ludovicus-W.
Georgius-W.
Fountain
1854 Nehemiah
Friese
1857 Valentinus
1858 Daniel-W.
Frisby
1831 Gulielmus-S.
Galbreath
1790 Josephus-S.
Garrison
1851 Georgius-T.
1787 Jacobus
Glover
1863 Georgius- N.
Godwin
1861 Gulielmus-F.
Goldsborough
1812 Gulielmus
Goodwin
a 1S5S Gitliclintis-ff.
Gordon
1811
1825
1845
185S
Carolus-P.
Pelatius-W.
Jacobus-B.
Marcus-L.
Gorgas
1854 Ferdinandus-J.-S.
Gorsuch
1844 Johannes-S.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
52
Gotwaltz
1850 Jacobus-V.
1855 Cyrus-F.
1850 Gulielmus-T.
1858 Henricus-D.
Grabill
I860 Johannes-H.
1860 Thomas-M.
Gustine
1798 Jacobus
1805 Ricardus
Guthrie
Gracy
1845 Johannes
Graham
Jacobies
Robertus
Thomas-J.
Jacobus-H.
Gulielmus-A.
Samuel-A.
Jacobus-H.
Johannes-C.
Grape
a 1861 Georgius-S.
1825
1825
1828
a 1852
Gulielmus-H.
Josephus-G.
Johannes-A.
Johannes-P.
Greason
1798 Jacobus-D.
Green
1811 Jacobus-S.
Greenbank
1848 Johannes
Gregg
1861 Henrieus-H.
Grier
1788
1797
1800
1803
1809
1809
1809
1809
1810
1812
Isaacus
Thomas
Isaacus
Johannes-F.
Johannes-C.
Johannes-H.
Johannes- W.
Robertus-S.
Johannes-E.
Robertus-C.
Griffith
1845
1855
1857
1858
1858
1798 Jacobus
"Gwin
1827 Alexander
Hagan
1813 Dennis
Halbert
1854 Gulielmus-D.
Hall
1846 Carolus
1847 Norman
Samuel-H.
Ludovicus-McK.
Edvinus-L.
Gulielmus-H.
Thomas-M.
Hamilton
1812
1839
1850
1864
Jacobus
Jacobus-G.
Alexander-McN.
Gulielmus
Hank
1846
1847
1848
1850
1863 Jacobus
Hassan
1795 Jacobus
Haverstick
1825 Henricus
1861 Levi
Hawkins
1814 Josias
Hayes
1805 Johannes
Hays
1794
1798
1812
a 1823
1857
David
Georgius
Alexander-L.
Adamus
Johannes
Heisley
Haller
1852 Gulielmus-L.
Gray
1840 Samuel-A.
1850 Jonathan-P.
Hart
Gunn
Gough
1797
1805
1812
1827
1844
1849
a 1862
1863
Gulden
Johannes-G.-F.
Johannes-N.
Jacobus-B.
Arminius-S.
Harding
1844 Ebenezer-D.
1848 Garrick-M.
Hare
1840 Samuel-D.
Harman
1848 Henricus-M.
Harmanson
1843 Johannes-L.
Harnsberger
1841 Henricus-B.
1856 Gulielmus-W.
Harper
1795 Gulielmus-A.
1847 Johannes-L.
Harrison
1811 Timotheus-J.
1816 Georgius.
1848 Johannes-W.
Hiester
1828 Augustus-O.
Helfenstein
1823 Gulielmus-L.
Hemphill
1792 Jacobus
Henderson
1790
1811
1825
1827
1 1840
1845
Ricardus
Johannes-A.
Matthceus-H.
Lorenzo-N.
Jonathan-K.
Robertus-M.
Hepburn
I 1836 Hiatt-P.
Herman
1862 Martinus.
Herron
1794 Franciscus
Hettick
a 1824 Paulus-J.
Heysinger
1854 Johannes-R.
Heydrick
I860 Carolus
Hickok
a 1849 Henricus
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
Hillman
1850 Samnel-D.
<z!852 Samuel-D.
Hillyard
1800 Johannes
Himes
1829 Carolus-F.
1855 Carolus-F.
Hinch
1827 Augustus-F.
Hiss
1850 Gulielmus-J.
Hobbs
1852 Ulysses
Hodgson
a 1839 Franciscus
Hoge
1789 David
Holden
1843 Warren
Holmes
1798 Thompson
1823 Jacobus
1829 Gulielmus-J.
Hood
1799 Thomas
1864 Johannes
Hopkins
1811 Georgius-R.
1827 Jacobus-M.
1858 Samuel-C.
Howard
a 1847 Gulielmus-M.
Hughes
1 1838 F.-W.
Huling
1815 David-W.
Hulsey
1858 Jennings-M.-C.
Humes
1829 Edvardus-C.
Hum rich
1852 Christianus-P.
Hunter
1792 Gulielmus
Hurst
1854 Johannes-F.
53
1859 Georgius-W.
Huston
1789 Carolus
1798 Robertus
1825 Samuel-R.
.
Johns
1794 Ricardus
Johnson
Hutchens
1849 Thomas-T.
Hutchinson
1802 Johannes
Ihrie
1815 Petrus-H.
1 1840 Jacobus-M.
a 1839 Reverdy
1857 Owen
Johnston
1826 Gulielmus-N.
Jones
Ing
1848 Gulielmus
Inglis
1829 Johannes-A.
1823Talbot
1857 Samuel-J.
Kaufman
1849 Johannes-K.
Inness
1839 Jaeobus-A.
Irvine
Keen
Georgius-B-
1794 Callender
1795 Jacobus
1830 Jacobus-R.
Irwin
1807 Gulielmus
Isett
1863 Henricus-F.
Ivins
a 1853 A.-B.
Jack
1794 Johannes
Keim
1 1846 Henricus-E.
1849 Georgius-De’B.
Keirle
1855 Nathaniel-G.
Keesee
1848 Carolus-G.
Kellar
1846 Jacobus-B.
Kelly
1816 Thomas
Jackson
a 1844 Thomas
1860 Clarentius-G. ’
Kemp
Jacob
Kennaday
1849 Johannes I.
a 1843 J.-L.
1846 Johannes-R.
Kennedy
Jacobs
1829 Cyrus-D.
1834 Thomas-B. '
Janes
1795 Johannes
1797 Robertus
1855 Josias-F.
a 1843 Edmundus-S.
a 1844 Edmundus-S.
Kennerly
Jarboe
Key worth
a 1853 Johannes-R.
1849 Caleb-B.-K.
1864 Henricus-Q.
Jenkins
Kidder
1828 Johannes-C.
a 1859 Ebenezer-E.
Kimberlin
Jester
a 1842 Luther
1851 Jacobus-M.
a 1856 Jacobus-E.-D.
John
1859 David-C.
4*
King
a 1792 Johannes
1858 Horatius-C.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
54
a 1827 David
1822 Thomas-R.
1824 Robertus-P.
a 1826 Ricardus-H.
1843 Washington
a 1853 Ricardus-H.
Knight
Leonard
Kingston
a 1842 Gulielmus
Kirkpatrick
1798 Josua
Knox
1794
1811
1824
1841
11841
1845
1855 Johannes-M.
Lesley
Robertus
Johannes
Jacobus
Georgius-W.
Gulielmus-B.
David
Krebs
1837 Edvardus-A.
1841 Jacobus
Levis
1847 Samuel
Lincoln
1841 Ricardus-Van’B.
1827 Johannes-M.
a 1841 Johannes-M.
Lind
Kurtz
Lindsly
a 1823 Philippus
Linn
1825 Gulielmus-H.
Labagh
1823 Abrahamus-J.
1823 Isaacus-P.
Laird
1792 Jacobus
1794 Frhnciscus
1794 Gulielmus.
Lamberton
1843 Robertus-A.
11843 Gulielmus-H.
Landis
1860 Johannes-W.
Latta
1829 Jacobus-F.
Laverty
1809 Robertus
Lawson
1 1840 Gulielmus-C.
Leake
1792 Josias
1794 Austin
Leakin
1850 Phil-M.
Learning
1812 Jeremias-F.
Leas
1858 Johannes-H.
Leclerc
1838 Edvardus-E.
Lee
1812 Ricardus-H.
1802 Johannes
1805 Jacobus
Linton
1814 Johannes-J.
Lippincott
1858 Benjamin-C.
1858 Joshua-A.
Lloyd
1847 DeWitt-C.
Long
1863 Thomas-B.
Loomis
1862 Jacobus-H.
Loop
1844 Diego-J.-M.
Lore
1852 Carolus-B.
Lovejoy
1844 Perley-R.
Lowe
1851 Georgius-H.
Lowry
1829 Edvardus-J.
Lupton
1849 Nathaniel-T.-G.
1859 Samuel-L.
Lynch
1852 Jethro-G.
Lyon
1792 Johannes
1795 Johannes
1825 Georgius-A.
1839 Gulielmus
1839 Johannes
1852 Thomas-L.
Macartney
1848 Franciscus
Macbeth
1825 Alexander
Maclay
1825 Samuel
1845 Robertus-S.
1850 Gulielmus-J.
Macomb
1797Thomas
Magaw
1806 Jesse
Maglaughlin
1858 Carolus-E.
Magraw
1827 Samuel-M.
Mahon
1789
1805
1814
1815
1827
Samuel
Alexander
Johannes-D.
David-N.
Josephus
Malcolm
a 1842 Howard
Makeley
1863 Leander
Mann
a 1861 Gulielmus
Markle
1850 Johannes-G.
Marlatt
1850 Archibaldus-G.
Marriott
1858 Henricus
Marshall
1848 Jacobus G.
1856 Jacobus-P.
Marsteller' •
1812 Samuel-A.
Martin
a 1789
1815
1844
1858
--------Georgius-T.
Josephus-H.
Johannes-H.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
McConkey
Mason
1822 Jacobus-Hall
1823 Erskine
Massey
1841 Benjamin-M.
McCord
1844 Isaias-W.
1837 Josua-Albertus
McCorkle
1838 Benjamin-Addison a 1792 Samuel
1841 Thomas-E.
Maxwell
1861 Gulielmus-H.
Maybin
1813 Josephus-A.
a 1828 Josephus-A.
Mayer
1812 Carolus-F.
McAllister
1 1835 J.-N.
1840 Ricardus-Beale
McCabe
1844 Georgius-H.
Me C ah an
1861 Johannes-E.
McCalmont
1844 Alfredus-B.
McCants
1861 Thomas-J.
McCarty
1852 Johannes
McCeney
1852 Theophilus
McCauley
1847 Jacobtcs-A.
McClanahan
1788 Jacobus
McClean
1788 Jacobus
McClelland
1795 Thomas
a 1830 Alexander
McClintock
a 1859 Johannes
McClure
1802
1824
1827
1845
Johannes
Carolus
Gulielmus-B.
Johannes
McConaughy
1792 David
McCormick
a 1792 Jacobus
a 1810 Jacobus
1812 Jacobus
McCoskry
1815 Carolus-N.
1824 Samuel-A.
McCulloch
1825 Johannes-W.
1829 Samuel
McCurdy
1862 Daniel-W.
McCurley
1862 Isaacus
McDowel
1792 Maxwell
1863 Gulielmus-L.
McEnally
1845 Josephus-B.
McFarland
a 1861 Georgius-F.
55
1824 Isaacus
1825 Gulielmus-D.
McIntyre
1847 Carolus-J.-T.
1863 Ben-P.
McJimsey
1792 Johannes
McKeehan
'
1787 David
McKesson
1792 Johannes
McKim
1828 Jacobus-M.
1830 Johannes-L.
McKinley
1823 Daniel
McKenney
1814 Mordekias
1829 Johannes-C.
McKnight
1792 Jacobus
McLanahan
1827 Jacobus-X.
McLelland
1829 Robertus
McLeod
McFarlane
a 1831 Alexander
a 1834 I.-N.
1813 Gulielmus
a 1829 Alexander
McMurtrie
McGavock
1794 Randolph
McGill
1794 Jacobus
McGilvray
1851 Gulielmus-B.
McGinley
1798 Amos-A.
McGinnis
1831 Armstrong
McGraw
a 1826 Jacobus
McGuire
1 1837 Robertus-A.
McNeil ey
1813 Jacobus-G.
McPherrin
1788 Johannes
McPherson
1812
1829
1843
1858
Gulielmus-S.
Gulielmus-S.
Robertus
Samuel-M.
Meade
1829 Philippus-N.
Medairy
1849 Johannes-G.
a 1848 Hugh-H.
a 1848 Henricus-G.
Melson
Mcllvaine
Mercer
1809 Gulielmus
1853 Jonathan-J.
1813 Gulielmus-D.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
56
Merrick
1859 Gulielmus-W.
Milby
1839 Arthurus-W.
Milbourne
1855 Sewell-T.
Miller
1808 Jacobus-H.
1842 Archer-G.
Mitchell
1798 Gulielmus
Monteith
1798 Alexander
Montgomery
1797 Moses
1824 Samuel
Moore
1792 Johannes
1795 Andreas
1838 Thomas-V.
1841 Carson-C.
a 1853 Thomas- V.
More
1789 Jacobus
Morgan
a 1849 Josephus-A.
a 1845 Ricardus
a 1858 Littleton-F.
Morris
1823 Johannes- G.
1842 Robertus-F.
Motter
1862 Georgius-T.
Muhlenberg
1829 Hiester-H.
1840 Henricus-A.
Mullin
1858 Alfredus F.
Munroe
1855 Johannes-A.
1861 Henrieus-S.
Musselman
1851 Amos-F.
Myers
1 1838 Johannes-J.
1851 Philippus
Nabb
1815 Georgius-W.
Nadal
1848 Bernardus-H.
a 1857 Bernardus-H.
Neal
a 1802 Jacobus-A.
Neff
1861 Carolus-W.
Neide
1828 Josephus-C.
Neill
1827 Gulielmus-W.
Nelson
1829 Gulielmus-F.
Neville
a 1847 Edvardus
Nevin
1795 Johannes
1827 Gulielmus-M.
1 1837 Alfredus
Newton
Palmer
1829 Jacobus-C.
Parke
1809 Samuel
Parker
1824 Andreas
1837 Gulielmus-B.
1 1839 Johannes-B.
1844 Thomas-B.
1859 Isaacus-B.
1859 Thomas-S.
1860 Josephus-B.
Parrott
1849 Marcus-J.
Parsons
1856 Gulielmus M.
Passmore
1795 Johannes
Patten
1794 Gulielmus
a 1842 Robertus
Patterson
Nisbet
1802
1824
1829
1859
a 1855
1794 Alexander
Noland
1794 Gulielmus
1809 Lloyd
Norris
1824 Gulielmus
Nourse
1824 Jacobus
Nyce
1829 Benjamin-M.
Ogden
1813 Isaacus-A.
Ogilby
1862 Gulielmus-M.
O’Neil
1803 Johannes
O’Neill
1840 Carolus
Orbison
1 1835 Gulielmus-P.
Owens
1830 Johannes
Page
1816 Johannes-E.
Gulielmus
Matthceus-B.
Johannes-B.
Jacobus-J.
Stearns
Pattison
1842 Johannes-R.
1843 Robertus-H.
Patton
1812 Robertus
1828 Benjamin
Paxton
a 1826 Gulielm/us
Peach
1852 Sa.muel-H.
1854 Johannes
Peachey
1790 Thomas-G.
Peacock
1841 Bannister-G.
Peale
1850 Samuel-R.
Peck
1852 Jonathan-K.
Pennewill
1851 Caleb-S.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
■ Penrose
1844 Gulielmus-M.
1846 Ricardus-A.-F.
Penuel
1859 Clayton-C.
Perrie
1854 Josephus-B.
1857 Gulielmus-F.
Perry
a 1855 Jacobus-H.
Pfeiffer
1854 Henrieus-H.
Phelps
1846 Johannes-A.
Phillips
1840 Johannes
Pierce
1810 Paulus-S.
1852 Ralph
Piper
1815 Alder
Pitcher
1863 Edvinus-F.
Pittman
1838 Carolus-W.
Points
1864 Moses-A.
Pollock
1828 Samuel
Postleth waite
1792 Jacobus
Potter
1812 Georgius-L.
Potts
1843 Jonas-J.
Poulson
1826 Robertus-I.
Powel
1814 Humphredus-B.
1844 Samuel-I.
Preston
1799 Johannes
Prettyman
1848 Elijah-B.
Price
1827 Johannes-H.
a 1830 Gulielmus-H.
Rheem
Pringle
1806 David
1808 Franciscus
1808 Jacobus
Procter
1839 Johannes-O.
Proudfit
1798 Robertus
Pue
1859 Jacobus-A.-V.
Pursel
1857 Benjamin-F.
Purviance
1790 Johannes
Purvis
1853 Gulielmus-C.
Rh einhart
1855 Georgius-P.
Rhodes
1838 Josephus-C.
Rickets
1853 Agib
Riddle
1812 Jacobus-D.
Rider
1842 T.-W.-P.
1850 Granville-R.
Ridgaway
1849 Henriczts-B.
1856 Jacobus-F.
Putnam
1797 Edvinus
Rainey
1798 Gulielmus
Ralston
1813 Robertus
Ramsey
1810 Samuel-D.
1824 Mattheeus-V.-L.
1 1840 Alexander
Randolph
1814 Ricardus-R.
Rawlings
1848 Samuel-A.
Read
1811 Thomas-M.
Reed
Ridgely
1797 Henricus-M.
Ritchie
1828 Edvardus
1853 Albertus
Robinson
1847 Johannes-M.
Roe
1839 Gulielmus-F.
Rohrer
1851 Martin-T.
1853 David-F.
Ross
1792 Carolus
1828 Baker-J.
Rounds
a 1854 Nelson
Rule
a 1855 Gulielmus-H..
a 1830 Johannes
1841 Johannes-H.
1851 Gulielmus-C.-F.
Rusling
Reese
Russell
1858 Thomas-S.
Reid
1806 Andreas-K.
Salkeld
1795 Georgius
Reubelt
a 1855 J.-A.
Reynolds
1792
1825
11840
1850
1854 Jacobus-F.
Samuel
Johannes-C.
Hugo-W.
Samuel-H.
a 1847 Joseph
Sanders
1860 Jacobus-W.
Sanderson
1789 Alexander
Sassaman
1855 Augustus-S.
57
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
58
Speake
Sims
Sawyer
1840 Johannes-M. ’
1846 Alfredus-G.
1853 Augustus-M.
Schoonmaker
Sinclair
a 1831 Jacobus
1788 Matthaus
Scott
Slape
Scouler
Slavens
1858 Albertus-H.
1859 Duke
Sellers
1861 Franciscus-B.
Sellman
1850 Ricardus-D.
Semple
1787 Steel
'
Sergeant
a 1826 Johannes
Sewell
1848 Jacobus-G.
a 1862 Thomas
Seymour
1853 Edmundus-B.
a 1856 Edvardus-C.
Shapley
I860 Rufus-E.
Sharon
1803 Jacobus
Sharp
Slaymaker
1808 Jasper
1829Jacobus-A.
1838Amos
a 1860 Henricus
Robertus
Austin
Jacobus
Johannes
Thomas-B.
Jacobus
Digby-D.-B.
Samuel
Abrahamus-H.
Henricus-G.
Gulielmus-S.
Smithers
1 1840 Nathan-B.
Smyser
Sharretts
Snively
Shearer
1853 Jacobus-M.
Sherlock
1852 Thomas
Shipley
1860 J.-Lester
Shippen
1790 Johannes
1808 Henricus
Shock
a 1862 Gulielmus-H.
Shoemaker
a 1862 Benjamin
Shreve
I860 Ricardus-S.
1827 Matthseus
Spcering
1814Carolus-F.
S,phon
1824 Paris
1841Wilson-L.
Sprigg
Smith
1815 Gulielmus-M.
1 1840 Thomas-C.
1825 Nicholas-G.
Spencer
Spottswood
Slicer
1790
1792
1792
1806
1810
1816
1823
1824
1840
1849
1864
1 1842 Carroll
Speer
1788 Gulielmus
1789 Jacobus
a 1806 Thomas
1839 Jacobus-B.
1863 Henricus-C.
Spence
1827 Daniel-M.
1852 Gulielmus-A.
1857 Josephus-C.
Snow
1843 Josias
1848 Benjamin
1795 Gulielmus
Stamm
1860 Johannes-®.
Stayman
1841 Johannes-K.
Steel
1792 Andreas
1792 Gulielmus
1792 Johannes
Sterret
1795 Gulielmus
Sterritt
1827 Alexander-M.
Stevens
1845 Johannes-H.
Stevenson
1800 Georgius
1858 Gulielmus- T.
Stewart
a 1790 Nathaniel-R.
1805 Georgius
1 1840 Gulielmus-M.
1841 Gulielmus-H.
Snyder
Stinson
Snowden
1814 Jacobus
1861 Carolus-R.
Somerville
1813 Jacobus
Sparrow
1850 Ludovicus
Spayd
1829 Johannes-C.
1845 Carolus-H.
Stockton
1798 Thomas
Stone
1854 Alfredus-C.
1859 David-D.
Storm
1861 Johannes-B.
�INDEX CATALOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
Townsend
Stout
1841 Edvardus
Stuart
1795 Gulielmus
1816 Gulielmus
Sudler
a 1840 Thomas-Emory
Supplee
a 1861 Enoch-H.
Sweeny
1815 Georgius
Sweet
1837 Joshua
Sykes
1812 Jacobus
Taney
1795 Rogerus-Brooke
Taylor
1812 Jesse
1825 Robertus-E.
a 1831 Rogerus-Brooke
Temple
1840 Jacobus-Norton
Thomas
1815
1849
1848
1851
Gulielmus
Jacobus-H.
Thomas
Jacobus-S.
Thompson
1790 Johannes
1797 Jacobus
1828 Gulielmus-J.
1838 Jacobus-McF.
1850. Dugald
Tiffany
1844 Otis-H.
1850 Carolus-C.
a 1859 Otis-H.
Tilghman
1841 Carolus-H.
Tingle
1814 Gulielmus
Tizzard
1841 Augustus-B.
Todd
1792 Johannes
1839 Lemuel
Torbert
1855 Henricus-R.
1856 Adamus-E.
Toy
1839 Gulielmus
Travers
1812 Georgius
Tucker
1855 Johannes-S.
Troxel
1856- Jacobus-W.
Tudor
1850 GulielmusVan B.
Tyler
1814 Johannes-F.
Urn er
1845 Isaac-N.
Van Arsdale
a 1845 A.-C.
Van-Bibber
1829 Isaacus
Van-Cleef
1823 Cornelius
Vanhorn
1828 Jacobus
Vansant
1850 Simpson-T.
V eazey
1811 Thomas-B.
1839 Georgius-Ross
Vethake
a 1827 Johannes-W.
Vickroy
59
Walston
1856 Gulielmus-B.
Walton
1847 Moses
1854 David-H.
Warfield
1859 Josua D.
Waters
1838 Gulielmus-S.
1849 Johannes-H.
1856 Jacobus-D.
Watson
a 1814 Gulielmus
Watts
1787 David
1824 Henricus-M.
Waugh
|
1798 Johannes
1845 Beverly-R.
Wayne
1792 Isaacus
Woesche
1849 Georgius-W.
Webster
1847 Edvinus-H.
Weech
1858 Gulielmus-T.-L.
Weems
1855 Henricus-Y.
Weir
1862 Alfredus-N.
Weller
1852 Johannes
Welty
a 1860 T.-R.
a 1856 Elias
Waddell
West
j?1792 Jacobus
Wade
1855 Jacobus-D.
Wakeman
Z 1841 Edgar-B.
Walker
1787 Jonathan
1814 Stephanus-Duncan
Wallace
1840 Jacobus
1827 Franciscus
Wharton
1794 Austin
1794 Jesse
Whisner
I860 Petrus-H.
White
1802
1828
1841
1854
1858
Crawford
Natlian-G.
Gulielmus-B.
Marcus
Johannes-J.
�- (
INDEX CA^LOGI DICKINSONIENSIS.
^.60
Wilson
Whitehead
1823 'Carolus
Whitehill
1792 Robertas
1825 Georgius-S.
Whitney
1843.Gulielmus-L.
Wicks a 1844 Gulielmus
Wing
Wilcox
1857
Andreas-J.
Wiley
a 1858 Isaacus-W.
Wilkins
1816 Ross
1842 Carolus-P.
Willey
1862 Gulielmus-P.
Williams
1795
1795
1823
1825
.'
Josias
JoSua
Gulielmus-H.
Thomas
Williamson
1799
1808
1809
1824
Stewart
Johannes
Gulielmus y ‘
Moses
Willis
1815 David
1790 Robertus-G.
1792 Johannes
1798 Henricus-R.
1848 Johannes
1848 Henricus-M.
1850Gulielmus-C.
1852 Josephus-B.
1855Archibaldus-G.
1855 Thomas
1798
1838
1839
1842
I 1842
1848
1858
1859
Johannes
Johannes-A.
Thomas
Benjamin J?.
Thomas
Archibald-W. '
Josephus-P.
Johannes-W.
Wylie
a 1816 Samuel-Brown
a 1857 Conway-R.
1864 Theodorus-T.
Wingard
1847 Samuel C.
Winner
1848 Johannes-O.
Woods
1792
1802
1814
1859
Wright
Gulielmus
Samuel
Jacobus
David-S.
Woodward
1838 Gulielmus-R.
1843 Leonidas
Wootton
1813 Ricardus
Work
1795 Edvardus
Worthington
1812 Gulielmus-M.
Yocum
1860 Seth-Y.
Young
1788
1813
1823
1843
1848
Johannes
Gulielmus
Johannes-C.
Gulielmus-S.
Carolus-B.
Zcheigner
a 1855 Carolus-H.
Zeigler
1864 Josephus-B.
Zell
1809 Jacob
Zimmerman
1859 Georgius-H.
1861 Gulielmus-H.
zug
1837
Johannes
I 1840 Johannes
a
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
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Catalogus senatus academici, et eorum qui munera et officia academica gesserunt, quique alicujus gradus laurea donatic sunt, in Collegio Dickinsoniensi, carleoli in republica Pennsylvaniensi
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: Philadelphia
Collation: 60 p. ; 23 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Date in Roman numerals.
Publisher
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[s.n.]
Date
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1864
Identifier
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G5617
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Education
Creator
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Dickinson College
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Catalogus senatus academici, et eorum qui munera et officia academica gesserunt, quique alicujus gradus laurea donatic sunt, in Collegio Dickinsoniensi, carleoli in republica Pennsylvaniensi), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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application/pdf
Type
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Text
Language
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Latin
Conway Tracts
Dickinson College
Education
Universities
-
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Victorian Blogging
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A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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Title
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Miscellaneous papers on subjects relating to Wales
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Rees, Thomas
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An account of the resource
Place of publication: London; Swansea
Collation: vi, [I], 107 p. ; 20 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Contents: The resources of Wales -- The working classes of Wales -- The working classes of Wales and religious institutions -- The alleged unchastity of Wales -- Education in Wales -- Welsh literature -- The church establishment in Wales in relation to the Welsh people -- Welsh dissent: a letter to the Bishop of Llandaff, with His Lordship's reply -- The Congregational churches of Wales -- The Congregational churches and the English population of Wales -- The great revival in South Wales in 1849 -- The Irish and Welsh revivals in 1859. "Most of the Papers in this collection have appeared at different times, within the last fifteen years. in the Metropolitan or local Newspaper". [Preface, p. [v]]. Printed by R. Griffiths, Swansea.
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John Snow & Co.; E. Griffiths
Date
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1867
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CT71
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Wales
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Miscellaneous papers on subjects relating to Wales), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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application/pdf
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Text
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English
Congregationalism-History
Conway Tracts
Dissenters
Education
Literature
Religion
Religious-England-History-19th century
Wales
Working Class-Great Britain
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Text
HUMAN SACRIFICES
IN
ENGLAND.
FOUR
DISCOURSES
BY
MONCURE D. CONWAY, M.A.,
Minister of South Place Chapel, and at the Athenaeum,
Camden Road.
LONDON:
TRUBNER AND CO., LUDGATE HILL.
1876.
�CONTENTS.
PAGE
1.
Human Sacrifices
2. The Daughters
of
...
...
...
$
Jephthah ...
...
7
3. Children, and their Moloch ...
... 19
4. The Sabbath-Jugernath
33
5. The Martyrdom
51
of
Reason
�HUMAN SACRIFICES.
I passed a morning of the last week in the St.
Marylebone Police Court, having been summoned
there as a witness. As I waited through the hours
there passed by a dismal gaunt procession or chain
gang of the captives of the ignorance, the brutality, the
shame, sorrow, despair, of this vast metropolis. There
were young men arrested in one drunken brawl, and
women arrested in another. A shop-girl of twentyone, who had been sent by her humble parents from
the country to earn her living, had stolen a little
finery, perhaps for a babe that would soon be born.
A young “ gentleman,” as he was described, who had
run through an estate, was sentenced for assaulting a
young woman, whose downcast eyes and deep blush
of shame confessed to the judge what her lips could
not utter. A woman of twenty-two, who might once
have been comely, had been arrested for intoxication.
During the night she had three times attempted
�4
suicide, and was barely saved for a life of despair. It
is terrible to look upon a face which tells only of a
life in ruins, and to listen to sobs broken by no plead
ing or word indicating any interest, however faint, in
what the next moment may bring. A little boy five
or six years old, wretched and ragged—with hardly
rags enough to cover him—charged with being “ desti
tute.” Every eye that saw him could testify to the
truth of that charge. The poor boy had been found
asleep on the pavement, and said he had slept there
for three weeks. The magistrate set himself to ferret
out the facts, and little by little was revealed his
story. He was one of six children who had been
living with their father and mother, in utter poverty,
all in one room. At length the mother left that
miserable room to wander and live as she could. But
this little boy had followed her, clung to her; she
carried him about with her for one day, in some
strange place he slept with her the same night; but
in the morning she sent him back home. The father
drove him out because he had gone off with his
mother, and so he had found a London pavement the
only pillow extended to his little head.
The magistrate was consideratej he did his best to
do justice to all, but he must have known—it was
plain—that in no case did he judge or sentence the
real criminal. The visible offenders before him were
�5
victims. Behind each stood the grim and awful
shadow of some ghoul that had fastened upon him.
As the wretched men, women, and children were led
away in custody, free and unfettered beside them stalked
their demons,—Ignorance, Strong Drink, Neglect,
Injustice, Hereditary Taint, Malformation of Brain.
These are the real criminals, and it is they that elude
the grasp of the law which can only deal its penalties
to the already punished, the utterly helpless creatures
on whom the ghastly vampires of our time are
battening.
I am about to speak for a few Sundays of what seem
to me the heaviest wrongs of the present time; but I
do not wish to point out wrongs for which there are
no remedies. Indeed, we can only very dimly dis
cover evils, we can not feel deeply concerning them,
until the light of its remedy falls upon each wrong.
The remedies may be, as yet, ideal; but that is not
their fault; they are necessarily ideal until they are
applied : it is the fault of those great Interests, em
bodying public Selfishness or Superstition, which reject
the truth and the justice which threaten them. But I
believe in the power of ideas. In the end they are
stronger than armies. Waiting there at St. Marylebone—as it were in some weird whorl of Dante’s Hell
__till, to my eyes, all present seemed impersonal,
types and shadows of remorseless forces which once
�6
St. Mary-the-Good tried to conjure down with her
tender image, and then departed, leaving only her
name, made way for the police,—there came upon me
by some association, a memory of early days passed
in a land where the Black-tongued Plague was raging.
Hundreds were struck down daily with swift death;
mourning was heard along the streets of every town
and village ; cries were heard in many homes that
had been happy. Every face was pallid ; the strong
est men and women moved about in the silence of
fear. One night the thermometer fell a degree, and
the Plague was dead.
Not swift and sudden, but just as certain is the in
visible power of the air which works through ideas.
“ God is a spirit.” There is an intellectual, a religious
atmosphere, in which lurks the miasma of moral
death, or through which breathes the spirit of life ;
and any least change in that ideal region will tell
upon the earth as surely as on it is recorded in frost
or flower the viewless march of the seasons.
�THE DAUGHTERS OF JEPHTHA.
Jephtha, Judge of Israel, marching against the
Ammonites, made a vow unto the Lord that, if
victorious, he would offer up as a burnt-offering to
Jehovah the first person that should come forth from
his house to meet him. Wife or daughter it must have
been : Jephtha had no other offspring but an only
daughter, and who so naturally should hasten to
welcome a father’s return from war and danger as an
only daughter? So went forth the happy maiden
with timbrels and dances to meet her father, the
Prince. The father was in distress, but it never
occurred either to him or his daughter that the Lord
might sympathise with their love and their reluctance
rather than with the vow, and so the fair maid was
slain and burnt on the Lord’s altar. Some efforts
have been made by casuists to show that Jephtha’s
daughter was not sacrificed literally, but only consesecrated to the Lord by not marrying : but such
attempts are unworthy of notice. Human sacrifices
were a recognised part of the Jewish religion, and
�8
careful provisions were made for the redemption of a
man or woman vowed to the Lord by money,—except
when devoted by anathema, in which case the man or
woman the law declared (Lev. 27) “ shall surely be
put to death.” I do not wonder that theologians
would like to escape the effect of the story, for it is
said “ the spirit of the Lord came upon Jephtha,” in
the Old Testament, and in the New that king who
sacrificed bis daughter is enumerated among saints of
whom the world was not worthy.
Well, the story drifted about the world and had its
effect. Jephtha’s daughter was caught up by the Greek
imagination, and reappeared as Iphegenia (probably
Jephthagenia), the daughter of Agamemnon, who was
nearly sacrificed in obedience to a similar vow made
by her father to Artemis. Human sacrifices were
unknown to the ancient Aryan race until it came in
contact with this dark and horrible Shemitic belief
that the deity required blood—and especially the blood
of some spotless being, as the dove, or the lamb, and
finally the most beautiful virgin. This wild and guilty
superstition may be tracked in blood wherever the
Jewish religion passed, and when Humanity had by
reaction revolted from it, the spirit of it was caught up
and preserved in the Christian idea that the world was
to be saved only by the sacrifice of the one most vir
ginal unblemished Soul, the Lamb offered up on Cal
vary to soothe the wrath of God.
�9
But even after that offering, though it was said to
be a final satisfaction of Jehovah’s universal claim
and thirst for blood, the old superstition survived to
the extent of teaching women that it was a holy
thing to vow their virginity to the Lord, to seclude
themselves from the world, and to count themselves
especially happy if they lost their lives by ascetic
devotion to their invisible Spouse. All the nuns of
Christendom were, and are, Jephtha’s daughters.
But that has been by no means the worst result.
The ancient Hebrew idea that woman is the natural
sacrifice to God coloured the whole relation of that
religion and its civil laws towards the female sex.
Woman became the law’s normal victim. We never
read of a Jewish Queen; we rarely read praises of a
woman of that race, except as part of the estate
of some man who was to her the representative of God.
She is sold and bought with her dead lord’s assets. It is
deemed no blot on Abraham when he drives Hagar
from his door. There is no law in the decalogue, or
elsewhere in the Bible, that mitigates the masculine
decree—“ Thy desire shall be to thy husband and he
shall rule over thee.”
All this was reflected in Christianity. It taught
women to submit to their husbands as to the Lord
himself; never to speak in public, or to appear there
unveiled; to stay at home and obey their husbands,—
�IO
“ as also saith the law,” adds Paul,—and understand
that woman is made for man and not man for woman.
I need not pause here to discuss the origin of this
view of the position of woman. We may admit that,
far away in some hard wilderness, or amid certain
primitive exigencies of society, such a theory of
woman was inevitable as a phase of social evolution.
To keep at home and obey might have been the only
way of continuing to exist, or to escape capture. But
when a particular phase of human evolution gets asso
ciated with divine sanction, it gains a permanence
which fetters progress. Most gods have been the
means of perpetuating the barbarism of the age which
invented them.
The Christian system brought this idea of woman
into Europe. Whatever relation it may have had to
Arabia or Syria, whatever justification it might have
had in savage periods, surely it was out of place and
out of time when imported into Europe. And there
is not a more cruel chapter in history than that which
records the arrest by Christianity of the natural growth
of European civilisation as regards woman. In
Germany it found woman participating in the legisla
tive assembly, and sharing the interests and counsels
of man, and drove her out and away, leaving her to
day nothing of her ancient rights but a few honorary
idle titles, titles that remain to mark her degradation
�11
and ours, as they remind us that a peeress, a duchess,
a baroness, a princess, a queen, are not the political
equals of many an illiterate sot who calls himself a
man. Even more fatal was the overthrow of woman’s
position in Rome. Read the terrible facts as stated
by Gibbon, by Milman, and Sir Henry Maine, read
and ponder them, and you will see the tremendous
wrong that Christianity did to woman. All the laws
by which women were protected in their individual
existence were overthrown. The sum of money which
Roman law demanded should be settled by her father
on every married woman, the new Christian code
caused to be paid to the husband instead of her, as a
dowery, or consolation for taking her off her father’s
hands. The idea that the virgin belonged to God
survived, and her espousal to a man could only be by
payment of redemption-money, which is the marriage
fee.
Christianity struck the fatal blowat the independence
of woman by allowing her but two alternatives,—im
prisonment in a nunnery or servitude in a husband’s
house; anything else was for generations accounted sin.
But am I speaking of the far past ? Is it not true
also this day that women are sacrificed to this old
Jewish regime and its Lord? What woman needs to
day is to have her rights and her wrongs decided in
accordance with the conditions and the needs of
�12
Europe, not those of Judea; what she requires is the
unbiassed verdict of the sense and sentiment and
science of the present day ; and yet her case is yielded
up to the authority and law of an ignorant tribe, whose
very Judge knew no better than to burn his daughter as
an offering to his god.
It is to that same Jehovah,
to the laws he is supposed to have proclaimed, the
Bible he is said to have written, and the religion in
which his ferocity is still reflected through all later
mitigations,—it is to him that womanhood is still
sacrificed; and so long as the name of Jehovah,
the god of Jephtha, is bowed to with awe and
fear, so long will the victim-daughters of Jephtha
surround us.
But how are women sacrificed ?
First of all in education. The intelligence and
common sense of Europe declare that there can be
nothing more important, both for themselves and for
man, than the right and thorough education of women.
As the physical mothers of the race they have the
utmost need to know the laws of life, the nature of
their own frame, the principles of health. As the
intellectual and moral guides of all human beings
during the years when they are most susceptible of
impressions and influences, women have need of the
very best knowledge. Their need of scientific drill
is, if anything, greater than that of men. Yet in
�education they are thrown the mere crumbs that fall
from the table of our male youths. It has been shown
that over ninety per cent, of the provision for education
in this country is devoted to boys and young men. It
has been shown that in our universities there are large
sums of money inadequately used,—wealth accumu
lated from ancient endowments, furnishing annual
revenues to the extent of ^500,000,—and yet amid
all the discussions as to what shall be done with that
money, hardly one voice is heard demanding that it
shall be devoted to redressing the heavy wrongs
which woman has suffered through ages, and now
suffers as she sits famishing in sight of such abun
dance. And while the universities are thus barred
against her, and the keys of knowledge denied her,
she is compelled to hear the very weakness and
ignorance so entailed quoted for her further disparage
ment. We are told, woman cannot reason; she is
not logical; she acts by mere impulse and sentiment;
she is superstitious. Well, why is it so ? Who has so
made her? The god of Jephtha, the deity who
exacted the sacrifice of the fair virgins of Israel, and
who by his Bible still demands that we hold English
women mere appendages to man, against all the best
light and conscience of our own time.
Again, women are morally and physically sacrificed
by the denial to them of the right of freedom to enter
�i4
into all the avocations of life by which human beings
may find support, livelihood and independence. In
the laws made by the worshippers of Jephtha’s god it
was enacted that every woman should be sold to some
man as wife or concubine. It was strictly obligatory.
Even that miserable means of obtaining a livelihood
is impossible in this country, where women are in ex
cess of men by nearly a million; but still we find
male prejudice and law providing that marriage shall
be regarded as the only recognised profession, trade,
or vocation by which women may obtain an honour
able livelihood. Compelled by the over-powering
exigencies of modern life we are tolerating them in a
few other simple occupations, but without according
social equality to such; and we make no adequate
provision for their apprenticeship or training for occu
pations which would yield them that independence
which our theology and conventionality most dread.
The sacrificial results of such a state of things are so
appalling that I can hardly name them. By shutting
the usual lucrative professions and occupations to
women, society is driving them by thousands to sell
that which is alone left to them to sell, their own
honourj that which not one woman in a hundred
would part with, were not pauperism and starvation
the dread alternative ; and thereby society sacrifices to
ancient superstition the health and the purity of both
manhood and womanhood.
�i5
I have named but two out of the many forms in
which women are bound hand and foot on the altar of
Jephtha’s god. Why need I repeat the long catalogue
of her wrongs as a wife and a mother ? Even after
the battles and the appeals of generations have wrung
from the reluctant hand of her master a link or two
from the chain with which she was so long fettered, sheis still liable to alienation of her children, and other
wise subject to the caprice and the cruelty of man.
And yet we are told that her interest and necessities
may safely be entrusted to the care of a legislature in
which she has no voice or representation j and that
personally she is not equal to the task of political
deliberation and voting. The ballot is not my idol. My
desire to see woman enfranchised is not because of
any abstract theory of human rights. I admit that
because of the long thraldom that sex has undergone,
and because of the long denial of education and all re
lation to the large affairs of the world, it would be
better if men could be induced to relieve them of their
oppressions—liberate them from the altar to which
they are in large part bound by chains of their own
superstition, and so prepare them for that share in
political power which should be accorded only to
intelligence and moral freedom. Women need the
full advantages of education far more than they need
votes. What they are perishing for is not a ballot,
�i6
but the opening of all the work and culture which
make the equality and secure the liberties of man.
But, with them, I despair of such practical results until
they are admitted among the constituencies of Par
liament. They have amply proved their case. They
have clearly defined their wrong and its remedy.
They have appealed for redress in vain. They are
met by frivolous sneers, by sentimental evasions, not
by reason and argument. Their sufferings have edu
cated them sufficiently to know at least their own needs,
and the unwillingness of men to respond to them.
Their cry for enfranchisement is the cry of victims
bleeding on the altar of established error j it is the
cry of despair ; and it can only increase in painful in
tensity and grief until it shall be redressed. Indeed,
the very sentiment, no doubt sincere with the great
majority of men, which dreads the departure of woman
from the sacred sphere of domestic life, must ere long
be enlisted on the side of her enfranchisement. It will
become more and more clear that there can be no
peace with injustice ; that women in increasing num
bers are, and will continue to be, excited to protest
against the wrongs of their sex. They will appear on
platforms; they will be public speakers; they will be
stimulated to that very life of political agitation which
so many fear, but are blindly engaged in promoting.
For the sake of peace and quietness, if for no higher
�motive, this justice must assuredly be done to woman,
and my own apprehension is that it will not be done
until society has suffered yet more serious disturbances
through the obstinacy and folly of the opposition to a
measure which, if adopted, could not cause anything
more revolutionary than has been caused by the ad
mission of woman to the municipal franchises they
now possess. That which is to-day demanded in the
name of justice, must to-morrow be conceded in the
interest of social order. But this is a poor, mean way of
securing any measure of justice. When wisdom pre
vails the right will be conceded to reason, not wrested
by agitation. But however men may throw away
experience, it still remains true that trouble tracks
wrong like a shadow, and justice alone is crowned with
peace.
2
��I9
CHILDREN AND THEIR MOLOCH.
Five years ago I clipped from a newspaper the follow
ing letter, addressed to the Editor from Shetland :—
“Lerwick, July, 7, 1871.
“ Sir,—It may interest some of your readers to know
that last night (being St. John’s Eve, old style) I
•observed within a mile or so of this town, seven bon
fires blazing, in accordance with the immemorial custom
■of celebrating the Midsummer solstice. These fires
were kindled on various heights around the ancient
hamlet of Sound, and the children leaped over them,
and ‘passed through the fire to Moloch,’ just as their
ancestors would have done a thousand years ago on
the same heights, and their still remoter progenitors in
Eastern lands many thousand years ago. This per
sistent adherence to mystic rites in this scientific epoch
seems to me worth taking note of.—A. L.”
In ancient times, however, the children had to leap
into the bonfire—which is defined in Cooper’s “ The-
�20
saurus ” as 11 Pyra, a bonefire, wherein men’s bodyes.
were burned,”—and not over it. I have often leaped
over a bonfire myself, with little thought that my sport
was the far away relic of the tragedies of human sacri
fice. Our bonfires of Virginia had been lighted from
those of Scotland, whence the first settlers of the neigh
bourhood had come; and there is some reason to
believe that in some obscure nooks of Scotland the
Midsummer fires are yet kindled, and some may still
be found who believe that it is good for a child to passover them.
The Reformers of Scotland made a tremendous
effort to trample out these survivals of ancient super
stition, and measurably succeeded in suppressing the
outward manifestations of them. But they preserved,
the very atmosphere of superstition amid which such
practices were bred originally, and there is reason to
fear they made matters worse. The sacrifice of chil
dren to Moloch had become a pastime, but their
subsequent sacrifice to Jehovah ofSabaoth was serious.
The Scottish Reformers also exterminated with
fierce piety the superstitions of the Church of Rome.
They particularly punished pilgrimages to the so-called1
holy wells which abounded in that region. On the
28th November, 1630, Margaret Davidson, a married
woman, residing in Aberdeen, was adjudged in an
“unlaw” of £5 by the Kirk Session “ for directing
�21
her nurse with her bairn to St. Fiack’s Well, and
washing her bairn therein for recovery of her health
- . . and for leaving an offering in the well.” The
point of idolatry, as stated by the Kirk Session, was
“in putting the well in God’s room.” After the fine
Margaret, perhaps, put God in the well’s room; but
we may doubt whether the change was of any advan
tage to the bairn. Pure water has its sanative effects,
and it is very likely that the wells became holy because
they were healing. But St. Fiack—a Scottish saint—
had to go, leaving only his name to a vehicle {fiacre),
in which his French devotees travelled to his shrine,
and instead of him was set up a Judaic deity whose
providence was not associated with anything so rational
as the use of pure water. Not one particle of super
stition the less remained in Scotland when the fires of
Moloch and the candles of Rome were put out. The
only religious advantage one could have hoped from
the revolution was not gained. It might have been
hoped that when popular Superstition was divested of its
picturesque features, its pilgrimages to holy wells and
shrines, and bonfires and images, its grim and ugly
visage would have been simply repulsive, and its
further reign impossible. But, strange to say, the
Scotch seemed to cling more to superstition the
uglier it became. A Puritanism arose in which all the
Molochs were summed up, and all human joys were
�22
represented, in Shakspeare’s phrase, as 11 the primrose
way to the everlasting bonfire,” the flowery path tohell. It is passing strange that this hideous system
should have been able to desolate beyond recovery
the “merrie England of the olden time,” and to over
shadow America for more than a hundred years.
There is a singular society which met last week, called
the Anglo-Israel Society, whose object is to persuade
this people that they are the lost tribes of Israel, and
the eagerness with which the majority of this nation
has always laid hold upon everything Semitic, gives
some plausibility to their notion; but one thing is
certain, if we are the tribes that Israel lost, we have
never lost Israel. We have hebraised for ages, made
long prayers, sung psalms, named children Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob, and otherwise pertinaciously adhered
to the Semitic idolatry.
When Jehovah was brought to Scotland, Moloch
was nominally dethroned, his bonfires extinguished;
but the change was only nominal; all that was dark and
cruel in Moloch was superadded to all that was dark
and cruel in Jehovah; and the result was a Scotch
Jehovah more harsh and oppressive than the phantasm
which haunted the Jews.
For the ancient Jews do not seem to have generally
entered into the spirit of Moloch,—that old brass
deity, whose head was that of a calf, and whose stomach
�23
was a furnace in which children were consumed. The
Jews generally were careful of their children, and those
of them that worshipped Moloch and sacrificed their
children were sternly denounced. That old idol which,
according to Amos (v. 26) the Israelites bore with
them from Egypt through the wilderness, would per
haps have faded away had it not been for Solomon.
Solomon is odiously memorable for two things. He
erected a temple for Moloch on the Mount of Olives,
where children were burned to death, and he wrote
the sentence—which might appropriately have been
inscribed on that Temple—“ Spare the rod and spoil
the child.” The man who wrote that sentence had, of
course, no idea that any people would exist foolish
enough to believe it the very word of God; but,
nevertheless, in conjunction with human superstition,
he has been the cause of more evil to the human race
than any other one man that ever lived. The rod is
a little thing, but it is full of deadly poison ; it has
fostered in the world more deceit, meanness, cowardice,
servility, stupidity, and brutality than our race will
outgrow for many generations. Mr. Edward Tylor
recently exhibited at the Royal Institution the poison
ous Calabar bean used as an ordeal in Africa,
whose consecration enables the savage kings to put
out of the way every man who proposes any change
in their government; and he (Mr. Taylor) expressed
�24
his belief that the continued savagery of Africa was
in large part an effect of that little bean. And I be
lieve that it can be shown that the rod has been the
means of preserving the savage rule of physical force
in the greatest nations of the world. The parent or
teacher who strikes a child does so because his parent
or teacher struck him; and the child that is struck
catches the idea, transmitted all the way from Solo
mon, that the way to deal with people who don’t do
what you like is to strike them. That is, if you are
stronger than they. If they are little and you large,
that is a sign that the Lord has delivered them into
your hand. You must make the child yield his will
to yours, not by love and persuasion, but by brute
force and pain; break his spirit, though that harms
him far more than breaking his back-bone; make the
child another you : so will your child do the like by
his children, and they by theirs, and independence
and individuality be beaten down by violence, genius
crushed, character made characterless, as
“ To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,”
and all our yesterdays light us on the highway of
commonplace, though not, I hope, to the last syllable
of recorded time.
Does it not strike you that a child consists of an
individuality, a will, a spirit, a mind, and that its real
�25
existence depends upon these; and that if these are
not trained, encouraged, cultivated, the child has no
real existence at all? An animal existence it may
have, but beyond that it were a mere appendix or
sequel to somebody else, unless its peculiar powers
are healthily carried forward to maturity. If these are
sacrificed the child is sacrificed, and the man that is
folded up in him. Will a gardener beat his rose-buds
with a stick to make them grow ? The growing of
thoughts and emotions is more tender work than the
culture of roses. But children will be naughty; of
course they will sometimes be naughty if they are
healthy, and they will require restraint until they can
restrain themselves : they must learn morals as they
learn letters. But one might as well flog a child for
not knowing Greek as to flog it for a deception or for
selfishness. Every blow is an appeal to selfishness,
and a lesson in deception. We pardon our parents
and predecessors in this, for they knew not what they
did. But it is a scandal that the rod should linger in
the homes and schools of England, after Herbert
Spencer and others have proved the evil of it. For
many months now I have been trying to find a school in
Kensington for a boy in his eleventh year, and in that
great parish I cannot find one in which they do not
insist on two things,—Beating and the Bible. I must
leave the parish to find a school which will give me a.
conscience clause on these points.
�26
Now, I may ask any person of intelligence, not
hopelessly blinded by superstition, is the Bible a fit
book to put into the hands of a child ? I do not
believe that a child as it advances to boyhood and
girlhood should, with prudish jealousy, be kept in
ignorance as to the follies and vices of the world in
which it lives.
But our children do not live in
ancient Judea. The Bible, moreover, is not limited to
any years. It is believed by bibliolaters to be so holy
that it can do no harm even to a child of tenderest
years, who so soon as he or she can read is permitted
to receive the unnatural stimulant of perusing narra
tives obscene, shocking and cruel. What would be
a glass of gin in the child’s throat, compared with its
first familiarisation with the grossest vices of semibarbarous tribes; vices many of which are even unfit
for more advanced youth to read about, for they are
not those which they will now find in the world
around them, or require to be guarded against. The
very memory of some of the primitive brutalities of
mankind is kept alive only by the Bible. With its
pages are broadcast narratives which the law does not
permit to be printed in any other book. And when
these crimes and vices are laid before a child as the
word of God ; when it reads in that book that many
of the worst of them were instigated by Jehovah,—
that he hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and ordered persons
�27
to be stoned to death, and children to be put to thesword, and so on,—why it is enough to slay theirreverence on the spot, and strike them with moral
idiocy. This is, indeed, the way in which, morallyspeaking, the sins of the father are visited on the
children, to much more than the third and fourth
generation. The Bible is an invaluable book, but it
is not a book for children : there are many forms in
which the incidents and chapters suitable for them
can be separately procured; and for the rest, the
volume may be safely left on the shelf to be searched
out when it is wanted.
The Rod, and the Bible which consecrates the Rod,
along with many other barbarities, make up princi
pally the Moloch of children in the present time. The
sacrifice of the young among us is mainly moral and
intellectual. Physically a great deal is done for the
average of them. There are indeed terrible regions
where children are caught up in the great engine of
commerce and labour, and crushed. There are mines,
and fens, and factories where the struggle for existence
means a joyless existence—hunger and pain, and pre
mature death to many a child ; and yet, because it isa struggle for existence we can only look upon it with
sympathy and with resolution that no man shall add tothe anguish of it. But when we follow even such appa
rently inevitable evils as these to their causes, we dis-
�2S
•cover that they could not continue but for the radical
•error of English Christianity—the principle of sacrifi
cing man to God. We can never hope thoroughly to
master the evils of society while the great religious
organisations of the country, and their vast endow
ments, are directed to divine service instead of
human service, and the poor are taught that their
■chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him for ever.
When the wealth and the religious earnestness of this
nation are devoted to the benefit of humanity, instead
•of to the childish notion of personally pleasing and
■.satisfying the deity, there cannot long remain an
unhappy home in it.
But until that Gospel of Pure Reason is heard round
the world, bringing its glad tidings, the weak and
ignorant must still bleed as victims on the altar of an
imaginary being who may be called God, but is much
nearer the ideal of a Demon.
Dogma, too, has still its altar in England upon
which the child is sacrificed. It is true that among the
educated the old doctrine that every child is at birth
a child of the devil, and human nature totally de
praved, has ceased to exist; and even among the
illiterate parental affection has been too strong to
admit of its practical realisation. But still it is taught
by vulgar sects to many millions, and avails to mis•»direct many fathers and mothers, and teachers, in their
�29
dealing with the natural instincts and needs of child
hood. The mirth, the love of beauty, the longing for
amusement, in the young, so indispensable for a healthy
and happy growth, are forbidden, the dance is held tobe sinful, the theatre immoral, and thus many thousands
of children never have any real joy, and pass on to a
youth of precocious anxiety, and a manhood or woman
hood of hard, morose alienation from nature.
The only relief to the gloom of this unnatural
religion, which casts its shadow over so many young
lives, is that dogmatic preaching has become so inhar
monious with the enlightenment of civilised society,
that it tends more and more to sink into the hands of
pulpit mediocrities, who rehearse it in such a dull,
perfunctory way that it loses all impressiveness, and
can now hardly keep congregations awake. Sermon
ising is almost another name for boreing.
In an admirable story just published, called “ The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer, by Mark Twain,” the
author presents a picture of an average congrega
tional assembly on Sunday, among whom his little
hero was a sufferer. After the lugubrious hymn came
the long, long prayer. “ The boy,” says the author,
“ did not enjoy the prayer, he only endured it—if he
even did that much. He was restive all through it;
he kept tally of the details of the prayer, unconsciously
-—for he was not listening, but he knew the ground of
�3°
old, and the clergyman’s regular route over it—and
where a little trifle of new matter was introduced, his
■ear detected it, and his whole nature resented it; he
considered additions unfair and scoundrelly. In the
midst of the prayer a fly had lit on the pew in front
of him ”—but I will pass over the fate of that fly.
The sermon came on. “ The minister,” writes our
author, il gave out his text and droned along monoto
nously through an argument that was so prosy that by
and by many a head began to nod, and yet it was an
argument that dealt in limitless fire and brimstone,
and thinned the predestined elect down to a company
so small as to be hardly worth the saving. The boy
counted the pages of the sermon; after church he
always knew how many pages there had been, but he
seldom knew anything else about the discourse.”
Once, indeed, he became interested for a moment. It
was when the preacher, instead of his own dreary
thoughts, drew from an ancient poet the picture of the
hosts of the world gathering at the millennium, when
the lion and the lamb should lie down together, and
a little child should lead them. The boy said to him
self that he would like to be that child, if it was a
tame lion.
I suppose there are many poor little sufferers like
this lad, dragged this day into the chapels and churches
of the world, but we may console ourselves partially
�3r
with the reflection that in their sufferings many a false
hood is smothered. The deadly dogma is happily
also dull, and sinks through the vacant mind into the
gulf of oblivion. And yet that boy is passing through
the years which should be sown with the seeds of
truth, and the germs of thought and purpose. His
faculties need encouragement : they say briars and
thorns are non-encouraged buds. So long as those
sweet, susceptible years are passed amid such errors
that apathy to them all is the child’s best hope, we
must still confess that in this age of light innumerable
children are still passing through the fire to Moloch.
�_______ _ __
�33
THE 8ABBATH-JUGERNATH.
On the sands at Puri, in India, stands the famous
temple of Jugernath. It is nearly seven centuries old,
and the building of it cost as much as a half million
sterling. It is six hundred and fifty feet square, and
its sanctity consecrates the soil for twenty miles around
it,—that land being held rent-free on condition of the
tenants performing certain sacred rites in honour of
Jugernath. There are twelve great festivals held every
year at this shrine, and the alleged performances at
these festivals have been the never-ending theme of
mission meetings ever since we can remember. You
must have been fortunate children if you have no
memories of Sunday School days when your childish
heart was harrowed by accounts of poor Hindoos
crushed under the wheels of Jugernath, and a tithe of
all you possessed annually sent away to convert that
hard god into a Christian, and stop that terrible car.
Some old missionary once estimated the immense
amount of money and labour devoted to the care, the
3
�34
ablutions, and other affairs of this temple, and he said
the same amount of wealth and toil usefully bestowed
might make every barren spot of India into a garden ;
and that missionary might have added that the amount
of money which has been evoked from Christian
pockets by that one idol might have made an equal
number of gardens there, or here,—whereas it has all
been spent, and the car rolls on just as grandly as
ever.
And not only this, but we have now learned on the
best authority that all those pictures of Hindoos cast
ing themselves beneath the Jugernath car to be crushed
were purely imaginary. When the car is drawn, with
the sacred image of Vishnu set up in it, the crowd of
the curious and the devotees is enormous, and no doubt
many accidents have happened. It may be, because
some from a distance are ignorant of the danger, or that
enthusiastic devotees put themselves unintentionally in
danger by going too near the image they believe
holiest on earth, or try to draw the car with hundreds
of others when they are too weak or aged to do so.
But there are no intentional sacrifices under the car of
Jugernath, nor could there ever have been at any period.
For Jugernath, or rather Jaganatb, means simply
“ the Lord of Life •” it is a title of Vishnu, and the
temple is purely sacred to Vishnu. Nothing is more
rigidly forbidden than to slay anything that has life in
�35
the neighbourhood of the Lord of Life. The Hindoos
declare that the holy pages of the Vedas themselves
sprang from drops of blood lost by their Saviour while
protecting Agni in form of a dove from Indra in form
of a hawk; and to Vishnu they offer only things that
are fresh and beautiful, like flowers, and even the
. flowers must not be in the least faded. So it is
impossible that there could have been human sacrifices
to Jugernath except by accident. The accidents were
probably very frequent at one time,—at least it is
•charitable to missionary reporters to think so,—the vast
increase of popularity in the festivals having made the
crowd unwieldy. But in recent years British authority
has insisted upon carefulness—threatened to stop the
car if men and women were injured—and there is now
far less destruction of life by the car of Jugernath than
by the London cab.
Happy Hindoos ' who have at hand an enlightened
authority willing to respect their religious customs so
long as they are harmless, but ready to put Vishnu
himself under arrest if he injures humanity. I would
match an Englishman against any man living for good
sound sense in dealing with such superstitions, pro
vided they are not his own. But when that clear
headed English authority which has put out the fires
that burned widows in India comes to deal with laws
that torture women here, it gets confused among
�36
Scripture texts and precedents. When it is needed
to curb a fanaticism here which deliberately sacrificeshuman life—that, for instance, of the Peculiar People,
who, because of a text in the New Testament, refuse
to call medical aid for their sick, letting them die in
numbers every year, even helpless children—why then
all that common sense seems to vanish. When it is
called upon to regulate our Sabbath-Jugernath, beside
which the car at Puri is an innocent toy, beneath
whose wheels millions of hearts and brains are crushed
in this kingdom, why then the intelligence of the nation
grows timid, and its arm is paralysed.
The celebrations of Jugernath, the Lord of Life,
bring to the poor twelve festivals in the year, The
celebrations of the Sabbath, Lord of Lifelessness, bringto our poor fifty-two funereal vacancies in their exist
ence. They ought to be fifty-two festivals of Reason, of
Beauty, of Happiness, but to the poor they are days of
unreason, of ugliness, of torpor and drunkenness ; days
hateful to children and hurtful to all. Now it is not
merely fanciful to bring together the Jugernath and the
Sabbath superstitions. Even in origin their consecra
tion came from the same source. Our theology has
arbitrarily transferred the sanctity of the Jewish Sab
bath, the Seventh Day of the week, to the Sun-day, the
day consecrated to sun-worship, our first day of the
week. I say arbitrarily, for' there is not a word in the
�New Testament consecrating Sunday, but there are
•strong sentences declaring one day as holy as another.
The early Christians when they went among so-called
pagan ” races met for worship on the first day of
■the week because it was a holiday, and they could only
then get at the people. For the same reason we meet
to-day, because it is the day when people are liberated
from business. But the Primitive Christians had as
•little thought of consecrating the “pagan” Sun’s day
as the Jewish Sabbath, just as most of us would abhor
•the notion that any day is less sacred than another.
But Vishnu also was to his provincial worshippers the
-quickening sun, and his chariot is the car of Jugernath.
So the two institutions are linked together archeeologi•cally. But in a more important sense they are related
by the fact that they are both idolatries. lhe Sab
bath is one of the only two visible idols which pro
nounced Protestantism has left standing for a race of
kindred origin to the Hindoos, and like them
naturally loving outward symbols and images. We
•all belong to the Great Aryan race, from which pro
ceeded all the bright gods and goddesses of Greece
and Rome, and Germany, and all their variegated
symbolism.
Through certain historic combina
tions our Aryan race as it migrated westwaid, became
invested with a Shemitic religion, one which had no
arts and pictures itself, and regarded them as impious
�38
in others. In obedience to this alien religion, our
race now wrote on its temples, “Thou shalt not make
to thyself any graven images, or pictures of anything
in heaven, earth or sea.” But it was one thing to say
this, another to practise. The Eastern Church evaded
the law by putting up certain holy pictures with
frames in relief, which are something like sculpture.
The Roman Church boldly disregarded the law in its
lordly way of requiring the Bible to accommodate itself
to the Pope. In this country all the sacred visible
images were swept away by Puritanism from its own and .
many other churches—leaving all the more graven
images in the mind ; but that race-instinct, that love
of outward symbols and objects of worship with which
the Eastern Church compromised, and to which the
Romish Church succumbed—that instinct and senti
ment remained in our people, and in the empty niche
of the Madonna, on the altar from which god and
goddess and crucifix had been successively swept,
there were now set up the only two visible images of
determined Protestantism—the Bible and the Sabbath.
There are some branches of the Church of England
which approximate to the Catholic Church enough to
preserve other symbols—exalting the sacrament, mag
nifying the cross, or the liturgy—and such care less tomake overmuch of the Sabbath, and respect saintly
tradition as much as the Bible. But when you find
�an out-and-out Evangelical, or a Calvinist, or a member
of a sect which has nothing symbolical about it, you
find one who will fight for the literal Bible and the
literal Sabbath, exactly as a barbarian fights for his
idol. They are his idols. They are to him precisely
what the Jugernath is to the devotee in India. The
Bible and the Sabbath are all he has left; and if you
were to really take from the average sectarian his
idolatry of those two visible objects, he would feel as
if he had nothing to lean upon at all. For this aver
age religionist has not a vivid interior life, he has not
the mystical sense cognisant of pure ideals, most
visible when the outward eye is closed. He needs to
have something he can see and handle, and feel
physically, or realise by physical effects.
There is not the least use in trying to argue with an
idolator. Nothing can be influenced by reasoning
which was not reached by any effort of reason. Real
thinkers, even in the sects themselves, have tried their
strength against this miserable Sabbath superstition,
Luther and Calvin, and George Fox, as well as the
most learned men of the English Church. But the
Sabbath stands like the Hindoo Temple described in
the curse of Kehdma :—
“ And on the sandy shore, beside the verge
Of ocean, here and there a rock-cut fane
Resisted in its strength the surf and surge
That on their deep foundation beat in vain.”
�40
Even so, deep-cut in the plutonic rock of human
ignorance, is this idol shrine, against which all our
protests, appeals, facts, and arguments will beat in
vain, until the ignorance itself shall be undermined and
crumble away.
There is no advantage, therefore, in pleading with
Sabbatarians. The more we groan the better they
feel, for it shows them that Jehovah is having his will
by crushing ours. But there is great reason that we
should appeal to the constituted rulers of England, in
the name of our religious liberty, against the claim of
Sabbatarians to oppress consciences that are not
Sabbatarian. The right of any individual to be him
self a simpleton seems inalienable. We do not deny,
though we may deplore, the claim of Sabbatarians to
pass their “ holy time ” in any depth of sanctimonious
stupor they like.
But they have no right to bind on
the altar of their ugly idol the life of other people.
That they are still able to do so is not due to any
Sabbatarianism in those who make our laws. There
is not one member of our Government or Parliament
who does not violate the Judaic Sabbath law every
week of his life. Nearly fifty years ago, William Lovett,
and several thousand working men with him, drew up a
petition to Parliament, declaring their conviction that
much of the drunkenness and crime in London is due
to the absence of proper resources for instruction and
�amusement on Sunday. Honest Joseph Hume pre
sented their petition and appealed to Parliament for
the opening of such resources. Since then the appeal
has been repeated by Sir Joshua Walmsley, Peter
Taylor and others, but steadily refused, even while
the principle has been conceded by the opening of
museums in Ireland, where Puritanism is not strong.
The last-named valiant member of Parliament has
now for some years moved that body to admit the
poor drudges of this metropolis to gain some know
ledge, to catch some gleam of light and beauty, on the
one day when they are released from toil, in our grand
national collections which they help to support but
never see—institutions which represent the secrets of
nature and ideality of poets and artists, the history of
man in his steady mastery of the earth by skill and
genius, the sacred story of heroes, saints, saviours of
humanity. But at last that member has declined to
renew his appeal, because, as he has stated to me, he
has ample evidence that while the majority of the
House are quite convinced that his motion is right,
and have no respect for Sabbatarianism, they yet vote
for it. The Puritan Sabbath can always roll up a
majority even in a House that applauds arguments
against it. The member referred to is naturally not
willing to go on convincing men already convinced.
But why then do these politicians vote against the
�42
relief of suffering non-Sabbatarians ? Why, because
they do not wish to be also victims of the Sabbath.
To the average Member of Parliament his seat there
is the immediate jewel of his soul. He would, no
doubt, like to have right on his side, but he must have
his borough. He knows perfectly well that if he
votes for opening museums and picture galleries to the
people, on the very next Sunday his constituency
will be listening to awful burdens against him from
all the reverend Chadbands and Stigginses and
Mawworms and Cantwells and Pecksniffs, whose com
bined power can defeat any man in England, as their
like defeated the great man in Jerusalem who broke
the Sabbath, and declared it subject to man, not man
to it. Nevertheless, we must not proceed upon the
opinion that the average Member of Parliament is so
much afraid of this power behind him, or so tenacious
of his seat, that he will carry it to the extent of sup
porting what he felt to be a very serious oppression.
All the honour and courage have not entirely gone
out of this nationality. Men will be found ready to
risk their seats when they have fully apprehended
the nature and extent of the wrong that is
suffered. Parliament consists mainly of wealthy
gentlemen, whose every earthly need is so com
pletely answered that they can only with difficulty
realise the wants of the poor. On Sunday they have
�their carriages to drive in, their right to visit botanical
and zoological gardens, their libraries, pictures, clubsand billiard-rooms. Their Sunday is free enough.
They turn it to repose or recreation as they may need,
In all their lives they have never had one day of
serious want, not one day of confinement in a miserable
lodging with no alternatives but the chill street or thegin-shop. In some way it must be brought before
these gentlemen, and kept before them— like the
widow’s plea in the parable before the judge, who waswearied out at last—that the lot of the masses whose
labour makes so much of their comfort is a mean and
miserable lot. They must be made to know that
there are millions who from the cradle to the grave,
toil—and toil—and toil, year in and year out, and
whose life is one long want. It must be impressed
upon them that a large part of the sorrow and heavi
ness of the poor man’s and poor woman’s fate is the
presence in them of mental and moral faculties and
possibilities which are a perpetual hunger without any
supply, which never rise to be real intellects and tastes
because they are kept by drudgery as seeds under the
sod, unquickened by any beam of light shining from
all the knowledge around them, unsunned by any ray
of beauty. Then they will comprehend that a fearful
system of human sacrifice is going on around them,
and they will not find their parliamentary seats easy
�44
if retained by any connivance with those sacrifices.
There is an Eastern fable of a throne luxuriously soft
to any monarch who sat upon it, until a wrong had
risen somewhere in his realm; then the throne became
so hard that no sovereign could sit upon it, until the
wrong was sought out and redressed; and there is
•conscience enough among our commoners to change
many a legislative seat to flint, when its holder shall
know that he maintains it only as a coward, through
the servility that dare not grapple with serious in
justice because it is in the majority.
Those are the men who must ultimately listen to
our cause and decide it rightfully. And our cause is
that the brain and heart, and even the work of the
poor, is suffering grievously because of the restrictions
placed by superstition upon that day of the week
which represents their all of opportunity for any high
enjoyment or improvement. The Sundays of life
represent one-seventh of every man’s time; but for
the drudges of the world it represents the whole of
their time. All the rest of life is not their time; it
belongs to their employer; it is mortgaged by physical
toil. What life is at their own disposal is counted by
.Sundays. If those free days are unimproved or
unhappy the whole life goes sunless to the grave.
What provision does this nation make, and wnat
■does it permit to be made, for the elevation, instruc
�tion, and happiness of those whose other days, asGeorge Herbert said, “trail on the ground,” on the
one day susceptible to nobler impressions ?
First it provides sermons.
Twenty thousand
churches are open this day for the people, and in
them are places for a limited number of the poor.
Well, let us forget how many dull sermons are
preached, how many gloomy, false, repulsive dogmas,,
how many threadbare superstitions, and how few work
ing people have any disposition to enter these assem
blies, or such dress as would let them feel comfortable
when there. Let us pass over all that. Admitting
that one hour and a half or two hours of the poor
man’s only leisure day may be so passed, what provision
is made for the remainder ?
Why, there are the parks in which he may walk.
But that is a very inadequate reply. Our English
weather renders the park attractive for but a small
part of the year. Much of the labour done is too
wearisome to render mere walking on Sunday any
delight to the workers. Nor is there anything in that
merely physical exercise which answers the real
demand, a demand not of the feet but of the head.
Well, there is the great provision that comes next
to the church, the public house. This great nation
has been appealed to by some of its noblest scholars
for permission to accompany the poor on Sunday
�46
■afternoons, when churches are closed, through the
national collections of art and science, to explain to
them the objects of interest, to interpret for them the
wonders of nature and unfold the splendours of art.
But thus far our rulers have replied, “ No, we will
deliver you to the publican, but never to Dr. Carpenter;
Ruskin shall not teach you the glory of Raphael’s
•cartoons, but you may gaze at pleasure on the interior
decorations of the gin-palace; you must not see the
grandeurs of art, nor the fine traceries of skill, nor the
antiquities of humanity, nor the wondrous forms and
•crystals of Nature, but do not complain : do we not
allow you limitless supplies of whiskey and beer?”
And just here, by the way, I remark a little sign of
hope. The Sabbatarians begin to perceive the scandal
that the beer-house should be kept open while the
museum is closed, and they begin to demand the
closing of the public-house also. They have carried
a. measure of that kind for Ireland, and I sincerely
hope they will manage to carry one for England. For
the day that sees the beer-house close will see the door
•of the museum start. The great ally of the Sabbatarian
has been the publican, and when that alliance is broken
our success will draw near. The parson drugs the
people’s brains with superstition, and the publican
drugs with beer those whom the parson cannot reach;
and the streams from church and tap-room blending
�47
together reinforce the Lord’s-day people, so that they
can always outnumber us. If the Sabbath were not
an idol it would long ago have recoiled from all this
part of its work.
It would have said, “ Open a
thousand museums rather than drive the poor to find
their only Sunday amusement, and spend the means
for which their wives and children suffer, in drink !”
But an idol may always be recognised by just this
fact: z? demands human sacrifices. It may not always
demand the cutting-up or burning of its victims; but,
if not that, it will demand the sacrifice of his intellect
or his affections, his happinesss or his welfare; in
some way a human body, or heart, or brain will be
found bound wherever an idol stands. And though
I cannot, in such brief space, enter into all the details
of the holocaust of human benefits offered up to the
Sabbath, I will affirm for myself that the more I have
considered the needs of this people, and the lost
opportunities of meeting them, the more have I felt
that there is now no cause worthier of a good man’s zeal
than the overthrew of this Sabbath oppression. It is
a wrong for which I have no toleration at all. I can
tolerate any man’s religious conviction about the
Sabbath or anything else ; but I cannot tolerate him
when he insists on binding his dogma upon others.
I will not tolerate his intolerance. This is no issue of
abstract opinion for theological fencing. It is no
�48
sentimental grievance.
The hunger of a million
famished souls is in it. It is a great heart-breaking
wrong, crushing lower and lower one class of society
at a time when other classes are rising higher daily.
And that the poor do not feel it to be so, are in boozy
contentment with their beer or their prayers and
demand nothing better, is only a proof of how fully
the oppression has done its miserable work.
Yet they use this as an argument against us ! They
cry, “The workmen do not want it; behold our
majority.” I answer, the majority is always wrong.
The majority crucified' Christ and poisoned Socrates.
Part of the masses you have deceived by the con
temptible fiction that their day of release from toil will
be endangered by that which would make it more
attractive and therefore more precious; and a larger
part you have so besotted with beer and ignorance
that they are pauperised in soul as well as body, and
hug their own chains. Theirs is not the real voice of
the people.
A true statesman will take the only
suffrage they are competent to cast from their degraded
foreheads and their brutalised forms and faces. The
gardener will not follow the will of the weeds, though
they report the soil he works in. At any rate a rational
man’s duty is clear. The authority of the Sabbath
rests upon what every intelligent mind knows to be
fiction; upon a deity who is said to have created the
�49
universe in six days and rested on the seventh, and
then ordered that anyone working on the seventh
should be stoned to death. That is a fiction. There
is no deity who did anything of that kind. We are told
this is the Lord’s day. We know that if that Lord be
other than a phantom every day is his day. J esus
said, 11 My Father works on the Sabbath and so will
I.” Rest is not stupor. It is well to change our
occupation occasionally, but never well to be idle.
There is no ground whatever for this superstition.
The day of rest originated no doubt in a human want,
afterwards invested with sanctity: but the sanctity
must be entirely removed if the day is to be changed
from a curse to a human benefit.
4
��51
THE MARTYRDOM OF REASON.
Reason is that supreme faculty of man by which he
is cognisant of principles apart from their applica
tions, of laws as distinct from particulars, of ideas as
separate from relations. It differs from the under
standing, which is concerned with those special appli
cations and relations, as a code of laws differs from
the various decisions of courts and judgments made
under that code. A man may reason rightly when his
understanding is in error. A Hindoo walking out saw
a large and dangerous cobra, as he supposed, across
his path, preparing to dart upon him ; it so overcame
his nerves that he fainted; the object proved to be a
piece of rope. The man had reasoned correctly; he
knew the nature of the cobra, and rightly inferred the
danger, but his judgment was in error. Now judg
ment is at the point of distinction between reason
and understanding. By origin it is an organ of rea
son, by result it is the agent of the understanding.
�52
When we consider our human faculties in this
abstract way, we find them perfectly harmonious.
They move in their appointed orbits, in constant rela
tion and interaction, but without collision or jar, their
very differences completing the harmony. Abstractedly
no mortal can conceive of a special judgment with no
general principles to guide it, and none can think of
ideas and laws as things inapplicable to the particulars
of nature and life.
And yet we find in all races and ages a wide-spread
suspicion of reason. Even at this day, and in nations
which are daily reaping and enjoying the fruits of
reason, we find vast numbers of people who have an
impression like that which Shakspere puts into the
mouth of Caesar, “ He thinks too much ; such men
are dangerous.” Still more general is the notion that
the man of ideas must be unpractical. It is easy to
perceive the origin of that notion; it is suggested in
the common saying, “That is well enough in theory,
but it won’t do in practice.” Of course the phrase is
a mistake ; it should be, “ That is wrong in theory, for
it won’t do in practicebut it discloses the fact that
there has been so much false reasoning in the world
that many have come to distrust reason itself.
And just here arises a misunderstanding and a
quarrel between the theorist and the practical man.
One says the error is in the theory, the other that it is
�53
in the application of it. Among educated people the
matter would be tested by experiment. Science, for
instance, has long affirmed that when salt water freezes
it loses its saltness; but the Arctic explorers melting
the sea-ice found it so briny that they could not drink
it. The result is, of course, a revision of theory by
experiments which will probably show that the salt
does not remain strictly in the ice, but between its
crystals, that the theory is not wrong but requires more
careful statemeht to include the practical fact. In this
way the old feud between theory and practice has
entirely ceased from the domain of science.
• But it is in religion that we find the distrust of rea
son most intense and familiar.
On that distrust
Christianity is founded. Christ appealed to reason;
but Christianity has very little to do with him ; it re
lapses into barbaric ages and finds its corner-stone in
a fable that the first effort of intellect led to the cor
ruption of the whole human race. It said that when
God made man and woman he put them into a para
dise for enjoyments sensual and sensuous. The one
thing he was opposed to was knowledge. So resolute
was the Creator on that point, that he did not hesitate
to accompany his prohibition of that one fruit with a
deception. He told them that on the very day they
should eat of the tree of Knowledge they would die.
The serpent persuaded the woman that this was a
�54
fiction, as it proved to be. The truthful serpent also
said, “ Ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil,”
and no sooner was the fruit eaten than Jehovah,
making no mention of what he had said about their
dying, acknowledged the veracity of the serpent.
“ Behold,” he said, “ the man is become as one of us
(gods) to know good and evil.” Then, lest the gods
should have no advantage at all, and man should eat
of another fruit and become immortal, the first pair
were expelled from Paradise. This fable, which re
presents the first priestly scream against education,
shows us a deity cursing knowledge and a demon en
couraging it; it shows a deity trying to delude man to
remain in ignorance, while the demon speaks the
truth, and secures the birth of intelligence for man and
woman, where Jehovah meant them to live only the
life of the senses. On that fable the whole Plan of
Salvation is founded. The knowledge gained that day
brought on mankind the curse of total depravity, and
doom of eternal torture. To avert that the Son of
God became incarnate on earth and suffered in a few
years all the agonies which the whole human race
would have suffered if every man, -woman and child
that ever lived were damned to all eternity. All of
this is meaningless, and the whole theology of Chris
tendom mere chaff, except to avert the wrath and undo
the curse which fell from a deity jealous of the attain
�55
ments of his own creature, upon man, because of his
first endeavour to gain knowledge.
Fortunately, while that is the theology it is not the
religion, and still less the morality of this country. It
is a sublime example of the kind of theory which does
not do in practice. Nevertheless we must not under
rate the results of the long pressure of instructions like
these upon every human being through a period of
sixteen hundred years. Even now, in the most en
lightened nations, the money devoted to teach that
theology is counted by millions where the money
devoted to pure knowledge is counted by tens. And
we need not wonder that the spirit of that old curse
on knowledge still survives to haunt every seeker of it
for its own sake. It is still strong enough to cast a
certain odium on the tasks of reason. To the popular
mind there is something uncanny about the rationalist,
which means a reasoner, and the sceptic—literally, he
who considers a thing—has still an evil name. Thou
sands who shout for every other kind of freedom will
cry down freethought. They will mourn over an en
slaved African thousands of miles away, but have no
tears to shed for fettered minds at their own door.
Nay, even among those liberated from the old
theology, how much suspicion of reason do we en
counter ! How often do we hear such speak of science
as cold, and of the intellect as inferior to something
�56
they call faith or intuition ! They who have no doubts
about reason are still comparatively few. And yet our
age is full of the grandest facts and illustrations, proving
that it is among the devotees of reason and science
that the divinest life and fire of our age is manifest. I
have just been reading a history, written by the leading
rationalist minister in America, of what is called “ the
transcendental movement” in that country.
*
And it
is well called a “movement ;” for the chief impres
siveness of it lies in the fact that what had been mainly
a speculative philosophy in Europe, there, among one
of the most shrewd and practical nations of the world,
blazed out into a movement, a noble enthusiasm for
humanity, a passionate religion which kindled the hearts
of young men and women, and made them Reformers,
Apostles, Martyrs, who gave up all their goods for the
poor, who brought glad tidings to woman and lifted the
heaviest burthens of her life, and who broke off the
bonds of the slave. There was not an orthodox man
or woman among them. They were rationalists. The
Bible they studied was Kant’s “ Critique of Pure
Reason,” Goethe’s Works, Carlyle’s Essays, Cousin’s
Philosophy: the ideas of Europe became ideals in
America, rose up like pillars of flame; they became a
* Transcendentalism in New England. A History. By Octavius
Brooks Frothingham. New York : E. P. Putman & Sons, 1876.
�57
gospel in the genius of Emerson, the mind of Parker,
and the heart of Margaret Fuller, and under its charm
humble people formed themselves in communities,
ceasing to care for worldly wealth and honours. There
is no type of character that is beautiful in the past
which did not reappear. St. Francis d’ Assisi, Fenelon,
Madame Guion, Berkeley, Sydney, they all had true
counterparts in the piety, devotion, virtue, and genius,
which characterised that movement. This is the
hundredth birth-year of America as a nation; they
who established its independence in the name of
humanity were free-thinkers—Washington, Jefferson,
Adams, Franklin, Thomas Paine—and they broke for
ever the power of a priesthood in the State. And now
remark, in that country where conscience is free, a
hundred years has witnessed but one great religious
movement—but one which corresponds with the
movements under George Fox, and Wesley and Whit
field in this country—but one which exhibited power
to command the passions, conquer selfishness, and
trace itself in practical reforms and a new Church
and that one was a movement born of pure reason.
Such has ever been the work of reason where it has
been set free. And yet there are eloquent men, like
Pere Hyacinthe, who are going about imploring the
priests and prelates of Europe to make a holy alliance
of Anglican, Greek, and Gallican Churches against
�58
this terrible monster—Rationalism. I rejoice to hear
they think there is need of a new league. It is a valu
able testimony to the stream of tendency that makes
for truth. But we must not allow the good father’s
confession, that many people are not only, like him
self, denying that two and two make five, but even
running into the excess of denying that two and two
make three—a radicalism he so much deplores—we
must not allow that to make us over-confident. We
must still face the fact that Reason is a sacrifice and a
martyr amid the great institutions around us.
What is the history of nearly every child born
in this country? The few who are brought up by
rational methods, and taught to cultivate and obey
reason as their highest guide, are hardly notice
able as to numbers.
A large proportion are
neglected, so far as Christian fables are concerned,
but they are victims of popular superstitions, believe
in ghosts and goblins, fortune-telling and the evil eye,
their minds overgrown with rank weeds. The ave
rage Christian child is taught superstition above every
thing else ! Other and true things may be taught, but
they spring up only amid those briars which choke
each other growth before it can bear its fruit. Car
dinal, and bishop, and cabinet, alike agree that no
seed of wheat shall be sown in any mind without a
tare of fable or dogma beside it. Of what use is
�59
geology if one believes that Jehovah created the
universe in six days ? What is the use of any science
to a mind which believes that the laws of nature are
arbitrary, have often been suspended, and may be
changed and altered by the breath of a mortal’s peti
tion ? There can be no reason cultivated where the
law of cause and effect is disregarded. To believe in
the connection of things that have no connection—for
instance, that a man’s word can raise the dead to
life—is to strangle reason. To believe in an effect
without adequate cause—for instance, that the
world stopped revolving that a captain might have
more daylight to fight by—vastates the mind. To
believe in anything whatever for which there is no
evidence, or insufficient evidence, is superstition; and
the essence of superstition is that reason is dethroned
and a mere compulsion of habit, fear, or self-interest
set up in its place to direct the life.
Well, the ordinary studies of the average Christian
child having thus been prevented from developing his
reasoning powers in the direction of religion, he is
completely subjected to the powerful stimulants of
those preternatural fears and hopes which make the
ordinary sanctions of what is called religion, but
really is selfishness. He is warned to avoid certain
things, and do others, because he will go to hell if
he doesn't comply, but will enjoy eternal bliss if he
�6o
does,—motives of calculating self-interest, which it is
the very mission of Reason to restrain and to remand
for the work of mere physical self-preservation.
While we despise the man who loves and serves a
wife or a friend from such base calculations of interest,
children are taught to love God and serve him for
fear of punishment and hope of reward.
But let us follow the growth of the child thus in
structed. The time comes when he must enter into
life. Physical cares, business, the healthy work of
the world claim him. Amid them he is pretty sure to
discover that the theology he has been taught is not
confirmed by experience. Then, haply, he may be
able to assert the rights of his own reason. But, sup
posing he does not, one of several other results will
follow, i. He may believe that the doctrines he has
been taught must have a formal homage as divine
mysteries which he is not expected to understand, but
only blindly to obey. 2. He may become a hypocrite.
3. He may become utterly indifferent to the whole
thing, and utterly reckless. In either case his sacred
reason has been sacrificed.
But do we fully appreciate the tragedy which has
thus happened ? Do we fully realise that even when
men and women do not become either hypocrites or
reckless, they are almost certain, as things now stand,
to reach some day the appalling discovery that they
�6i
have wasted the best years of their life on a sham and
a fraud ?
In the twenty-five years during which I have been
in a position to receive the confidences of those who
were struggling amid doubts, and in the pangs of
transition, the chief agonies I have witnessed have
been those whose awakening came too late for oppor
tunities to be recovered. Youth is gone, enthusiasm
has gone, the time for study and devotion for ever
passed away, and the collective force of all the light
around them enters at last only to bring the bitter
consciousness that the glory of life has been cast away
upon the barren deserts of delusion.
These are the martyrs whom every devotee of
reason should see around him. There is no sorrow
equal to theirs. No doubt rationalism may bring
with it many trials so far as the world is concerned.
There may be separations, friendships clouded, affec
tions wounded ; for superstition can turn hearts to
stone even against their own blood where its autho
rity is denied. There may be intellectual doubts,
too, not to be satisfied, some loved legends vanish
ing, and some pretty dreams made dim along with the
nightmares escaped. But amid all these there is
nothing half so terrible as the fate of those who have
no alternatives but either to slay their reason
.altogether, or to admit its testimony only to find
that the whole life has been a gigantic mistake.
�62
Therefore it is the high duty of every human being
to maintain openly and valiantly the verdict of his
own faculties. Unfortunately the guardians of the
young are so eager to teach them how to say
prayers, and keep sanctimonious on Sunday, and to
refrain from kneeling down to graven images, that few
have ears to hear the great decalogue announced in
their own time. The first of the new commandments
is this,—Seek truth ! and the second is like unto it,
Live the Truth in thought, word, and deed 1 So little
has the virtue of self-truthfulness been taught, that we
often meet people who actually make a merit of con
cealing their convictions, especially if they think they
are thereby saving somebody’s feelings. There is a
great deal of selfishness, as well as sentiment, sheltered
under Paul’s dangerous maxim about being all things
to all men, and a great deal of Jesuitism hides itself
under Christ’s admonition against casting pearls before
swine, which is true only if read by the light of his
own martyrdom for speaking the truth. As a rule the
men and women you meet are not swine, and you
need not fear to offer them—it is cruel to refuse them
—your pearls of truth and sincerity. Many of them,
indeed, are going about silently seeking those very
pearls. No doubt there are times for reserve, no doubt
there are rocks of prejudice and ignorance which have
to be slowly pulverised into a soil before any seed can
�63
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be sown in them. But no one will ever lack wisdom
for all occasions who is animated purely by that love
which is not seeking his own, nor vaunting himself,
but seeking only to advance Truth. Reason supplies
an instinct adequate to all emergencies. Remember
again what reason is, and the ground of its supremacy I
Remember now and always, that its very soul is dis
interestedness. It is the clear vision of the mind as
it rises above all the considerations of self-interest, pre
judice, conventionality, passion, which would lower and
discolour its pure light. Reason is to see things as
they are, and not as majorities or institutions say they
are, or wish them to be. And it is just as much as a
mind can do to keep that holy lamp burning steadily
through life in a world where the most powerful threats
and bribes are continually used to sway and pervert
the judgment. In legal affairs no judge is allowed to
decide a case involving his own interest; a heavy
punishment follows any attempt to bribe judge or jury
man. So we can get just verdicts. But how are
we to get just verdicts on religious questions,
when untold millions and all social advantages
are set apart by Church and State to influence every
mind in favour of creeds and dogmas, as against pure
reason? We can hope for a true verdict only from
those who have ascended above such considerations,
and surrender themselves wholly to the guidance of
reason and right.
�64
When the poet Heine was in Paris, poor, sick,
wretched, he renounced his rationalism. His friends
in Germany heaped scorn upon him. Heine then
wrote :—“ They say Heine has changed and become
a reactionist. Ah, well, lately I went to the Louvre,
and knelt before our lady of Milo. Many tears did I
shed as I gazed upon her beautiful form and face, but
I rose and left her, for she had no arms. She had no
arms, and I was poor and needy.” So he turned to
our lady of the Church, for she had arms and hands,
all full of rich gifts to reward any poet for singing her
praises.
We cannot help feeling compassion for those who
yield to rich and powerful superstition the homage
which is due to reason alone: but the standard cannot
be lowered, whoever may go away sorrowful. He
alone is a true man who stands firm to the mandate of
the Sinai within him, and sees that whatever may
bend or break, it shall not be his fidelity to truth.
��
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Victorian Blogging
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A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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Human sacrifices in England : four discourses
Creator
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Conway, Moncure Daniel, 1832-1907 [1832-1907]
Description
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Place of publication: London
Collation: 64 p. ; 16 cm.
Notes: Contents: I. Human sacrifices -- 2. The daughters of Jephthah -- 3. Children and their Moloch -- 4. The Sabbath-Jugernath -- 5. The martyrdom of reason. Part of the NSS pamphlet collection.
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Trübner and Co.
Date
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1876
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N178
G3343
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Religion
Rationalism
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Human sacrifices in England : four discourses), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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Text
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English
Child Rearing-Moral and Ethical Aspects
Children
Children's Rights
Education
Morris Tracts
NSS
Rationalism
Reason
Religion and Civil Society
Sabbath
Social Justice
Women-Religious Aspects-Christianity
Women's Rights
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Text
WASTETHRIFTS AND WORKMEN.
OF THE MODE OF PRODUCING THEM,
AND
THEIR RELATIVE VALUE TO THE COMMUNITY.
BY
HENRY BRANDRETH, M.A.,
FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND CURATE AT ST. BOTOLPH’S, BISHOPSGATE.
Now, sir, what make you here ?
Nothing: I am not taught to make any thing. ’I
What mar you then, sir?
Marry, sir, I am helping you to mar that which God made,
a poor unworthy brother of yours, with idleness.
As You Like It.
LONDON:
LONGMANS,
GREEN, AND
18G8.
Price One Shilling.
CO.
�The main principle advocated in these pages is, that real productive
ness in any field can only be secured by sparing the growing crops ; and
that the work of children of every age must be arranged, not to secure
the largest immediate return, but to develop the greatest capacity of ivork
in after-life.
�19 Finsbury Circus, E.C.:
April 18G8.
LONDON WASTETHRIFTS.
The condition of a great part of the poorer inhabitants of London is
deplorable in the extreme, and there can be no field calling more
urgently for the labours of the' philanthropist and the Christian. Thousands of adult workmen are; from defective education (considering
school and apprenticeship together as education), incapable of earning
more than the barest journeyman’s wages, and they have little sense of
any duty incumbent upon them of earning for any purpose save that
of spending on the gratification of their immediate desires ; if they look
forward at all, they contentedly regard the ‘ house ’ and the rates as the
natural provision for their age. They have no idea of any obligation
upon them to support sick or decayed members of their families, and they
consider their children not as fellow-creatures whom they are responsible
for having brought into the world, and whom they should make some
effort to make masters of some trade which would make them able to
earn good wages and maintain themselves in honest industry through
life, but as pieces of property who ought to be bringing them in some
thing, out of Whom they have a natural right to increase their incomes
by selling their services during youth, but whom they will have no
interest in when a few years are past; and hence, in too many cases, they
follow their interest, and sell them for an immediate wage, instead of cul
tivating the capacity of doing real work in after life; and this destroys
all hope that the rising generation will be made into anything superior
to the present. If these children were all taken from their parents and
placed in industrial schools, their grievance would not be any infringe
ment of any right of a man to direct the education of his children, but
the loss of the earnings of the little slaves during their youth.
The question must be fairly asked—Can society do nothing to im
prove the condition of the next generation ?
Experience shows that it is possible to excite lively feelings of
affection and gratitude in yormg minds towards those persons and in
stitutions who labour for their benefit during youth; the gratitude of
children to those masters who, in school or in business, try to do well
by them is a real force binding them to good ; and the hearts of chil
dren can be turned to a loyal appreciation of the benefits which law
and order have conferred upon them, instead of to a sullen belief that
high civilisation and progress merely separate the rich and poor
by a yet wider interval. A well directed education in school and
business makes them capable of doing real work throughout life, and at
the same time sets them safely above most of the dangers of early life.
a 2
�4
It is, however, difficult to keep children at school, because the body
is somewhat earlier in its development than the mind and heart, and it
can be put to perform certain tasks during the period allotted by
nature to the growth of the higher faculties. A prolonged education
sacrifices the actual work by which a child might contribute to the
wealth of the world, for the sake of training it to become a real con
tributor through after life, and of securing favourable conditions for
the ripening of the moral and intellectual powers. These early years
are not those during which children are capable of any very serious
work; but the importance of keeping good examples of action from
conscientious motives before children cannot be over-estimated. Their
unconscious imitation of all that is kept before them, recommended by
the voice of all those whom they look up to, makes a second nature of
doing right or wrong. It must, however, be remembered that mostd
masters are so distant from the boys that the real examples which they
follow are their school-fellows; and it is what is called the general tone
of a school which really influences education; and the best masters are
not those who influence single boys to copy a pattern unsuited to their
age, but those who raise the average sense of duty in all around them.
I do not, however, dwell at present on the civilising and humanising
effects of real information, but on the practical money value of teaching
at this period of life. We may cease teaching a child as soon as it can
read and write, and hire it out to do such trifling work as it is already
capable of for the benefit of the adult population; but unless it is
somebody’s duty and somebody’s interest to make such child capable
of doing something more than what it can already do, it grows up to
the passions and appetites of an adult, but with the skill and reason of
a child. We may, on the contrary, pay fees to have it taught in
school, or a premium to have it taught as an apprentice; we may
develop its reason and increase its knowledge—the latter process
involves an immediate outlay—but the sum thus spent is an invest
ment bringing in an enormous return ; the child’s wages are increased,
i.e. the value of the work done by it for society is increased during
each year of real life, by a sum fully equal to that invested in improv
ing it.
A human being is, at the lowest, a very improvable piece of pro
perty, and becomes valuable in proportion as his mind and heart,
which contrive and save, gain the control of his body, which wastes
the stores of society. We may arrest the development of the con
trolling faculties, so that the man becomes a mere wastethrift, never able
to produce as much as he destroys. Thousands of such are annually
turned loose on society, and are in effect maintained on the fruits of
the industry of others, who by proper training have learnt to produce
more than is needed for their own immediate needs, and this it is
which impoverishes a country—the number of mouths without heads
or hands who are in any way maintained by the industry of others.
We are all ready to condemn the improvidence of a family where
the children are allowed to grow up without being made capable of
supporting themselves; but such conduct is not so short-sighted as our
own, because the cost of maintaining unprofitable members does not
�fall directly on the family, but is borne equally by the whole com
munity; but when a nation omits to train its youth to work, the cost
rwBMB and workhouses falls upon the nation itself.
It is a real drag on the progress of a nation to turn out uneducated
and undisciplined hordes who can do nothing which cannot be done
Mtn- half the cost by machinery, whose whole work does not replace
the value of the food and clothing they destroy. But every workman
who can produce a good article by which the comforts and conveniences of those around him can be raised, or their more real interests
advanced, is a real increase of the resources of the nation. For though
in particular trades the labour market may be overstocked, and the
■invention of machines may displace workmen, our power of converting
raw material into manufactured goods for the use of man will never
be too great, unless it is mere quickness at some detail, and not that
general intelligence which, by having learnt its proper lessons in child
hood, is capable of learning when childhood is past, and, when not
needed in one trade, can enter upon a new field of work, because its
training has not been so special as to make it merely an intelligent
wheel in a machine, which may any day be replaced by iron fingers
taught to perform the same thoughtless round of labour.
But the workmen themselves enter into associations to limit the
number of apprentices, because they see that labour will be sold
cheaper in any trade where there is an excess of workmen. But by
thus uniting to prevent their children from being made fit to earn their
own living for fear of their competition, they lower the average pro
ductive power throughout the country, and with it the average condition
of the workman. If the workers in any one trade could secure a
monopoly for their own labour, as in India, where trades are
hereditary, and the last survivor of a family may become the only
maker of an article; or if, while the producers in other trades increase,
the number, e.g. of watchmakers could be kept the same, there will be
more work and higher wages for each worker in that trade. But if the
number of hands in every trade is kept constant, and the increasing
population debarred from learning any trade which will enable them
to produce a fair equivalent for their food and clothing, every skilled
workman will have to support one of these incapables.
Whether this is done by increased iigost of everything, or by heavy
rates and high rents, or by the wastethrift being quartered upon the
■workman, will make no difference; the means conquered by labour
From nature will be shared by the incapables. But if the craftsmen
freely impart their skill, and each makes his wastethrift into a real
producer, then the means won from nature increase with the increase
of consumers. Power to win commodities from nature is not a thing
that there will ever be too much of. If a million of skilled labourers
can exist side by side, supporting each other by the mutual inter
change of their productions, another million side by side with them
could do the same. Restrictions overstock and cause misery in the
unprotected trades ; and at present the unskilled labour, is in excess.
A skilled labourer is one who produces more commodities than he con
sumes, and not only supports himself but has usually a surplus to
�6
accumulate, or to spend in poor-rates or luxuries. A wastethrift is one
who cannot improve the raw material furnished by nature sufficfewl|
to provide himself with necessaries, and is, in some way or other,
maintained by the winnings of others.
Of course, neither ever takes home the actual goods he makes; by
an arrangement of convenience, he daily receives their money value.
In proportion to his skill each increases daily the world’s goods by the
improvement of the material by his work; and the strength of a nation
consists in the number of such over-producers who unite to observe its
laws. Its weakness is the number of wastethrifts it has to maintain ;
and if, by effective educatiou, these over-consumers can be turned
into over-producers, the steady employment of their work is the
national resources.
A thousand more workmen, fairly distributed among the various
trades, do not mean more competition for the little work there already
is, but each creates a demand for additional work to exchange for his
. productions. Skilled workmen produce more than they consume.
They not only lead innocent and happy lives themselves, but create
fresh markets for labour among ourselves, with a real increase of
national force. We adopt very questionable means of opening foreign
markets, while the cost of an expedition would create a new people
among ourselves—certain customers in our markets, willing sharers of
our taxes—instead of the mass of pauperism and crime which we allow
to lie at our doors, till it has rotted sufficiently for us to assume the
permanent charge of maintaining it in workhouses and jails. Skilled
productive workmen are the real elements of a nation’s strength. Money
can only produce by setting men to work. Men combine, and shape
the rough material which nature affords till it becomes serviceable ;
they make tools and machines, extract food and ores from the earth.
The work of man alone enables men to live. The whole produce on
w’hich all live is due to the intelligence and skill of each; and the
whole work of each creature is highest if he is spared when young, and
taught, till he becomes a really effective producer.
Even if every man is trained to do some one thing fairly, machines
will continually be invented doing the same things well, and cheaply.
The commodities produced by a day’s unaided labour will be sold for
less than a man can be supported on, and the man must starve, beg,
steal, or work at another trade. But without that early quickening of
the faculties which early education produces, a man cannot turn to
anything new. Intelligent hands would increase the productiveness of
other fields of labour by the transfer of their power, and the machines
would increase the productiveness of all, without any increase in the
consumption of necessaries ; each would spend the same wages on the
purchase of a larger stock of the cheapened comforts. Hence, in an age
of mechanical inventions, untrained and half-trained workmen must
suffer, and swell the mass of pauperism and discontent. But such evils
can be provided against by training our workmen to that special form
of labour which no machine can execute—viz. thinking. Each has
within him a far more subtle machine than man has ever invented, the.
powers of which, in improving the labour of the human hand, cannot
�7
be over-estimated; and alittle care taken of this machine during early
life will make each a capable worker for ever.
Every man only trained to such work as a machine can do better
must be a tax upon society for life; but careful schooling, apprentice
ships and industrial training, will make him a useful contributor
through life. And the education of the manual-labour classes, which
all recognise as the great need of the day, is not called for by recent
legislation, but by the characteristic feature of the age—by the in
dention of machinery.
It has always been reckoned to the credit of machinery that it
would perform the harder work—the drudgery of human labour—
and, terminating the necessity for man’s toiling as a mere beast of
burden, set him free to ennobling and elevating pursuits. But the
doing of the work of unskilled hands is a doubtful blessing if we,
at the same time, continue to pour upon the market thousands of un
skilled hands, incapable of those higher arts which are henceforth to
be the only work of man. The tools with whi|h men contend with
ipature are becoming too delicate to be handled by ignorant men; and
the genius of inventors has, unfortunately, beep, directed to bringing
out machines which will employ .the hands of children. At certain
points, a slightly more subtle movement is required than machinery
can cheaply effect. A young child’s hand supplies this; but the
mental development of that child is hopelessly arrested by its round of
mechanical drudgery; it becomes a part of the machine, and grows to
the strength and appetites of a man, without its real value being much
increased beyond the sixpence a day which it earned at first. The
instinct of practising the mechanical arts needed for his support are not
developed in man as in lower orders of creation; but the most per
fectible creature is, in its origin, the weakest, being cast for a long
period of helpless infancy and childhood' on the forbearance of the
adult members of the species; but, during the years in which boys
need the protection of their elders, they are singularly apt to learn and
to receive moral impressions. And it is our only good economy to
conform to the plan by which nature intends that the creature shall be
perfected, to set it to learn whilst it is capable of learning, that it may
work effectively when strong enough to work. That any individual
adult should seek to enrich himself by using the half formed minds
and bodies for any trifling purpose which they are already capable
of, is only too natural; but that a nation should follow so short
sighted a policy is, I own, to me surprising. The nation is not so
utterly bankrupt that it cannot afford to educate its children, but
must, for the sake of their paltry earnings, sacrifice their future pro
spects and its own. Every child who now is, or ought to be, at
school is a most improvable piece of property. If neglected, he
will earn small wages, but, in his best days of full work and full
strength, not enough to support the family which he is sure to have,
in the habits of waste and intemperance to which he is accustomed.
But any sum invested in schooling and apprenticeship will make
him capable of earning an equal sum in wages every year of his life—
e.g. 261 of outlay would increase his weekly wages by at least 10s., or
�s
he will produce commodities at this increased rate; whilst, as a pros
perous workman, he will consume less than either as a beggar gaS
thief. Whether by wages paid as an equivalent for labour, or by poorrates, or in jail, society has made itself responsible for maintaining him,
and any family he may choose to rear. He is quite willing, however,
to learn the use of his head and hands, but neither he nor his parents
can afford the necessary outlay. We have lent money to poor land
lords to improve their estates; let us lend a little to poor children to
improve theirs, and we shall attain our end more certainly by making
education an obviously profitable investment than by any other means.
At present, the whole value of the improved estate is handed over to
the youth on entering into life ; and there are no means by which any
person who has been induced to sink any capital on the improvement
of the property can recover one penny. But men will not invest
money in making railways unless the legislature empowers them to
take tolls; men will not breed horses if others are to take them from
them.
It is a remarkable thing how every inducement to parents to invest
money on their children has been removed; since aged paupers are
secured maintenance from the poor-rates, the duty of the children is
terminated, and the parents derive no benefit from any wage-earning
power which might be developed in youth; and by the early age at
which children can be emancipated from parental control, we make it
the interest of the parents that they should earn as soon as possible.
But a master who buys the little slave’s work of his mother, instead of
taking an apprentice, does so merely to avoid all trouble and responsi
bility of teaching the child. It is a man’s interest to make an ap
prentice a good workman, because he looks for repayment for the outlay
and trouble of his first years from the work which he becomes capable
of doing before the end of his time ; but a mere money bargain autho
rising the employer to use up, in immediate rough unskilled work, the
docility and imitative powers of the child, which are the seed and
promise of his future life, this is a bargain in which it is clearly in
tended that the parent and employer should use up the child for their
profit, as fully as if the child were bought on the coast of Africa. It
would be better for a child to be—as was suggested at Manchester-—
ground up into corn (or, as might be suggested in the country, spun
into cotton) than to be thus taken from every opportunity of improve
ment, for children do not get better, but worse, every day, unless special
pains are taken with their training. The greatest obstacles to frugality
on the part of the poor is the uncertainty and distant day of any
return ; they see that saving does not really increase their means in old
age, but that the man who spends his all every day will be relieved
up to any standard of comfort which their savings are ever likely to
command. But if we can make it obviously profitable to invest on
their children’s education, the immediate pleasure of working for a child
and setting it a good example is one which need only be once felt to
secure a continuance of such exertion. Much is said about the selfish
ness of parents, but the fault is not entirely theirs; the employers have
no plea of necessity, they merely employ child labour because it is
�9
cheap; they deliberately employ one boy after another to avoid the
■fahEnreSd responsibility of an apprentice, and turn them out untaught
Bin dlhn ski lied to swell the ranks of those who cannot compete with the
machines, ‘with as little compunction as a man would feel at drowning
an overgrown kitten. They bribe the parent to throw away the chance
of improvement. It is not the working classes who derive any benefit
from dealing with children to get all that is possible out of them,
instead of trying to put all that is possible into them. In fact it is
hard to see that any class profits by making the young children labour
for them. The capitalist buys work cheaper for it, and is enabled to
introduce machines which could not have competed with human labour,
but for their direction being within the power of a cheap boy. But
he does not really profit, because competition forces him to sell at
the lowest remunerative rate. The working classes are forced to sell
their work for less because of the very cheap rate at which child labour
can be bought; and if the owners of fixed property seem to profit by
cheapened goods, they have eventually to bear the increased rates
which are finally needed for those half-developed workers, who are as
completely incapable of supporting themselves as if they had lost the
use of their limbs, instead of that of their heads. The cheap rate of
production is a gain by bringing more commodities within the reach
of all, though it may fairly be doubted whether the increase of
comfort, as the world grows older, does make each generation happier
than the last; and any such gain is most dearly purchased by the
nation at the cost of consuming its most valuable elements of future
strength.
Even if compulsory education, the applying of the rod which modern
theorists would spare on the child, to the parents were practicable, it
would be better to make the parents wish for their children’s education,
to enlist all possible home influences to make them valuable workmen,
and introduce into the families the natural virtues of parent and child;
this will be the better thing both for the parent and the child. No
legislation will produce any great result by attempting to compel half
the community to do something which they believe to be contrary to
their interests. It is necessary to secure the hearty co-operation of the
head of every house, to make his interests identical with those of his
children; at present the child requires protection from the necessity of
immediate productive labour, and the cultivation of such faculties as
it possesses; every pound spent upon it is worth a pound a year through
life; but the parent requires that the earnings should be large during
the period in which only the natural dependence of children enables
them to be taught effectively: five shillings earned at once is more to
the parent than five pounds a year through life. It is idle to affect to
be surprised if the general conduct of large bodies of men is dictated
by their interests.
But it is a most reckless waste of the national strength to allow the
management of these most improvable pieces of property to remain in
the unaided hands of men who cannot advance the sum necessary for
\ their proper cultivation, and whose tenure terminates before any
•rail liable crop is ripe. The education of the country is neglected for
�10
the same reason that its agriculture would be if each acre of land were
in the hands of a peasant who was forced to give up possession to
another early in July. Is it not obvious that nobody will cultivated
valuable late ripening crop unless he has some security that he will
reap it ?
If the tenure of land were such as I have suggested, the remedy
would be to alter the tenure by giving the possessor control over the
property till the crops were ripe, or from some general fund to which
all might contribute to remunerate the outgoing tenant according
to the condition of his acre, or for society at large to undertake the
cultivation. This, however expensive it might seem, would be in the
end a real saving; and if they hesitated about it, they would all ba.
starved, as acre after acre was cultivated only for such common stuff
as coidd be sold in June.
And the practical problem is how to secure that a sufficient portion
of the increased value of an educated child should be paid to the
person who is at the cost and trouble of educating If the educator
could be sure of a return proportioned to the earnings of the child from
twenty to twenty-five, education and the improvement of workmen
would become at once the best investment in which capitalists could
invest their money. Nor could the charitable endowments of the
country, whose abuse is the theme of every tongue, find a better use.
The taxation of one part of the community for the gratuitous relief of
the other is already carried to a most alarming extent by the poorlaws ; but the system of supporting the incapable deprives a workman
of every incentive to frugality ; he sees that by strict economy he may
secure an annuity ; but any such return is very distant, and seems to
him very uncertain; meanwhile he sees that his neighbour, who spends
weekly every penny, has a great deal of pleasure at once, and will in
his old age be quite as certainly provided for by the parish; everything
which he lays by will in fact be taxed to make his improvident neigh
bour as comfortable as himself.
All workmen are taxed to contribute to a fund which is finally
divided among the most thriftless: we should rather endeavour to
make even more marked the contrast of the results of idleness and
industry. If society and labour must be taxed to maintain the un
employed, let the aid at least be directed to secure that the next
generation become fit to maintain themselves. If men know not
how to support themselves, let them forego the right of bringing up
children as incapable and unintelligent as themselves. Society has both
the power and the right to control the liberty. of those who cannot
maintain themselves. If the honest man were asked to invest his
savings at once in his children’s training, by the hope of an honourable
fairly earned annuity, proportioned to the efficiency of their training,
he would have a real interest in seeing that his children frequented good
schools and profited by the teaching; it would be his interest that his
children should become virtuous and intelligent; and not only would
this result be generally secured for the children, but the parents would
be humanised by their efforts to humanise their children.
If education is a most profitable national investment, the magnitude
�1^
^fflEfiKhl^^^S^^^RyiSthe greatest possible recommendation. The
SmSBMWMS^E^nunerative, because it penetrates a fertile district of
parental and Christian benevolence, and gives room for the play of
forces whose energy is real and very great.
Theiparent who brings a child into the world is already responsible
for its maintenance. In a large workhouse-school a child cannot be
kept for less than 107., and in a working man’s house the cost is probably greater; and we may put at 100Z. the cost of rearing a young
animal capable of exerting some physical force, but entirely devoid of
Bfe intelligence which might enable him to apply that force usefully.
They (for he is certain to marry and have a large family) consume
daily more commodities than he produces, and are maintained by the
Fwork of the rest of the community. The creature thus reared is one
which no slave-owner would take as a gift, unless he had power to
work, feed, and clothe it in a way which our workhouse officials would
Rry shame on. But it is in the power of society, by spending a small
sum in aid of the large outlay already incurred by the parent, to
develop a mind, to make the wastethrift into a skilled intelligent workman, whose labour will every year fully replace all that it consumes,
and whose earnings in any single year will amply replace any sum
Advanced.
A very small part of the encouragement given ,to the investment of
money in railways would enable the zeal which® is so widely felt to
bring the means of becoming an intelligent workman within the reach
of every child. We did not then trust the zealpwmen for their fellowCreatures’ good; we did not leave each owner of an acre of land to do
as he liked. We passed laws that the interests of the community were
more important than the rights of individuals, and we sanctioned the
levying of tolls; so now we must make it a safe investment to train
skilled workmen, by allowing the person investing to share the increased
value of the manufactured article. But among the poorer classes,
where the parents actually have not the money to invest, it is the
interest of the community at large to levy rates and taxes to increase
the future productiveness of the country. It would be a real blessing
to a child if the school were to keep an account against it of all sums
expended, and the repayment of such advances made a first charge on
his earning. But it would be far better in every way to throw the
charge on local and national taxation than on any individual.
It is particularly cruel that the nation should in this century grudge
the cost of education. Fifty years ago the day’s work of an unskilled
labourer earned enough to support him; but we have discovered buried
underground enormous stores of that untrained force which is all that
an untrained workman has to sell; and when he comes and asks for
work and wages, the practical answer is that one shilling’s worth of coal
will do everything he is capable of; in fact, the iron giant would pro
bably give less trouble and need less superintendence than the man.
We have found in coal mines that by which the productiveness of
Rilled labour is enormously increased, and unskilled labour made
worthless; but the reduced cost of everything due to machinery puts
it in our power to afford for others the training which it renders neces
�12
sary. The skill of the workman must keep pace with the improvement
in his tools; more time than formerly is required to develop sufficient
intelligence to enable them to do work above the capacity of the
machines; during the years which youthful docility and quickness
point out as fitted for mastering any craft, children should be counted as
learners and repaid for any small service which they render the com
munity by increased opportunities of learning. Those who are
untaught to think, and incapable of turning their hands to any new
work, who from want of training of their intelligence can only do
mechanical work, will certainly be displaced by the more cheaply
working iron hands. It is not any special kind of knowledge which
schools are useful for imparting, but the general cultivation of the moral
and intellectual faculties; these cannot be strengthened in a child whose
whole daily stock of energy is wanted in the mill or farm; neither
growing mind nor growing body will improve if strained by labour to
minister to the comfort of adults.
The displacement of his labour by machinery is no very great matter
to a man whose intelligence enables him to turn his hand to something
else. It is the hopelessly unintelligent whose minds are closed against
all new ideas who have to be maintained by the community.
But education is a great religious duty, and this is to. make it all a
matter of profit and calculation. Not at all; education is a religious
duty, and nobly is it performed. Witness the scanty salaries on which
masters work, finding their real payment in the sense of service done
to their fellows. But subscribing to anything is not a religious duty ;
the work which our Master calls us to cannot be done by paid hands
for us. Education will always remain in the hands of religious men,
the salaries of teachers are too small to retain those who have no zeal
for the work ; but we must not trust to that zeal which is only kindled
by personal contact to fill our subscription lists, or to advance such
capital as will enable masters to maintain themselves in their, labours
of love. Similarly, a passion for science retains many men in posts
the pay of which seems inadequate. But no passion for science will
ever bring any man to face the daily round of routine of a school.
Whilst children are under education, we are careful only to
put high motives to action before them, because their character is in
process of being moulded by the motives thought of by them. But
with adults, whose character is formed, we must not leave, powerful
motives unappealed to. Among men, their actions are more important
than their motives, and we take nature as it is, and seek to direct
their actions; with children, we look forward in hope to what nature is
becoming, and seek to perfect their motives—thinking their actions
comparatively of very little importance.
It is impossible to make the duty and interest of grown men too
obviously identical; however far the point is carried up to which in
terest and duty coincide, the worst parents will come up to that point
however advanced, whilst the zeal of the better class of parents will
still urge them to do more.
In dealing with a numerous class of adults, it would be folly to. say
that the duty of providing for their children is so clear that it is
�13
l"ver motives. We must rather try how
BWWBBHHMDe made to fall in the same direction with duty. There
|Mw hMffmffigB-oom for the preference of virtue at the last.
But the whole question of the religious view of education must be
UaQpIndently considered.
Though I have tried to point out how the national pocket is to be
benefited by liberal investment in education, the real interest which
B^Wuld be felt in it arises solely from the desire that the children
should be religiously and virtuously brought up. However great may
be the necessity of school-teaching for the purpose of raising our future
workmen into an intelligent class, capable each of producing sufficient
Bommodities to maintain himself in honest industry, instead of doing the
work which a machine can do for sixpence a day, and being maintained
on the alms of the real workers, we must not forget that there are
other interests beyond those of mere animal need which should not be
neglected. Of course, these interests are in great measure things of
faith, and many men will be simply unable to appreciate their im
portance. The excellence of a school is not anything that can be
written out during an examination, but will be spread throughout
the whole of after-life. The eye of the astronomer does not see a star
so distinctly by looking directly at it, but when he glances a little on
one side ; and children do not seize those things which are deliberately
set before them so readily as those which are laid in their way
without that straining of the attention which is considered the right
thing in lessons. And it is not the actual words which drop from the
teacher’s lips, not the precepts which he reiterates with authority, but
the daily, hourly example of those to whose example he unconsciously
endeavours himself to conform, and which is continually presented to
young minds as the standard of that society into which they look
forward to being admitted.
It is hardly necessary to say that education does a very small part
of the good in its power unless it secures that the children are brought
under humanising, moral, and religious influences. There is, however, no practical chance of education being really conducted by
irreligious teachers. The wages of a teacher are so small compared
with those of equally skilled workmen in^qually laborious and equally
responsible situations that the work haivery slight attractions to men
who do not feel that it is at once a duty and a pleasure. Within the
last thirty years, the ministers of religion have undertaken such an
amount of work and responsibility, and made such munificent contri
butions to schools, that others who, with far larger means and much
more time at their command, content themselves with talking, really
complain of their having pushed forwards in the matter. But this
high-class labour will not continue to support the schools if they
become places where men’s interests in this world are alone thought
of. The good teacher looks for his wages nopdn what he receives, but
in the far more real pleasure of giving. He asks for little, barely
enough to maintain himself, but he takes pleasure in the power of
giving to all around him something which they are really grateful for,
something which he knows to be even more desirable than they think.
�11
He has no applicants at his door clamorous for a dole, wBMMMing
pretence of gratitude, but he sees an easily read expression of the
heart’s emotions. It is true he will at times meet with unwilling re
cipients of his charity, but at least he knows it, and he also knows that
their kindness is only delayed, and that at the worst it is a small thing f&l
him to be judged by their judgment. Wordsworth tells most charm
ingly how the simple act of natural kindness from the strong to the
weak filled old Simon Lee’s heart with gratitude, and the schoolmaster
more than auy other man can say—
I’ve heard of hearts unkind kind deeds
With coldness still returning;
Alas ! the gratitude of men
Has oftener left me mourning.
But, of course, the nation is perfectly at liberty to say that it will
have industrial schools, where men shall give mere secular instruction.
Fine gentlemen may agitate, and make speeches, and even legislate in
favour of such schools; but five times the present amount of salaries
will not tempt men of the same stamp to undertake posts of such
degrading drudgery as the mechanical duty of preparing heathen
children for examination in the elements of secular knowledge. Unless
a man has sufficient belief in what he does believe to feel that a neces
sity is on him of preaching it, his example is one which will be most
undesirable to put before boys. The whole of this matter is admirably
put in the preface to ‘ Tom Brown —
‘ Several persons, for whose judgment I have the highest respect,
while saying very kind things about this book, have added that the
great fault of it is “ too much preaching;” but they hope I shall amend
in this matter, should I ever write again. Now this I most distinctly
decline to do. Why, my whole object in writing at all was to get the
chance of preaching. When a man comes to my time of life, and has
his bread to make, and very little time to spare, is it likely he will
spend almost the whole of his yearly vacation in writing a story just to
amuse people ? I think not. At any rate, I wouldn’t do so myself.’
1 The sight of sons, nephews, and godsons, playing trap-bat-and-ball, and
reading “ Robinson Crusoe,” makes one ask oneself whether there isn’t
something one would like to say to them before they take their first
plunge into the stream of life, away from their own homes, or while
they are yet shivering after their first plunge. My sole object in
writing was to preach to boys; if ever I write again, it will be to
preach to some other age. I can’t see that a man has any business to
write at all unless he has something which he thoroughly believes and
wants to preach about. If he has this, and the chance of delivering
himself of it, let him by all means put it in the shape in which it is
most likely to get a hearing, but let hi® never be so carried away as to
forget that preaching is his object.’
But although interference with the liberty of religious instruction
will have the disastrous effect of lowering the general moral character
of the teachers, by depriving the trade of every attraction »to every man
whose character and example it is at all desirable to keep before
children, the ministers of religion have it in their power to increase
�15
gr®iyn;newiniiUEroBwhich they now exert, and to secure the direction
of the forces which the newly awakened national demand for action
wi11 set in motion, by voluntarily exercising the self-denial of confining
their attention to the essential outlines of our religion. A very undue
of attention has been drawn to some theological questions by the
very fact of their fruits being hatred, variance, emulations, wrath,
strife, seditions, heresies. Superficial enquirers are so struck with the
Bare shown to define the differences of Christians that they lose the
whole weight of the testimony of the whole of the civilised world to the
really important facts of our religion. The religion which our Saviour
came to reveal was not a doctrine, noi' a ritual, but an example; the
records of His life give no countenance to the idea that any man was
ever turned back by Him on any speculative opinion of controversial
theology, or any question of dress. If He again walked among us, we
should not dare to bring under Hit notice the points disputed among
Protestant churches. Whilst the doctrines, so long ago tried and found
utterly inadequate to give men peace, of the Stoics, hoping to perfect
man by unaided development^ of the Epicureans, who would deny the
interference of a God in human affairs; or of those who sought peace in
the submission of reason and conscience to a sacrificing and absolving
priesthood—while these armies are closing in to the siege, we, like the
wretched Jews, are only intent on fortifying against each other the
portions of the city of God entrusted to our keeping.
But if our streets must be filled with this fratricidal struggle, let us
at least hide our weapons for one hour of early morning, while the
Children pass by on the way to school. What have these children
done that when they look up in their weakness for that guidance
which is absolutely necessary to their making their way in life we
should deserve the last touch of indignant satire with which the poet
dared to caricature the haters of the human race, 4 Hee monstrare vias
eadem nisi sacra colenti ? ’ And when the life-giving water of the
Saviour’s example, if set forth in the majesty of unadorned simplicity,
which his followers at the first were content to put forward, might
captivate the mind of every child, and of men willing to become as
little children, is it our religion ? iJQusesitum ad fontem solos deducere
verpos.’ Why, the result of our school-teaching of the last generation
Hs enough to show that to import into children’s schools the distinctive
tenets of denominations is offending the little ones, is forbidding them
to come to Jesus, is a yoke which cannot be borne. Can we be sur
prised if the State, seeing that the denominations insist on the division
of the living child, seeks elsewhere for the mother thereof?
A new-born babe is entirely unable to attach any meaning to the sights
and sounds which surround it. But by unconscious experience, and the
loving patience of others, it learns by little and little to form ideas about
things. But the formation of the moral sense, and realising the things
of the spiritual life, needs far more anxious patience on the part of all
around through whom it learns of this higher new world. But only
the most arrant pedantry would ever think of giving these lessons by
definite formal teaching; there is nothing in children’s minds which can
digest and assimilate formal teaching; religious influences are not things
�16
to be set before children at a fixed hour of the day. We must take a
lesson from The Great Teacher, and be content to veil our meaning for
a time in parables. And first among these is the daily acting of the
parent’s or teacher’s life; children necessarily think upon, and desire
to imitate, the conduct of those whose power seems so unlimited to
them. The daily example set before the child, and the character of the
motive from which he sees that everybody expects others to act,
determine whether the child thinks only of what it can get in this
world for itself, or knows that it has a friend whose good will is worth
more than all else, on comparison with pleasing whom all earthly
pleasures are as dust in the balance. If the child sees no one doubts
but that the unseen distinction between right and wrong is more im
portant than the distinction between pain and pleasure, which is tem
porary and of this animal life, it learns to think more of the spiritual
than of what is seen and felt. In a man, the desire to serve our heavenly
Father, and please Him always, is the true source of action; but a
child is, by God’s providence, surrounded by a parable which brings
him gradually to feel this ; he gladly, and without being provoked to
any opposition, feels that he is entirely dependent on a father’s love, and
the desire to please and make some return to him is the natural motive
to encourage. If you .talk to a child of what he owes to God, he is
awed into a kind of acquiescence, and feels a painful restraint which he
feels relief in throwing off. But the care and love of his parents is a
thing not far from him, on which thought is easy and pleasant. But
the parable must precede its interpretation, through early life the
motive must be developed of striving to please father ; and if fathers
are not always all they should be, nothing is more effective to humanise
them than to find their children looking up to find them what they
should be ; fathers’ love for their children deepens as they become used
to them, and here as everywhere what a man voluntarily forces him
self to at first finally becomes habitual to him. But in bringing a
child to believe in his father’s love, it is not necessary to make him
repeat correct explanations how all the seniors of the family are one,
whose orders he is equally bound to obey, and yet fellow-workers each
in his own place, or to define the moment at which his father’s love
was first provoked towards him, whether it was the cause of the mother’s
love or was caused by it. The tree of knowledge of theology stands side
by side with the tree of life; but the one bears the words of Jesus—its
twelve differing fruits are each different from the rest, but they all,
and even the leaves, are for the healing of the nations; the other the
traditions and interpretations of men more subtle than the rest. If we
search our writings, thinking that in them we have eternal life, instead
of having for their office to witness to the Desire of all nations, we shall
not come to Him. We do as Peter in his ignorance, who would have
built tabernacles for his law, and prophets side by side with Jesus.
But He will yet be found alone, to abide with those who obey the
heavenly voice which rings in every heart: this man, this perfect
human life, you see in its daily detail. He is my beloved Son. Hear
Him.
Sjpotiiswoode d Co., Printers, Nev:-street Square and Parliament Street.
�
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Place of Publication: London
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Notes: Printed by Spottiswoode & Co., London. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. At head of first page: 19 Finsbury Circus, E.C.: April 1868.
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PDF Text
Text
REMARKS
UPON THE
EDUCATION OF DEAF MUTES:
DEFENCE OF THE DOCTRINES
OF THE
SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS
BOARD OF STATE CHARITIES,
AND IN
REPLY TO THE CHARGES OF THE REV. COLLINS STONE,
Principal of the American Asylum
at
Hartford.
BOSTON:
WALKER, FULLER & CO., PUBLISHERS.
1866.
�Wright & Potter, Prs., 4 Spring Lane, Boston.
�On reading the last Report of the Principal of the American
Asylum for Mutes, it seemed to me that I ought to criticize it
publicly, first, in the hope of promoting the true interest of deaf
mutes, by calling attention to the subject of their education; second,
in order to defend my colleagues of the Massachusetts Board of
State Charities from some discreditable imputations; third, to set
forth the real doctrines contained in their Second Report; and lastly,
to exculpate myself from certain charges of inconsistency, and
insinuations of selfish purposes.
I thought to do this in a newspaper article ; but my interest in the
subject, or my inability to condense the matter, made it impossible.
When the manuscript was finished, it was laid aside ; and the pur
pose of publishing it half abandoned.
A recent event has confirmed my first purpose; but leaves not
the time to recast the article. This must explain the tardiness of
its appearance, and its being written in the third person.
SAMUEL G. HOWE.
Boston, October 21st, 1866.
��REMARKS
UPON THE
*
EDUCATION OE DEAF MUTES.
The American Asylum, for the Education and
Instruction of Deaf Mutes, at Hartford, is the oldest
establishment of the kind in the United States, and
the only one in New England. It has been of
incalculable benefit to the deaf mutes of all the
country.
It enjoys, and it deserves public confi
dence and esteem. It enjoys moreover the monop
oly of educating the public beneficiaries of all the
New England States; a monopoly of which it
seems to be very tenacious.
Its Annual Reports are widely circulated; and
are considered as valuable and reliable. They are
read and regarded as entirely sound by most
persons interested in the education of deaf mutes.
The Institution is strictly conservative. Its
Directors are men of high character, pure motives,
and eminent gravity. Its system of instruction,
adopted fifty years ago, is still adhered to, with
few changes; and all proposals to modify it are
stoutly resisted.
�6
If pressed, they are repelled with sensitiveness,
and sometimes with asperity; as though they were
considered impertinent interference; and yet any
citizen of Massachusetts, at least, has a right to
press thbm, because about half the pupils of the
school are beneficiaries of this State.
The late lamented Horace Mann, Secretary of
the Massachusetts Board of Education, proposed a
great modification of the system of instruction;
and brought powerful arguments and stubborn
facts to the support of his views. But he failed
to effect any material change. The Asylum yielded
a little for a time, under his vigorous attacks, but
swung back to its old moorings; and, held fast
by the anchor of conservatism, breasts the tide of
progressive ideas which sweep by it.
In France, Dr. Blanchet, connected with the
Imperial Institution for Deaf Mutes, has long been
advocating still greater changes in the system of
educating these unfortunates. His views are inge
nious and plausible, and have found considerable
favor.
The Minister of Public Instruction, in a very
able Circular to the Prefects of all the Departments
in France, recommended Dr. Blanchet’s plan to
their favorable notice several years ago.
Some Departments and Municipalities have voted
money, and made arrangements for testing the
practicability of the proposed plan. It has been
�7
in operation in some parts of France and of Russia.
It is radical in its nature., and points to a partial
abandonment of central Institutions, and the
instruction of mutes in their several towns.
This plan seems to us impractical in its full
extent; but it certainly has very valuable features,
and deserves notice and trial. We shall watch the
experiment in France with great interest, and we
wish Dr. Blanchet all the success which his zeal
and enterprise merit.
Meantime, the Massachusetts Board of State
Charities, part of whose duty it is to visit the
Hartford school and look after the interests of the
beneficiaries placed there by the State, suggested,
in its Second Annual Report, some important
changes in the system of instructing and educating
our deaf mutes, which, if carried out, would result
in their being educated at home instead of being
sent to Connecticut.
This seems to alarm the Hartford school; and
the Principal devotes almost the whole of his last
Report to what purports to be an answer to the
suggestions of the Board.
He seems fairly roused; but not so much to the
importance of the principles in question, as of
defending the practices of the Hartford school, and
of preserving the patronage of Massachusetts. He
has at least two qualifications, which, as Byron
�8
says, always make a writer interesting, to wit,
"wrath and partiality.”
His zeal leads him, not only to overlook facts
and reasonings, but, unconsciously perhaps, to be
uncourteous to the Board, and disrespectful to the
Chairman, upon whom he makes a personal attack.
He seems to think that if he can convict him of
inconsistency, and show that he is ignorant of the
best manner of educating mutes, the matter will be
put to rest. He therefore avoids discussion of
principles, and his Beport is mainly an argumentum
ad liominem. As such, it would not call for a
public reply, because the public do not care whether
the Principal or the Chairman of the Board is right
in his theories. But our people do desire to have
our deaf mutes educated in the best manner;
though do not often have the means of knowing
much about it. The present, therefore, seems to be a
good opportunity of drawing their attention to it;
and, as most of them are rather attracted than
repelled by the smack of a controversy, we shall
yield to the temptation, and without following the
example of the Principal, in regard to personalities,
we shall assail his positions, and refute his state
ments, so far as propriety and respect for an opponent
will permit. Out of such a discussion, conducted
with the desire to elicit truth, ought to come, not
any scandal to the cause of public charity, but on
the contrary, an advance of its best interests.
�9
It will be necessary, however, first to consider
some general principles which are apt to be forgot
ten in the organization of Institutions, and of
methods for educating deaf mutes, and similar
classes of defectives. We can at the same time
show the grounds upon which the Massachusetts
Board of State Charities placed its suggestions
for a change in our present system, and which called
forth the displeasure of the Principal.
The multitude of unfortunates into whose condi
tion the Board was to inquire, and over which the
law gives it general supervision, was divided into
the Dependent class, the Destructive class, and the
Criminal class.
The first comprised destitute orphans; abandoned
children; vagrant and vicious children, and youth;
the blind, the deaf and dumb; the insane, the idiots,
the confirmed drunkards, State paupers, and the
like; making nearly twenty thousand persons in
Massachusetts alone.
The general principles to be followed in the care
and direction of these unfortunates were thus set
forth:—
1st. “ That it is better to separate and diffuse the
dependent classes than to congregate them.
2d. “ That we ought to avail ourselves as much as possi
ble of those remedial agencies which exist in society,—the
family, social influences, industrial occupations, and the
like.
�10
3d. “ That we should enlist not only the greatest possible
amount of popular sympathy, but the greatest number of
individuals and of families, in the care and treatment of
the dependent.
4th. “ That we should avail ourselves of responsible socie
ties and organizations which aim to reform, support, or help
any class of dependents, thus lessening the direct agency of
the State, and enlarging that of the people themselves.
5th. “ That we should build up public institutions only in
the last resort.
6th. “ That these should be kept as small as is consistent
with wise economy, and arranged so as to turn the strength
and faculties of the inmates to the best account.
7th. “That we should not retain the inmates any longer
than is manifestly for their good, irrespective of their
usefulness in the institution.”
The three last propositions seem sound, but they
are unwelcome to those who are wedded to public
institutions, and who believe in the doctrine of
teaching, improving, or supporting children and
adults in masses.
The Board says:—
“ Our people have rather a passion for institutions ; but
they have also a vague idea that great piles of brick and
mortar are essential to their existence and potency. They
want to see them at once, and in the concrete. Hence,
we sometimes have follies of the people as well as of indi
viduals—many stories high, too—and so strongly built, and
richly endowed, that they cannot be got rid of easily.”
In support of their principle the Board said:—
�11
“ The hideous evils growing out of the old system of
keeping men in prisons, shut up without separation, and
without occupation, are too well known to need mention
here ; but it is not enough considered that the chief evils
arose, not from the men being especially vicious or criminal,
but from the fact of their _being congregated so closely
together.
“ Let us see how it affects the pauper class.
“ Most of those belonging to the first division mentioned
above, to wit, those in whom dependence is inherent, and,
of course, permanent, are infirm mentally, morally, or
physically, perhaps in-all these respects. Neither can those
in the other class be in a normal and vigorous condition,
else they would not be dependent. There exists in them,
indeed, the innate disposition or capacity for recovering the
normal state, but as yet it is in abeyance. Now, out of
unsound and abnormal conditions there must, *of course,
grow certain mental and moral tendencies, which, to say the
least, are unwholesome. And it is a natural consequence,
(though disregarded in practice,) that if an individual with
these tendencies lives in close association with others like
himself, all his peculiarities and tendencies are intensified
by the intercourse. The greater the majority of unsound
persons in his community, the greater the intensification of
his abnormal tendencies. Each acts upon all; and the
characteristics of class, or caste, are rapidly developed.
Nothing is more contagious than evil.”
This principle is further illustrated by reference
to special classes as of the deaf mutes, and of the
blind.—
�12
“ The lack of an important sense not only prevents the
entire and harmonious development of mind and character,
but it tends to give morbid growth in certain directions, as
a plant checked in its direct upward growth grows askew.
It would be a waste of words to prove this, because a denial
of it would be a denial of the importance of the great senses.
“ The morbid tendencies, however, are not strong—cer
tainly not irresistible—at least with the blind. They are
educable, like all tendencies and dispositions, and by skilful
management may be turned to advantage. Certainly, how
ever, they ought to be lessened, not strengthened, by educa
tion. Now, they are lessened, and them morbid effects
corrected in each individual by intimate intercourse with
persons of sound and normal condition—that is, by general
society; while they are strengthened by associating closely
and persistently with others having the like infirmity.
“ Guidecbby this principle, we should, in providing for the
instruction and training of these persons, have the associa
tion among them as little as is possible, and counteract its
tendencies by encouraging association and intimacy with
common society. They should be kept together no more
closely and no longer than is necessary for their special
instruction; and there should be no attempts to build up
permanent asylums for them, or to favor the establishment
of communities composed wholly, or mainly, of persons
subject to a common infirmity.
“ Special educational influences, to counteract these special
morbid tendencies, should begin with the beginning of life
and continue to its end; and they should be more uniform
and persistent with mutes than with blind.
“ The constant object should be to fashion them into the
likeness of common men by subjecting them to common
�13
social influences, and to check the tendency to isolation and
to intensification of the peculiarities which grow out of
their infirmity.
“ A consideration of the principles imperfectly set forth
above, will show that when we gather mutes and blind into
institutions for the purpose of instruction, we are in danger
of sowing, with sound wheat, some tares that may bring
forth evil fruit. The mere instruction may be excellent,
but other parts of the education tend to isolate them from
common social influences, and to intensify their peculiarities,
and this is bad.”
These rather novel doctrines have attracted atten
tion among thoughtful persons. They have been
praised by high authorities; pronounced too radical
by others; and have been assailed by a few who
fear that the importance and usefulness of long
established institutions, to which they themselves
are honestly wedded for life, may be impaired if
such doctrines should be accepted.
The Board, after carefully setting forth the prin
ciples upon which all methods of treating special
classes should be based, went on to apply them to
the case of the deaf mutes of Massachusetts.
The present method is to send these unfortunates,
at the expense of the State, to Hartford, there to
reside with many others of the same class, in a
great asylum, and be kept closely together during
the most impressible years of their lives, deprived
almost entirely of family and social relations, except
�14
with each other. They have not even the advantage
of family relations with their teachers, who naturally
show their preference for domestic life over asylum
life, by dwelling in their own houses.
This arrangement, however saving of labor, and
sparing of money, violates the principle so strenu
ously urged by the Board of Charities, that defective
children should be associated together as little as is
possible; and with ordinary persons as much as is
possible.
The Board suggested that instead of this plan,
the deaf mutes of Massachusetts (who are quite
numerous enough to form one school as large as a
school ought to be,) should be educated at home,
that is, within the State. The plan did not contem
plate an asylum, but simply one or more schools, to
which mutes could go for instruction, as other chil
dren go to common schools; and during the rest of
the time be subjected to the ordinary family and
social influences,—not of a great deaf mute family,
but of common life.
The plan certainly had many important features.
The method proposed was in accordance with the
principles set forth by the Board, the soundness of
which has not been disproved. It avoided, as much
as is possible, the acknowledged evils of congregat
ing persons of common infirmity closely together.
It involved no great expense. It was in the nature
of an experiment; and could be abandoned with
�15
little loss, if it should fail. In fine, it seemed to
present a happy mean between the old system of the
Hartford school and the system urged by Blanchet,
which begins to find so much favor in France and
other European countries. It incorporated the
admitted advantages, and avoided the acknowledged
evils of each. But it also involved the loss to the
Hartford asylum of almost one-half its pupils, who
are maintained there by the State of Massachusetts.
It is conceivable, therefore, that it should be
opposed, both directly and indirectly.
Accordingly, the Principal of the American
Asylum at Hartford, opposes it in his way, which
is the indirect way. He devotes almost the whole
of. his last Report to this matter. First, he makes
a false issue with the Report of the Board of Chari
ties; second, he makes a personal attack upon the
Chairman.
He raises a false issue, by devoting a large part
of his Report to the subject of teaching mutes
articulation, as if that had been urged by the Board.
He sets forth forcibly and fully the advantages of
the French method of instruction used with some
modifications at Hartford, and the disadvantages of
the German method used in the German, and
many other European schools.
If there was room to go into the matter here, it
could be shown, that, with the exception of a single
sentence, which should be qualified, all that is urged
�16
in the Report of the Board of Charities in favor of
articulation, is sound, and cannot be gainsaid. "We
quote from pp. 51-55 of their Report:—
“ The inherent differences between children who are blind
or mute and ordinary children, are not so great as to form
characteristics of a class, or to remove them from the effect
of common educational influences. We are not, therefore,
to modify these influences to suit their condition, but rather
modify their condition to suit them. We must, however,
modify our method of instruction somewhat to suit the
blind, and a great deal to suit the deaf mutes.
“ It is not the purpose, now, to speak of special instruction,
further than to say that, other things being equal, the me'hod
is best which approaches most closely the approved methods
used with ordinary children.
“ But in speaking of education in a more general sense,
that is of the influences which are brought to bear upon the
development of character, -a few words may be appropriate
upon the subject under consideration, to wit,—
“ Intensification of Peculiarities Growing' out of an
Infirmity.
“ It is to be borne in mind always, that the infirmities
which characterize these classes of mutes and blind do, in
spite of certain compensations, entail certain undesirable
consequences,'which have unfavorable effects upon body and
mind both.
“ The lack of an important sense not only prevents the
entire and harmonious development of mind and character,
but it tends to give morbid growth in certain directions, as a
plant checked in its direct upward growth grows askew.
It would be a waste of words to prove this, because a
�17
!
:
>
denial of it would be a denial of the importance of the great
senses.
“ The morbid tendencies, however, are not strong—
•certainly not irresistible—at least with the blind. They are
educable, like all tendencies and dispositions, and by skilful
management may be turned to advantage. Certainly, how
ever, they ought to be lessened, not strengthened, by educa
tion. Now, they are lessened, and their morbid effects
corrected in each individual, by intimate intercourse with
persons of sound and normal condition—that is, by general
society; while they are strengthened by associating closely
and persistently with others having the like infirmity. They,
themselves, seem to have an instinctive perception of this,
and the most delicate of them feel the morbid tendency
which may segregate them from ordinary people, and put
them in a special class. Some of them struggle "against it
in a touching manner, as the fabled nymph resisted meta
morphosis into a lower form of life.
“ They seem to cling to ordinary persons, as if fearing
segregation, and strive to conform themselves to their habits,
manners, and even appearance. They wish to look, to
act, to be, as much like others as is possible, and to be con
sidered as belonging to ordinary society, and not to a special
class.
“ It is generally supposed that this feeling, especially in
the blind, arises only from the fact that blindness and
poverty are associated together, and that poverty calls forth
contempt, lightened, in their case, by pity. But the feeling
has a deeper source. It is very strong in those of delicate
and sensitive natures, and it ought always to be respected
and encouraged. Our principle in treating them should be
that of separation and diffusion, not congregation. We are
3
�to educate them, for society of those who hear and who see;
and the earlier we begin the better.
“We violate this principle when we gather them into
institutions; but we do so in view of certain advantages of'
instruction in common, which are not to be had in any other
feasible method; as we bear with an inferior common school
rather than have none. A man of wealth might, indeed—
and if he were wise, would—allow his mute or blind child
to spend a certain time in a well-regulated institution for
like children; but it would be only a short one.
“ Guided by this principle we should, in providing for the
instruction and training of these persons, have the associa
tion among them as little as is possible, and counteract its
tendencies by encouraging association and intimacy with
common society. They should be kept together no more
closely and no longer than is necessary for their special
instruction; and there should be no attempts to build up
permanent asylums for them, or to favor the establishment
of communities composed wholly or mainly of persons
subject to a common infirmity.
“ This is far more important with the mutes than with the
blind, because of their speechlessness. Language, in its
largest sense, is the most important instrument of thought,
feeling, and emotion; and especially of social intercourse.
Blindness, in so far as it prevents knowledge of and partici
pation in the rudimentary part of language, to wit, panto
mime, or signs, gestures, and expression of features and
face, tends to isolation : but the higher and far more impor
tant part of language, speech, is fully open to them. Then
their sense of dependence strengthens their social desires;
increases their knowledge and command of speech, and
makes that compensate very nearly, if not quite, for igno
�19
rance of other parts of language. The blind, if left to
ordinary social influences, are in no danger of isolation. It
is when we bring them together in considerable numbers
that the tendency to segregation manifests itself; and this
is rather from necessity than from choice, for the social
cravings become more intense with them than with us.
“ With mutes it is not so. Speech is essential for human
development. Without it full social communion is impossi
ble ; since there can be no effectual substitute for it. The
rudimentary and lower parts of language, or pantomime, is
open to mutes; but the higher and finer part, that is,
speech, is forever closed ; and any substitute for it is, at best,
imperfect. This begets a tendency to isolation; which not
being so effectually checked during youth, as it is with the
blind, by a sense of dependence, becomes more formidable.
To be mute, therefore, implies tendency to isolation. The
blind need little special instruction; the mutes a great
deal.
“ An attempt to consider different modes of instructing
mutes would lead into a wide field of discussion ; but it may
be remarked that in the plenitude of arguments and disputes
about the comparative merit of the various systems of sign
language, it has not been enough considered that, by teach
ing a mute to articulate, we bring him to closer association
with us by using our vernacular in our way, than by teach
ing him the finger language, which can never become our
vernacular. The special method tends more to segregate
him and his fellows from ordinary society. In the first case
one party adheres to the natural and ordinary method of
speech, and the other party strives to imitate it; in the
second, both use a purely arbitrary and conventional
method.
�20
. “ The favorite motto of the adherents of the method of
dactylology betrays this fault,—
4 Lingua vicaria manus ; ’
for the very vicariousness is objectionable, and ought to be
lessened as much as is possible.
“ Without pretending to metaphysical precision, it may be
said that by means of the senses we come into conscious
relations with external nature—with men and things. Sen
sation and perception are the roots of knowledge. The
wider the circle of sensuous relations, the more rapid the
acquirement of knowledge. By action and reaction between
our internal nature and external nature, character is devel
oped. But in order that there may be harmonious and
entire development of human character, there must be the
ordinary organs of human sense : no more and no less.
“ The result, then, of the lack of any one organ of sense
must be twofold; first, limitation of the circle of sensuous
relations ; second, inharmonious development of character.
“ In the education of the deaf mutes and of the blind we
are to counteract the limitation by special instruction given
through the remaining senses ; and we are to counteract the
tendency to inharmonious development by special influences,
both social and moral.
“ Special educational influences, to counteract these special
morbid tendencies, should begin with the beginning of life
and continue to its end ; and they should be more uniform
and persistent with mutes than with the blind.
“ The constant object should be to fashion them into the
likeness of common men by subjecting them to common
social influences, and to check the tendency to isolation and
to intensification of the peculiarities which grow out of their
infirmity.
,
�21
“A consideration of the principles imperfectly set forth
above, will show that when we gather mutes and blind into
institutions for the purpose of instruction, we are in danger
of sowing, with sound wheat, some tares that may bring
forth evil fruit. The mere instruction may be excellent,
but other parts of the education tend to isolate them from
common social influences, and to intensify their peculiarities,
and this is bad.”
It will be seen that the Board does not commit
itself to the system of articulation. Nay! the Report
says expressly, (p. lviii.,) ” that while some of the
members believe that articulation should be taught,
others, without pretending to decide upon the com
parative merits of different systems of instruction,
believe that many benefits would arise from having
the wards of the State taught within her borders.
They would, therefore, suggest a plan for change
in our system of educating deaf mutes.”
In this plan, the Board do not recommend that
articulation should be taught.
This is the false issue which the Principal makes.
Next, he tries to divert attention from the reason
ing of the Board, by attacking the Chairman, and
disparaging the value of his opinion.
He singles him out by name; rudely insinu
ates that he is given to riding hobby horses, and to
changing them frequently; and that moreover he
might have some personal end to gratify; and say
ing for himself, with much complacency,—■" We are
�22
not specially sensitive in this matter, we have no
hobbies to ride, and’ no personal end whatever to
gratify ! ” (p. 38.)
Considering that the Report of the Board of
Charities alluded to the Directors and officers of the
Hartford Asylum very courteously; and admitted
that the deaf mutes of Massachusetts ” have
received fair and kind treatment at their hands, and
been taught by a corps of able and accomplished
teachers; ”* such language by one of those officers,
sanctioned by those Directors, and printed in their
Annual Report, appears uncourteous and strange,
to say the least!
Again, considering that no one charged the Rev- *
erend Principal with being sensitive, or hobby
horsical, his language certainly shows neither lack
of sensitiveness nor abundance of Christian charity;
but it does suggest the French proverb,—" gui
s’ excuse s’ accuse ; ” — ” who needlessly excuses
himself, accuses himself.”
And yet again, considering that the Reverend
Principal is not sensitive, and declares (p. 29,) that
the objections urged against the Hartford system
have been repeatedly met, to the satisfaction of
committees of the Massachusetts Legislature, it is
strange he should say, ” It may be proper to give
them a passing notice: ” stranger still, that this " passing notice ” should occupy almost the whole
of his Report.
Report, p. 57.
�23
He then proceeds, not to consider the arguments
and considerations urged against the Hartford
system, but to demolish them by lessening whatever
weight they might derive from the character of the
members of the Massachusetts Board of State
Charities, in whose Report they are found.
That Board consists of seven members, six, at
least, of whom are gentlemen of character, and some
of them eminent scholars and teachers. They all
sign the Report ; and all endorse the principles
which it advocates, and the application of those
principles to the education of mutes; although
they admit< they are not all of them, competent to
decide whether mutes should be taught articulation
or not.
But the Principal regards them as mere men of
straw, who signed what they did not understand or
believe!
He says (p. 35,) with regard to the question of
teaching articulation, "On the side of educating
mutes by signs, we find every teacher in this coun
try, and in the British Isles, with the exceptions
above named, and several of these have spent
nearly forty years in the work of practical instruc
tion; on the side of teaching articulation, we find
Dr. S. GK Howe! ”
And so with all the arguments and considera
tions urged in the Report of the Board. It is,
"Dr. Howe objects;” "Dr. Howe urges;” "Dr.
�24
Howe complains;” "Dr. Howe suggests.” Dr.
Howe is everywhere, the Board nowhere!
Having deprived the principles advanced in the
Report of whatever moral support the names of the
doctor’s colleagues might give, he next tries to
demolish whatever they might get from the name
of the doctor alone.
He quotes some of his opinions, expressed many
years ago, and shows that they differ from those
put forth in the recent Report of the Board of
Charities, and then remarks,—
“ It is pleasant to notice, that as Dr. Howe’s views with
regard to the best arrangements for deaf mutes have not
been entirely settled in the past, there is reason to hope he
may come out right yet.”
Amen! but he will never come out right, if he is
afraid of inconsistency with former opinions; or
clings to doctrines because he once professed belief
in them. The doctor indeed says, in one of his
Reports, that the result of many years’ experience
and observation, both of blind and of mutes, con
vince him that he made mistakes in organizing the
Institution for the Blind, more than thirty years
ago. There was then no school for the blind in the
country, and he copied existing establishments,
among others the asylum at Hartford, merely
modifying it to meet the special condition of the
blind.
�25
He found, in a few years, that he had incorpora
ted some fundamental errors in the plan of organi
zation ; and in his Twentieth Report he states, that
having been called upon by a committee from
another State to recommend a plan for an institution
for the blind, he did recommend one differing in
important points from the Perkins’ Institution. He
would have no "commons,” no central boarding
house,—only a school-house. He would thus avoid
the error of making them board, and lodge, and
live so much together; because he finds that it
encourages a spirit of caste, and intensifies the
peculiarities growing out of their infirmity. He
would have them associate with each other less,
and with ordinary persons more, than is now done.
He would now follow out this idea in the pro
posed school for mutes in Massachusetts. He did,
indeed, follow it out in establishing the workshop
for the blind many years ago; and the most
satisfactory results have been obtained.
There are some thirty blind persons who come
together in the morning to learn trades, and to work
at them on wages, and go away to their several
boarding places in the neighborhood.
This establishment is under the general direction
of the Institution; but the inmates (some of them
young,) are not brought together except for
instruction, or for work, and not even for work in
large numbers; because the plan is to furnish work
4
�26
at their several homes whenever it is possible.
They are thus subjected to ordinary family and social
influences, and are trained to live in and take part
with ordinary society, and not trained to become
members of a special class or caste. The establish
ment is successful; and blind persons who have
been familiar with both modes of living,—asylum
life and common life,—prefer the latter.
It would doubtless be so with mutes if the exper
iment were fairly tried; for all the reasons and con
siderations in favor of such a system apply with
even more force to them than to the blind.
The first direct charge which the Principal
brings against Dr. Howe is, that he makes "an
offensive classification ” of deaf mutes.
"We object to Dr. Howe’s placing, as' he does,
the four hundred deaf mutes of Massachusetts
among the dependent classes.” (Pep. p. 29.) And
again, (p. 30,) " This offensive classification pervades
the whole Report,” &c.
He would be blameworthy indeed who should,
eve n by careless use of language, give just cause
of offence to a class of unfortunates who need all
our sympathy and kindness. But we shall show
that by no fair construction of the Report can such
a charge be sustained; and moreover, that if the
language of the Directors of the Hartford school,
and of the Principal himself, were construed as he
�27
construes the language of the Board, then they
and he are open to the charge of very " offensive
classification.”
So far from anything " offensive ” to the mutes
pervading the Report of the Board, they are spoken
of not only respectfully, but with tender interest.
Indeed, special care even is taken to combat the
common opinion, (which is really offensive to the
mutes,) that they form a special class, and must
always do so; an opinion, by the way, which the
Reports of asylums for deaf mutes, and even
those of the Principal himself, often tend, inadver
tently, to strengthen. The Board of Charities
says, (p. 50,)
“ It may be permitted, however, to draw a further illustra
tion of the principle under consideration from some persons,
(neither vicious nor criminal,) the similarity of whose
defect or infirmity causes them to be classed together, such as
the deaf mutes and the blind. It may not be improper, at
the same time, to make some remarks and suggestions upon
the mode of treating such of these classes as are at the
charge of the State.
“ It is common to regard deaf mutes and the blind as
forming special classes, though speaking strictly no such
classes exist in nature.
“ They spring up sporadically among the people, from the
existence of abnormal conditions of parentage, which produce
a pretty equal average number of cases in every generation,
among any given population.
�28
“ They abound more in some localities and some neighbor
hoods than in others; owing, probably, to ill-assorted
marriages.
“ The important points, however, are that these abnormal
conditions of parentage are not inherent and essential ones ;
that some of them are cognizable ; that with wider diffusion
of popular knowledge more of them may be known; and
that, by avoiding them, the consequences may cease, and the
classes themselves gradually diminish and finally disappear.
“We have no deaf or blind domestic animals; and the
generations of men need not be forever burdened with blind
and deaf offspring.”
The idea which pervades the Report is, that the
mutes and the blind, if left without special instruc
tion and training, tend to fall into the class of
dependents. If this gives just cause of offence,
then must the Report of all the institutions for deaf
mutes in the country be offensive; for they do
constantly express the idea that deaf mutes must be
a burden to their friends and to society, unless they
receive special instruction.
Out of the abundance of such expression we
select a few. The directors of the Hartford school
say: ” The translation indeed of one of the inferior
orders of creation to the human species, would be
only in a degree more wonderful than we have in
several instances witnessed in our scholars.” The
Principal quotes this language approvingly, in his
able paper, in the American Annals, (p. 3.)
«
�29
Nay! he himself is especially open to the charge
of what he calls " offensive classification.”
Without meaning to be "offensive,” he often
speaks of them in a way which might give pain to
sensitive persons. For instance, he says: "We do
not believe that another human being can be found,
in savage or civilized society, whose mind is so
thoroughly imbruted with ignorance and so difficult
to reach as that of many a deaf mute who has
grown up to maturity in the darkness and neglect
consequent upon his misfortune ! ” *
In many other places he speaks of them as
entirely dependent upon society for salvation from
a low and brutish life. He does not regard them
as dependent in the sense in which ordinary chil
dren and youth are, but specially and necessarily
dependent, owing to their natural infirmity; and
shows that they can be lifted out of their ignorance
and dependence only by special means and costly
training.
Nay, more! He not only considers them as a
dependent class, but he sometimes fairly puts them
down in the dangerous class. He says, eloquently:
“ It is the darkness and gloom of his mental condition that
makes him an object of commiseration, and renders him, if
uneducated, the most pitiable of all God's creatures. This
darkness is as nearly total as can well exist in the midst of
, * Thirty-Fifth Annual Report Ohio Institution for Deaf and Dumb,
p. 9. Report of Rev. Collins Stone, Superintendent.
�30
civilized and Christian society. His palsied ear shuts out
from his soul, not only the Q melody of sweet sounds,’ but also
the most familiar facts of common life and experience.
“ He knows nothing of the history of mankind, or of the
globe on which he lives, or of the immensely important truths
connected with his immortality.
“ He is also excluded by his infirmity from intercourse
with his fellow-men. He can neither make known to them
his own wants, nor understand and conform to their wishes.
But while in this uneducated state he is a very ignorant
being, he is by no means an innocuous one. His animal
nature is fully developed. His passions are fierce and
strong, and he knows no reason for their restraint. Revenge,
lust, jealousy, may have dominion over him, without the
presence of any moral considerations to lead him to repress
their promptings. He may thus easily become an uncom
fortable and dangerous member of society ! ”
Now, if the classification of these unfortunates
among the deserving but dependent members of
society is "offensive,” what must be that of the
Reverend Principal, who puts them among the
dangerous members?
But, in reality, neither meant any offence, and
none ought to be taken. The criticism is not
worthy of the Principal, whose actions speak louder
than his words; whose devotion of his life to the
education of mutes would prove him to be their
friend, let his language be what it might; and
though he has made more " offensive classifications ”
of them than the Board has done.
�31
The Principal next makes four several charges
against Dr. Howe, in one paragraph, as follows:
First, that ” a few years ago he advocated the
plan of educating deaf mutes and blind children in
one institution, on the ground that as the blind are
intellectually superior, such a union would be
especially for the advantage of deaf mutes.” The
Principal probably had been looking at the Twelfth
Report of the Trustees of the Perkins’ Institution
for the Blind, without remarking that it stated that
Dr. Howe had been in Europe most of the year,
and did not write his usual Report. But, no matter;
he stands by the Trustees’ report, and still maintains
that blind children are usually much superior to
mutes in capacity for intellectual attainment, by
reason of the gift of hearing, which is the mother
of speech; and that it would, on this and on other
accounts, be better for a mute child to be asso
ciated, while learning the English language, with
a blind child, than with another mute child.
His position is not understood by the Principal.
He has urged that certain advantages would accrue
to deaf mutes by being associated with blind chil
dren, because they would be forced to spell their
words upon their fingers, and to form distinct sen
tences, and thus to have constant practice in the
English language.
Thinking persons know well that one of the
greatest obstacles in the way of deaf mutes learning
�32
our language is the strong tendency they have to
use pantomime.
The attempt to make them use the English lan
guage in their intercourse with each other, is like
trying to make our children speak French together.
The little mutelings won’t take pains to spell out
the words when they can flash forth their meaning
with a look or a gesture.
They won’t make the letters t-a-i-l-o-r if they
can touch their forehead, and imitate the swing of
his arm; nor h-o-r-s-e if they can crook their fore
fingers by the side of their forehead to show his
ears; nor h-o-r-s-e-m-a-n if they can set two fingers
astride the other hand. They won’t restrict them
selves to the use of letters, and words, and sentences
in their intercourse with their playmates who can
see; but they would be forced to do so with
playmates who are blind.
There is hardly a mute graduate of the Hartford
school who can spell as well as Laura Bridgman
does; and nothing gave her such marvellous accu
racy, and such copious vocabulary, except the
necessity of constantly practising the use of words
which had been so painfully taught her.
It is almost a matter of certainty that she would
not have been able to spell so well as she does if she
had been merely deaf and mute. Like other mutes
she would have been tempted by the facility of
addressing signs to the eye to neglect that patient
�33
and persistent practice which is necessary to make
a good speller.
She could see no natural signs, and therefore,
persons conversing with her were forced to spell
their words; and her answers were necessarily
made not by signs, but by letters and words.
The case was a new and anomalous one, and if
the Doctor had regarded the ” consistency ” of his
record, and followed the practice of the ” schools,”
he would have declined to undertake the charge of a
child who did not come within the rules.
The passages on which, probably, the Principal
founds his first charge, merely set forth certain
advantages of the kind of instruction which the
blind mutes must have; and its applicability in a
certain extent to the instruction of ordinary mutes.
The second charge is, that " he has since been
understood to favor their education by a .new system
of dactylology of his own invention.”
The Principal has been imposed upon by a pure
invention of somebody. But should he allow himself to be imposed upon? Such a statement was
worth publishing, or it was not. If it was, then
the Principal should first have inquired if it were
true; and a letter of inquiry would have brought the
answer by return mail that it was untrue. If it was
not worth publishing, then such a statement is
unworthy a place in a Report professing to be a
5
�34
reply to the Report of the Massachusetts Board of
State Charities.
The third charge is, that " Dr. Howe once advo
cated removing mute children from home influences
and associations at a much earlier period in life than
most teachers think judicious.”
This is true; but if the Principal had gone on
and stated the whole truth, he would have made it
appear that Dr. Howe’s heretical views were finally
adopted by the Directors of the American Asylum.
As he has failed to go into the history of the
matter, which is interesting in the history of deaf
mute education in Massachusetts, we will do so.
In the Twelfth Annual Report of the Institution
for the Blind, for 1843, occurs the following:—
“ A few words must be said with regard to the two deaf
and dumb children who joined our school about a year
since, at the early age of seven years. Being too young to be
admitted into the Asylum for the deaf mutes at Hartford, .
they were placed by their parents under our direction, with
the hope that* they might, at least, gain a knowledge of
language at an earlier period than has been usually the case
with children in their condition.
“ The success which has attended the plan of instructing
Laura, by the finger language alone, has induced the
instructor of these two deaf mutes to teach them only by
the finger process, intentionally avoiding the use of the
gesture language, taught at Institutions for the deaf and
dumb. And, thus far, the plan, as in Laura’s case, has been
satisfactory.
�35
“ It is found these children not only learn to talk rapidly
with the fingers, but are able to form a precise idea of a
sentence expressed by the finger language, which cannot
always be the case in the use of their natural, or gesture
language; and in this important particular does the manual
or finger language seems to be of greater value to the deaf
mutes than the language of gesture.
“ They have made considerable progress, not only in the
acquisition of language, but also in writing, numerical cal
culations, and in a knowledge of objects which attract their
notice.
“During the last session of our State Legislature, the
Committee on Education, appointed by that body, consulted
our Board on the subject of admitting the deaf and dumb
to enjoy the privileges of our Institution. A consideration
of this proposition was urged, and encouraged, by parents of
deaf mute children, and also by educated deaf mutes, who
were anxious to have the education of their unfortunate
brethren commenced at an earlier age than was permitted
by the regulations of the American Asylum at Hartford, and
at a school nearer than that at Hartford.
“ The trustees, acting under Dr. Howe’s advice, expressed
a willingness to receive deaf mute pupils of tender years, on
the same footing with the blind, believing that it would prove
mutually beneficial to the two classes.”
The Report goes on to say,—
“ The question, we understand, was discussed at some
length by the committee, in the presence of a deputation
from the Asylum at Hartford, who protested against the pro
posed change, and it finally resulted in the arrangement that
the regulations of that Asylum should be so altered as to
�36
authorize the admission of our State deaf mute beneficiaries
at an earlier age than heretofore ! ”
It would appear from this record that most
teachers, and doubtless the deputation from Hart
ford, disagreed with Dr. Howe’s views. Neverthe
less, in order to prevent the loss of any Massa
chusetts beneficiaries, they consented to make an ’
" injudicious ” arrangement.
At any rate, they so far adopted the plan advo
cated by Dr. Howe, as to change their conditions
of admission, and admit pupils at what the Prin
cipal calls ” an earlier period of life than most
teachers think judicious.”
Dr. Howe had long before urged that deaf mute
children should begin to learn the English lan
guage as early as possible; and in 1812 he received
some young mutes into the Institution for the
Blind, partly in order to see if they could not be
taught advantageously at an earlier age than that
fixed for admission to the Hartford asylum.
From the early days of that asylum down to
1841, their Beports state that candidates for admis
sion must be not under ten years of age nor over
thirty. In 1842 they say, " State beneficiaries must
be not under twelve nor over twenty-five; other
applicants, between ten and thirty
This was not only putting the minimum age too
low, • but making besides an odious distinction
between State beneficiaries and private pupils. It
�37
was about this time that Dr. Howe was chairman
on the part of the Massachusetts House of Repre
sentatives, of the Committee on Public Charitable
Institutions, and agitated this matter.
It appears also that the Directors of the
asylum soon changed their views, and announced
that they would receive pupils between the ages of
eight and .twenty-five, thus admitting State benefi
ciaries four years earlier than they had before done,
and abolishing the odious distinction between them
and private pupils.
Nor have they stopped here; for in a later
Report, a committee of their Board says,—
•
z
“ The opinion is beginning to be quite prevalent, that a
longer time than six or eight years is requisite, thoroughly
to educate deaf mutes; and that the legislatures of the
States to which they belong should extend the term of their
instruction. Indeed, there is good reason for believing that
these legislatures will do this whenever the subject is fairly
laid before them. In that case, the objection to receiving
any pupils under ten which has hitherto been felt, would
be removed, and the number of pupils actually in the asylum
at any one time would be considerably increased, even if the
annual admissions should be the same as heretofore. As we
were the first to project and carry into effect the high class,
by means of which a portion of our pupils are enabled to
prosecute their studies much beyond the ordinary limit, we
ought also TO SECURE TO THE AMERICAN ASYLUM THE CREDIT
OF TAKING the first step in the opposite direction, and
thus offer the advantages of instruction to such young
�38
children as contemplate a thorough and extended course of
training.”
This report was approved and adopted by the
whole Board.
Dr. Howe urged the early instruction of mutes,
upon the ground that it was very important to
them; the Directors seem to have adopted it, first
to prevent the loss of the beneficiaries of Massa
chusetts; next, " to secure to the American Asylum
the credit of taking the first step,” &c.
Surely, we may fairly quote here the language of
the Principal respecting Dr. Howe, as more appli
cable to the Directors of his own institution, and
say, ” It is pleasant to notice that as the ” Directors’
" views with regard to the best arrangement for
deaf mutes have not been settled in the past, there
is reason to hope they may come out right yet.”
The Principal charges, fourthly, that Dr. Howe
" now takes the ground that deaf mutes should not
be gathered into institutions at all.”
We do not believe that the Principal would pur
posely misrepresent any one, and therefore do not
understand how, with the Report before him, he
could make such a statement!
That document [which the Principal treats as
Dr. Howe’s alone,] recommends a change in our sys
tem of educating the deaf mutes of Massachusetts,
�39
•
,
and gives the outline of a plan for an institution.
As this is an interesting matter to all humane peo
ple, and a very important one to deaf mutes, we
will sketch this outline.
The Governor and Council shall appoint three
commissioners for the education of deaf mutes,
who shall act without salary, [or they may be members of the Board of Education.] The commission1 ers are to select the children who are to be the
beneficiaries of the State.
This would certainly be an improvement on the
present system, for it is well known that the Gov
ernor and Council cannot attend to this work as
carefully as they would do, and as it ought to be
done. They have neither time nor means for doing
it thoroughly. Besides, it is a work for which per
sons should have some peculiar fitness. Some
applicants are unfit for State beneficiaries, and are
rejected after going to the asylum at the State’s
charge; some are not entirely deaf; some are
idiotic; some partially blind or deranged. How can
the Governor and Council examine a deaf mute
child and ascertain these things? But more often
the applicants are children of parents who have
some means, and who ought to pay part, at least,
of the cost, and so lessen the charge to the
Commonwealth.
These commissioners, after selecting candidates,
and deciding whether they should be taught wholly
�40
or only partly at the expense of the State, may
contract with any responsible society or organiza
tion of citizens of Massachusetts, who will under
take to instruct and train indigent deaf mutes
belonging to the State, upon a plan of which the
following is a vague outline. [It is understood
that responsible parties are ready to form an organ
ization, if the State should favor it.]
“ The society to provide a suitable building for school
house, and, if necessary, a workshop, and to employ com
petent teachers.
“ The commissioners to designate the beneficiaries, and to
allow the society for each one a sum not greater than that
now paid for beneficiaries at the Hartford school. Their
warrant should be, not for five years, as is now the case,
but from one year, and renewed, if, upon examination, the
pupil proved worthy.
“ The society to instruct and train these beneficiaries gra
tuitously in its school; to board the children of parents who
do not live in the neighborhood of the school in respectable
families, and pay--------- dollars and cents a week for at least
forty weeks in a year.
“ They shall, however, if possible, place but one mute in
any one family, and never more than three.
“ The commissioners should have power to require the
parents of beneficiaries to pay a certain part—say one third
or quarter—of the cost of the board of their children ; and
when they are manifestly unable to do so, then to require
the towns where they have a settlement to pay a sum not
exceeding one dollar in a week, for forty weeks in a year.
�41
•
“ The commissioners to have general supervision of the
school, and of the welfare of such wards of the Common
wealth as live more than two miles from the school.
“ The advantages of such a system would be many.
“ 1st. The care and oversight of these wards of the Com
monwealth would fall where they really belong—upon our
own citizens, a very large number of whom would come into
constant relations with them.
“ 2d. The children would be taught within the State, and
nearer to their homes ; and a large proportion of them might
live at home.
“ 3d. The relations of family and neighborhood would not
be interrupted so much, nor so long.
“ The importance of this is very great in all cases, but
especially so with those whose natural infirmity or peculiarity
tends to isolate them.
“ There are innumerable threads uniting us with society,
. and giving us the unspeakable advantages of home ,and of
familiar neighborhood, many of which are broken in the case
of thepe unfortunates; and we should strive to strengthen,
not to weaken, those that remain to them.
“ 4th. The disadvantages and evils arising out of congre
gation of great numbers of persons of like infirmity, would
be lessened and counteracted.
“ The Hartford school is already too large; and it is con
tinually growing. Living many years in such a congregation
strengthens that tendency to isolation which grows out of the
infirmity of mutism, and intensifies other morbid tendencies.
“ By the new plan all these would be lessened, and the
counteracting tendencies of common social life would be
greatly increased.
6
�42
“ The mutes would be together but five or six hours each
day. During the rest of the time, instead of being subjected
to the artificial restraint and influences of ‘ asylum life,’
which, at best, can be only a poor imitation of family life and
influences, they would be subjected to the average influences
of social life; which is the kind of life they are to live in
future, and for which, during all the tender years of youth,
they should be trained.
“ 5th. The whole establishment would be simplified.
There would be no need of a great building, with halls,
dormitories, kitchen, dining-room and the like; but only a
simple school-house, and perhaps a workshop. There would
be no need of superintendent, matron or steward, with their
corps of assistants ; no cooks, no domestics, and none of the
cumbrous machinery of a great institution.
“ 6th. Part of the burden of supporting the child would
fall where part of it (at least,) surely belongs, to wit: upon
the parents, and upon the neighborhood, and not all upon
the State. Moreover, besides lessening the cost and the
responsibility which now fall upon the State, it would divide
them among the people. The tendency of this would be to
cause our mutes to be educated more nearly as our other
children are. Every approach to this is very important to
the mutes, because it tends to prevent their social isolation,
and makes them to be regarded as members of society in full
communion.
“ A regular course of intellectual instruction would be
given in the school; but advantage might be taken of neigh
boring workshops for teaching some, if not all, the pupils
various handicrafts, as other youth are taught. This would
give a wider range of choice than can be given in the asylum,
where only a few trades are taught.
•
'
�43
'■
•
“ Arrangements might be made by which children of
farmers, who can be useful at home in summer, might come
to the school in winter.
“ Other advantages of such a change might be set forth,
besides the consideration that in a new school we might have
all the advantages of the long experience of the Hartford
school. We might avoid some of the errors which result
from its very organization which cannot be cured in one
generation ; and which, perhaps, stand in the way of intro
ducing new and improved systems of instruction.”
Now, if an establishment upon this plan is not
an institution for deaf mutes, then what constitutes
one? Is it eating in a common hall; sleeping in a
common dormitory; being subjected to daily chapel
devotions; taught a particular creed; and kept
cooped up in one building and yard? Are these
things essential to an institution? Then are not the
German universities institutions; nor our country
academies, nor our common schools, ” institutions.”
. Does not, then, this fourth sentence of the para
graph show, like the three preceding ones, that in
his excessive desire to put Dr. Howe in the wrong,
the Reverend Principal is led to misunderstand, and
then to misstate his views?
The conclusion that he does is strengthened by
the next paragraph, in which the Principal is led to
state what is utterly at variance with known facts,
and even with statements in his own Reports. He
says, (p. 35) :—
�44
“ Dr. Howe objects that our school is too large, and that
the cost is annually increasing. * * * The annual
charge is now $175. * * * The annual charge at the
Institution for the Blind is $200 per pupil, &c.”
This strange blending of truth and error gives
the reader an entirely false impression. The
annual charge at the Institution for the Blind
is more than the Principal states it to be; but no
matter—the animus of this sentence is clear; it
gives the impression that the cost at the Hartford
school is only $175 a year! Who, that is not
familiar with the financial condition of the Hartford
asylum, could fail to conclude, from reading this
statement,, that it cost much less to support pupils
there than at the Institution for the Blind, or at any
similar institution in the whole land? Whereas, the
actual cost is more than $175; probably nearer
$275 than $175 a year.
The Asylum has a fund given by the United
States government for the benefit of the mutes gen
erally, and the income of that, (and perhaps of
other funds,) probably amounted last year to over
$15,000. The Trustees, as in duty bound, appro
priate this, or part of it, to keeping down the
charges.
They do not tell us. how much; and the Report
of the Treasurer is marvellously condensed.
That document, however, show that the expenses
in 1865 were: for salaries $18,649.40; insurance
�45
and sundries, $1,314.21; total, $19,963.61. Other
expenses by the Steward, (p. 44,) $33,276.47; mak
ing in all $53,240.08 as the cost in 1865. This sum,
divided by 212, the average number of pupils,
gives over $250 a year for each. The printed
accounts are obscure, and there is apparent discre
pancy between the Steward and Treasurer,—so
that the actual cost may be a little less ; but
certainly it is far greater than an unsuspecting
reader would infer from the Report of the Principal;
and probably nearer $275 than $175.
There is another proof, that the eagerness of the
Principal to convict Dr. Howe of inconsistency,
leads him to contradict his own Report. He says,
(p. 38,) comparing the pupils of the Blind Asylum
with his own,—
“ It is comparatively difficult for blind children to travel in
public conveyances. They are exposed to constant danger,
and must always’ have. an attendant. Deaf mutes, however,
travel safely to all parts of the country
z
Here are several mistakes,—some excusable,
some not. It is excusable that the Principal should
not know that most of the pupils of the Institution
of the Blind travel to and from home on the rail
roads, without special attendants, and safely, and
that they are trained to do it. But it is not excusable
that he should publish a statement concerning them
without a little inquiry into its truth.
�46
Still less is it excusable that he should make state
ments, contradictory to others in the Report of his
own Institution. On page 72 of the very Report in
which he states that deaf mutes travel to all parts
of' the country safely, we find the following,
reprinted from former Reports:—
“ On the day of the commencement of the Vacation, an
officer of the Asylum will accompany such pupils as
are to travel upon the railroads between Hartford and Boston,
taking' care of them and their baggage, on condition that
their friends will make timely provision for their expenses on
the way, and engage to meet and receive them immediately
on the arrival of the early train at various points on the route
previously agreed on, and at the station of the Boston and
Worcester Railroad in Boston. A similar arrangement is
made on the Connecticut River Railroads, as far as to White
River Junction. No person will be sent from the Asylum to
accompany the pupils on their return; but if their fare is
paid and their trunks checked to Hartford, it will be safe to
send them in charge of the conductor.”
A critic writing in the spirit of the Principal’s
Report might be tempted to say that, when it is
desirable to make a point against Dr. Howe,
"the deaf mutes travel safely to all parts of the
country; ” but, when it is desirable to attract
pupils, the parents are assured " that an officer of
the Asylum will travel with them and take care of
them.”
�47
But the charitable conclusion is, that in his haste
and eagerness to make points against an opponent,
the Principal overlooked what careful thought
would have made him see, to wit: that blind people
are less exposed to danger in travelling than deaf
people. The former are made careful by their
infirmity, and their hearing is made acute by
practice; the latter are made careless, and they
have no hearing at all. Again, a little reflection
would have shown him, that one of the many
advantages of hearing, over sight, as a guardian
sense, arises from the fact that in the material
world warnings of danger come mainly through
the ear. This is, first, because, during half the
time, darkness prevails over the world, and then
the sentinel at the eye is off guard; but the
one at the ear listens during all the waking
hours; and, even when the body sleeps, is still half
awake; for the ear shuts no lid, as the eye does.
And second, because the eye receives no warning
unless the rays of light strike nearly from the front,
and therefore more than half the circle round us is
unguarded. But the ear gathers in sounds not
only from all around, but from above and below.
Unless the rattlesnake be in the direct path, the eye
sees him not, while the ear catches the first note of
warning, come it from where it may. The thinnest
substance stops light; but sound traverses thick
walls. Besides, sight is more voluntary,—hearing
�48
more involuntary; almost automatic indeed. Sights
are shut out easily; sounds with difficulty. You
can be blind at will; you cannot shut out all sound,
even by stopping the ears.
But be the philosophy of the matter what it
may, daily facts show that mutes and deaf per
sons are more exposed to the dangers of the
present mode of travel, and suffer more from them,
not only than blind persons, but than any class of
people whatever. We constantly hear of persons
being run over on the tracks; and in a large
proportion of cases they are deaf persons.
If the Principal will consult the records of rail
roads he will find many cases of mutes and deaf
persons being run over; but rarely one of a blind •
man being injured in that manner.
Nay! if he will look into the Reports of his own
Institution he will find evidence not only, of con
stant dread of danger from the rail cars, but acci
dents and deaths among the pupils, even, while
under the protecting and watchful care of the
Asylum.
The Thirty-Ninth Annual Report says,—
“ An accident occurred on the railroad to one of the .pupils
from Canada, in September last, which resulted in his death.
While walking carelessly along on the ends of the ties, out
side of the track, he was struck down by a passing train, and
so severely injured that he survived less than an hour. This
x
�49
is the first accident of the kind which has ever happened to
one of our pupils ; and we trust with the warning given to
them of the danger of a similar exposure, and the vigilance
which will in future be exercised on the part of those who
have the care of them, it will be the last. Several educated
deaf mutes have, within a few years, been killed while
walking on the track of railroads.
“ The practice of thus exposing themselves to almost
certain destruction cannot be too strongly reprobated, and
their friends should enjoin upon them, the importance of
discontinuing it under all circumstances.”
But the trust and the hope were vain; and vain
were the warnings and precautions, for we read in
the Fortieth Report, (p. 13,) as follows:—
“ A severe, but not fatal accident, happened to one of our
oldest pupils in July last, in consequence of incautiously
walking on the railroad track near the city. The warning
given in our last Report was unheeded, and • the result was
an injury, which will in a measure disable him for life.”
A still more shocking accident is related in the
Forty-Second Report, (p. 8) :—
“Two of the small boys, John Parker, from Massachu
setts, and Benjamin Dawson, from New Hampshire, were
killed by a train of cars as they were walking along the
railroad track. The caution given them but a few hours
before the accident was disregarded, and their intention of
being on the track but for a few moments, till they could
reach the crossing of a road, brought upon them this terrible
7
�50
calamity. While we sympathize with the afflicted friends of
these promising lads, and regret most sincerely their untimely
end, we cannot think there has been any want of care or
attention to the safety of the pupils in this particular, on
the part of the officers of the Asylum to whom their imme
diate oversight is entrusted. No rule of the establishment
has been more distinctly set. forth, more frequently or
more strictly enjoined, or more rigidly enforced, than
that which forbids the pupils going upon the track of a
railroad. Whenever an accident of the kind has happened
to a deaf mute in any part of the country, the fact has been
announced to them publicly, and they have been warned
never to indulge in a practice so unwise and so dangerous.
We trust that the lesson taught by this sad experience may
never be forgotten by the pupils, and that it may prompt
those who watch over them to still greater vigilance.”
The records of other Institutions show that dread
ful accidents have happened in consequence of the
infirmity of the pupils. As a matter of curiosity,
we have ascertained by the annual returns of all the
Railroad Companies of Massachusetts, that the
number of persons run over, and killed or injured
by the cars, during the last fifteen years, is 701.
This does not include passengers, nor persons con
nected with the trains, but only persons outside the
train, crossing the road, or walking or lying upon
the track. Of these, one is supposed to have been
injured in consequence of blindness, six of insanity,
and seventeen of deafness. Of course the supposed
cause is not always the real one; but, assuredly, if
�51
the real cause were ascertained, it would swell the
number of accidents to the deaf, much more than to
the blind; because the blindness is obvious, deaf
ness is not. Everybody in the neighborhood knows
who is blind, but not who is deaf. In the case of a
stranger, even, the corpse of a blind man would
reveal his infirmity; but deaf dead men tell no tales.
But even if they could, it might be useless for our
purpose, because if in the face of these reasons and
facts, the Principal persists in saying, even to make
a point against Dr. Howe, that "deaf mutes can
travel safely to all parts of the country,” he would
not believe otherwise even though one rose from
the dead.
Enough has been said to show that the charge of
ignorance and error which the Principal attempts
to fasten upon the Chairman of the Board of State
Charities, is laid at the wrong door.
If this were all, it would not be worth saying in
public. To aim at mere personal triumph would be
unworthy the cause and the parties. But there are
questions concerning the best modes of educating
and instructing deaf mutes which are very impor
tant to that class of unfortunates, and which would
deeply interest all intelligent and humane people if
they could be brought forward and fairly discussed.
It is the hope of causing them to be discussed
which decides us to print what has been written
above.
�52
While earnest and enthusiastic men like Blan
chet, in France, plead for the immediate modifica
tion of the old Central Institutions,- such as those
of Paris, London, and Hartford, and for teaching
mutes in common schools; and while eminent and
experienced, but conservative men, like the Abbe
Carton, in Belgium, admit that the modification of
the old system is only a question of time,—we of
of Massachusetts hold on to a system borrowed
from the old world, nearly fifty years ago, by a
legislative body not known to have been partic
ularly enlightened upon the subject of deaf mute
education.
This ought not to be; and our neglect of the
matter is not creditable to the Commonwealth. The
slightest examination would show that we have
not only failed to improve materially our method of
treating mutes, but have also failed to introduce
into it the system and order which characterize
other departments of the public service.
It would be a great mistake to say that the present
method of selecting the beneficiaries of the State is
a good one, for there is no real method about it;
and even the existing loose and imperfect practice
is left to officials who have not the time nor the
means to conduct it properly.
See how it works. A mother has a child who
cannot hear, and when he becomes eight or ten
years old she concludes, sadly, that he never will
�53
talk. She takes him to the common school, but the
teacher sends him home, saying he cannot do any
thing with him—cannot teach him. By and by she
learns that there is a school, somewhere, for such
children; and if she will go to the State House
she can find out all about it. There she is passed
civilly from one official to another, until she reaches
the gentlemanly clerk of the Secretary of State,
who concludes the child ought to be sent to Hart
ford, and he passes her over to the gentlemanly clerk
of the Governor, who kindly assists her in making
out the necessary papers, which are signed without
further examination. Neither of these gentlemen,
however, has any means of knowing whether the
applicant is a fit subject for the school, or not.
The child must then wait perhaps one month, per
haps eleven months, until the time of the annual
reception of pupils, and then be sent to Hartford;
provided that, in the meantime, the parents do not
change their purpose.
At Hartford, if the child is found to be a proper
subject, he is well cared for, and put under the
instruction of able and zealous teachers. But if,
as sometimes happens, the mutism is the result of
insanity, or of imbecility, or if the child is partially
blind, or otherwise defective, or is too feeble in
health, then he must be sent home again.
He has lost precious time; the poor parents have
been sadly taxed for the cost of the journey; the
7*
�54
State has perhaps been taxed for his clothing; and
all because it is nobody’s business to see that only
fit persons shall be selected as beneficiaries, and
sent out of the State at public charge.
Again, it is clear that parents who can afford to
pay part of the expenses of the child’s education
ought to do so. This would not only be just, but
really beneficial to them and to their child. It
would increase self-respect; attach more esteem to
the advantages of education; promote punctuality
of attendance; favor study at home, as preparatory
for school; and be in many ways advantageous,
besides being a saving of money to the State.
But it is now nobody’s business to attend to this
matter; consequently the pupils are, almost without
exception, at the entire charge of the State for their
board and instruction, and in some cases for their
clothing also.
Again, the Commonwealth sends about a hundred
pupils to the Connecticut school, but has adopted
no method for ascertaining whether her wards
are taught by a system well adapted to their
wants, nor even whether they have the full
benefit of the system, such as it is. There
is no examination, deserving the name, by any
official; and no means of knowing officially whether
the wards of the Commonwealth have been well
and properly treated, taught, and trained, during
their five or six years’ sojourn in another State.
�55
The whole thing is taken upon faith. Now, we our
selves do not lack faith in the honesty and ability
of those to whose care they are committed; but
officials should walk by light, and not by faith.
We say there is nothing deserving the name of
examination, for it would be a mistake to call the
present practice by such a name. The Governor
and Council, in their annual " progress ” among
State institutions, sometimes go out of our bor
ders, and visit the asylum at Hartford. The prac
tice is a good one, and certain good results follow;
but surely nobody will pretend that there is, or can
be, upon that occasion, anything like an examina
tion. It is merely an exhibition to a highly intel
ligent and sympathetic audience.
Then, once in a year, the Legislature appoints a
committee to look after public charitable institu
tions generally, and especially to see that they do
not spend too much money. This committee makes
a general inspection of all the charitable and penal
institutions in the State; and once a year they visit
the Connecticut asylum. They have reason to be
pleased by what they witness; and they generally
give the institution a complimentary notice in
their report. It is well known, however, that
members are not selected with a view to their
ability or fitness for judging the merits of a system
of instruction for mutes, and that their single flying
visit is only a general inspection. It is not, and
�56
cannot well be a thorough examination of the
merits of the system of instruction and of its
results. The reports of the Committee make no
such pretensions. They are complimentary, of
course, but very vague and general in their state
ments. Nevertheless, they are sometimes gravely
quoted by the Directors of the Hartford asylum, as
proofs that the friends of deaf mutes ought to be
satisfied with the excellence of their system, and of
its administration!
We assert with confidence that our Legislature
acts without sufficient light and knowledge upon this
subject. We assert, moreover, with sorrow, almost
with shame, that whenever an attempt is made to
bring about any change in the system of educat
ing our mutes, it is put down by considerations
not of wise economy but of mere money saving.
The whole matter is in the hands of the Legisla
ture, which are always full enough with other
business.
Whenever there is any likelihood of any action
looking to a removal of our beneficiaries from
Connecticut, a delegation of pupils is sent from
Hartford to exhibit their knowledge and acquire
ments. They make a strong appeal (not too
strong,) to the sympathy of the Legislature. Then
the Superintendent waits upon the Committee
of Public Charitable Institutions, and exhibits his
facts and figures. He makes a strong appeal (too
�57
strong, alas!) to the pocket-nerve of the State. He
shows that he can maintain our children, if we will
send them abroad, cheaper than we can do it at
home; and straightway the whole matter is left to
sleep for the year.
Perhaps there is no need of any change, and no
room for any improvement. Perhaps the great
march of improvement in all other branches of
instruction, affects not the method adopted at
Hartford nearly half a century ago, and followed
ever since, almost without change. Perhaps noth
ing can be borrowed for its improvement from the
opposite system adopted in the excellent schools
for mutes through the length and breadth of Ger
many,—the land of learned men and of able teach
ers. Perhaps Horace Mann was a dolt. Perhaps
the Board of State Charities is all wrong in
suggesting any changes in our present system of
educating our mutes. But there should be no
doubt about it. Either the Board of Education,
or of State Charities, or some competent persons,
should be specially charged to see,—
First, that all the unfortunate mutes in the
Commonwealth shall not only have the oppor
tunity of being educated, but be sought out and
encouraged to avail themselves of it.
Second, that the present method shall be prop
erly systematized and regulated, so that there shall
�58
be strict accountability, real examinations, and
positive knowledge about results.
Third, that any questions about change of the 1
present method shall be decided upon broad and
liberal grounds, and not by considerations of
dollars and cents.
Such a committee, if clothed with authority,
might procure such changes in the present method
as would satisfy all the friends of the deaf mutes;
or they might advise the adoption of a new one.
The Directors of the Connecticut asylum, which
has done so much for the mutes of New England,
ought not to object to any change which will pro
mote the interests of those unfortunates, even if it
should involve the loss of a monopoly which the
asylum has so long enjoyed.
If Massachusetts should deem it best to establish
a school of her own, she has mute children enough
to fill it as full as a good school need to be; or
perhaps ought to be. But even if there should be
competition for the beneficiaries of other States, it
would be animated only by generous emulation,
not as to who would take pupils cheapest, but who
would teach and train them best. Of such emula
tion, there surely would come good, and not evil.
�
Dublin Core
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Victorian Blogging
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A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
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Remarks upon the education of deaf mutes: in defence of the doctrines of the second annual report of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities and in reply to the charges of the Rev. Collins Stone, principal of the American Asylum at Hartford
Creator
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Howe, Samuel C.
Description
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Place of publication: Boston; Mass.
Collation: 58 p. ; 23 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Printed by Wright & Potter, Boston. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Please note that this pamphlet contains language and ideas that may be upsetting to readers. These reflect the time in which the pamphlet was written and the ideologies of the author.
Publisher
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Walker, Fuller & Co.
Date
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1866
Identifier
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G5190
G5689
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Education
Deafness
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Remarks upon the education of deaf mutes: in defence of the doctrines of the second annual report of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities and in reply to the charges of the Rev. Collins Stone, principal of the American Asylum at Hartford), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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application/pdf
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Text
Language
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English
Conway Tracts
Deaf-mutes
Deafness
Education
Muteness
-
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Text
THE RISING GENERATION
A
DISCOURSE
BEFORE THE
SOUTH PLACE SOCIETY,
JUNE 27TH, 1880,
BY
MONCURE D. CONWAY, M.A.
LONDON :
SOUTH PLACE, FINSBURY.
PRICE TWOPENCE.
�LONDON :
Wateblow & Sons Limited
LONDON WALL.
�THE RISING GENERATION.
<^OME of us can remember the time when the
heart of England was stirred by Elizabeth
Barrett’s poem, “ The Cry of the Children.” A revela
tion had come from the dark mines of the country
telling how little children were held all their lives in
gloomy imprisonment, knowing nothing but work. In
the mines were subterranean villages gloomy as the
chambers of Dante’s Hell; some children were born
there, lived, laboured, and died there, and only
when dead did they come into the upper world—for
burial. Little children were found who did not know
what a flowrer was—they had never seen a flower.
Then the “ Cry of the Children ” was heard. They
uttered none for themselves; down in the pit they
silently worked through their miserable lives, while the
children of the world danced and were gay; yet their
voices were heard in the poet’s lamentation, in the
stateman’s eloquence, in the people’s sympathy, and
the wrong was swept away.
It seems to us now almost incredible that such an
�(
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evil should have existed within our own memories. So
clear to our eyes are the evils of other times than our
own. But, alas, the need is always for eyes that can
see the evils of their own time, and how few are they !
In Dante’s Inferno one of the saddest places was the
abode of those who moved about in a spiritual fog
which obscured everything that was near to them.
They could clearly see events in the far past, they
could see into the future, but they could not see the
present. These, during life, had given no effect to
the experience of the past, exerted no influence on
the future, because they did not study to discern the
facts at hand, the conditions around them. They
could not see time’s flowing stream at the point where
it passed them, where must be dropped what is to
reach the future. It is but a too faithful picture of
multitudes who do not seem to themselves to be
in any Inferno at all. There are many who can hear
the cry of the children in the last generation, but can
hear no cry in the present. Yet there is a cry. It
comes no longer from subterranean mines, but it
comes from unhappy homes; from the gloomy realms
of pauperism, ignorance, and disease; and it comes
from the sunless dungeons of dogma, where millions
of children live and die, never seeing any flower of
life, of beauty, or of joy.
In speaking to you this morning of the rising
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generation I do not propose to enter upon ideal
speculations about the future, nor to propose quixotic
schemes for abolishing all the evils of the world. I
wish rather to limit your attention to facts near at
hand, and conditions more or less within our reach.
And, first of all, to impress upon you, as practical
people, the fact that the visible conditions of the world
have invisible foundations. Things are founded on
thoughts. The world that man has built up,—the
world of society, politics, nationality, religion,—is a
phenomenal world, supported by causes always causing
it; having for its beams and rafters moral and mental
sustainers; and every change of thought or belief in
the human mind is followed by a change in the visible
conditions of the world. For example, were the
Sabbatarian superstition removed from the mind of
this country, the bars and bolts which close the
refining institutions of the country would also be
removed. If the Christian superstition were to die out
of the English mind, the wealth and power it freezes
up in an iceberg would melt, and streams would flow
through the deserts where hearts and brains are
famishing. Beware therefore of undervaluing thought,
knowledge, beliefs, principles, because they are in
visible. There are many thousands of Christian people
who industriously battle with visible sufferings and
vices. They do a little good here and a little good
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there, in particular cases ; but the evils invariably
return. Like the fabled daughters of Danaus they fill
their sieves with water, but it always runs out again,
because they do not stop the holes in the sieve’s
bottom : they do not stop them because they are
invisible; they are the unconscious falsities of their
creeds, diverting, human minds and efforts away from
the work of practically saving themselves from actual
evils, to the fruitless work of saving themselves from
unreal evils.
The only way'to help men permanently is to enable
them to help themselves. To give them resources is
to shield them from want and sorrow; to educate
their mental and physical strength is to make them
rich; to surround them with social interests is to
make them good citizens; and all these, and other
conditions of human welfare, depend upon the pre
vailing doctrine of what is the chief end and aim of
human life. He who lifts that aim even a little, lifts
the lives of millions with it; and a man is never so
charitable, never so practical, as when he is destroying
an error and affirming a truth. If benevolence wishes
to bestow or bequeathe real benefit, let it not give too
largely to the institutions which deal with the annual
crop of evils that ignorance sows, let it attack the
ignorance ; let it not build temperance coffee-houses
to be closed on the only day they are much needed,
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but attack the superstition which locks the people
out of the splendid art-houses already existing, and
leaves them no resource but debauchery. I do not
disparage the disposition to relieve suffering whenever
met with ; but let it not be supposed that such is the
highest or the most practical charity to mankind. A
single pound given for human culture, for spiritual
liberty, for advancement of a high cause or principle,
is worth a thousand bestowed to salve over wounds
which only knowledge and justice can heal. And 1
will add that as the pound given for the transient
mitigation of an evil is but a drop of oil on an ocean
of misery, that which is bestowed in freeing a mind
from error is strictly economised, and has a fair
prospect of being multiplied through generations.
This high charity must not only be thus practical
and economical in its object, but also in its method.
The regeneration of the world must be through its
successive generations. You cannot change the habits
of an old man. What troubles grow from those habits
you may assuage, but they can only be eradicated
with the constitution around which they have formed.
The best thing a matured generation can do is to run
to seed—the seed of experience—to select from these
-seeds those that are largest and soundest, and sow
•them in the quick soil of youth and vigour. It is the
principles so entrusted to the rising generation which
�(
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grow with its growth, transmute decays into life,
failures into success, and transmit an ever-increasing
volume of wisdom and happiness.
What then is the present cry of the children ? their
perhaps inarticulate, but all the profounder cry ? What
are their needs ? How are they being taught ? It is
not our business to boast that much has been done,
that the children have been taken from the streets and
put to school. That was the work of a generation now
closed. What work the next is to add to that, is a
question more inportant than what has been already
done; we can rightly rejoice only if we feel that the
best is now being done.
It is to be feared we have little reason to felicitate
ourselves upon our dealings with the rising generation.
To a large extent the young are being taught over
again what their elders have painfully unlearned ; they
are solemnly and deliberately crammed with that
which the best thought of our time has proved to be
untrue.
A young man recently emancipated from Roman
Catholicism gave me an account of how he wasbrought up. When the poor little papist is born, his
inborn demon is exorcised. Water is thrown on his
head, also salt and oil; the cross signed on its fore
head ; a candle is held beside it, a Latin formula
muttered, and a half-crown demanded. The mother
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is also subjected to an exorcism for having borne a
demon into the world, and another half-crown is'
demanded for the churching. Both of these cere
monies remain in the Church of England. The water
exorcism remains in all denominations. Even some
Unitarians are not ashamed to practice a form which
is either a mockery, or a proclamation of the diabolical
nature of the child.
Fortunately the little papist is unconscious of these
proceedings ; but unfortunately, his training is on the
belief that the exorcised demon is always trying to get
back into the form from which he was expelled. He
is taught to regard this as the chief danger of his life;
he must continually make the sign of the cross, and
pray to Jesus, Joseph, Mary, and other saints. He
must bow to holy pictures and crucifixes, wear holy
medals and charms, and is taught that these are the
things which alone protect him from danger every
moment. When he enters church or school he
sprinkles himself with holy water, bends his knee
before an altar, and understands that he inhales
mysterious good things with incense. At school he
utters “ Hail Mary ” every time the hour strikes. He
is fed on miraculous stories of the marvels wrought
by saints and holy objects. The Catechism is the
. only thing taught him with any real industry : the
■ three principal ideas with which he is impressed are
�(
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his utter depravity, his utter inability to help himself
without the priest, and the diabolical iniquity of
presuming to ask any question about the “sacred
mysteries.’ At the age of seven or nine he is prepared
for confession by what is called ‘ examining the
conscience ’ which consists in making him read over
a list of all the abominations ever committed by man.
The purity of the child’s mind being thus poisoned,
he is made to confess all the evil thoughts so awakened.
He is then taught the sacredness of penance; worship
of the Eucharist as God himself; and so he is given
to society. But if all that should succeed in really
moulding-him he would be hardly better off mentally
than were those children of the mines who never saw
a flower.
This is the pit from which the Christian child of
this country was dug by the Reformation, but was
very soon plunged into others where much of its
little life is still passed. Puritanism was even a
darker pit than Catholicism, and most of the sects
were mere variants of Puritanism.
The English
Church being the church of royalty and wealth, had
to accommodate its dogmas to the indulgencies, tastes
and sports of the upper classes. The aristocracy
preserved many traditions from its barbaric origin,
and has steadily refused to be captured by asceticism,
or tamed by Puritanism. But unfortunately it did
�(
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not refuse to submit to hypocrisy; and it goes on still
with the supplications of terror on its lips and
indifference in its heart.
Its catechism indoctrinates
in asceticism, its life in worldliness. It cries for
mercy on Sunday, and hunts foxes on Monday. It
calls itself a miserable sinner at church, and resents
the slightest aspersion of its character elsewhere. It
were hard to conceive a more continuous drill in
hypocrisy than that child undergoes who is taught the
church catechism in the intervals of a life practically
absorbed in worldly schemes. It is to the credit of
human nature that there are so many g&pdjent
characters which survive the training of Catrmn8fta,
and the repressions of Puritanism; but, still more to
its credit that so many frank and earnest men survive
the teachings of a church which so baldly separates
theory from practice.
But statistics show a vast population never going
to any church at all.
A large number of these are working men, who feel
that the church is their enemy, and to whom the
sects are unattractive. The labouring masses find in
sleep, drink, and public-house gossip, the best
compensation for six days’ toil. And there are many
literary men, men of science, and gentlemen, who
stay away from church and sect out of sheer disbelief
and disgust. Yet the families of these generally go to
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church, their children are baptised, catechised, and
generally taught the dogmas which their parents
despise. With the exception of the comparatively few
Liberals who have formed Societies of their own, the
rising generation is thus instructed in the same
catechisms, creeds, confessions in which their prede
cessors were instructed.
Even the learning of the
country abnegates its paramount duty to see that the
women and children of the nation are taught truth,
and consecrated in every way possible to the diffusion
of truth.
Thus the Catholic procedure, rejected in theory,
characterises the actual treatment of the Protes
tant child, too often of the disbeliever’s child. He
is not dealt with as one possessed, but as a moral
invalid who must go to the holy doctor every week,
and be dosed with piety and texts.
It is a terrible misdirection of that child’s mind,
and many are mentally hunch-backed for life by it.
It is by children being committed to the parsons as
to dress-makers. Through this indifferentism, which
may almost be called hardened, society goes on
repeating the old routine from generation to genera
tion.
Every year rolls up its steady average- of
abuses unreformed, evils unchanged, falsities laughed
at and maintained. Some progress is made but it is
'mainly through the slow working of natural necessity,
�the accompaniment of physical changes incident to the
pursuit of wealth.
It is as nothing compared with the progress that
would be made if all the thinkers and educated people
of the community were to seriously set themselves to
the work of securing to their families, especially their
children, the full benefits of their best knowledge
and experience, treating every attempt to teach them
fashionable falsities as they would attempts to indoct
rinate them in sorcery. It is the abstract verdict of
science that Christian dogmas are false. That is equally
the verdict of moral and mental philosophy. But their
verdict remains unexecuted. Until they feel also that
these dogmas are so many poisons, the Creeds and
Catechisms so many bottles of poison steadily infused
into the springs that feed society; until they besiege
those sects which so poison spiritual springs as they
would water-companies sending corruption through the
community, or adulterators of the public food; until
then, we need not hope that the best knowledge of this
age will enter upon its duty of bringing social institutions
out of their barbarous constitution into conformity
with reason and right.
What is the Creed taught to the millions of children
around us ? That they are born totally depraved; that
they are in danger of eternal damnation; that they
have incurred this danger by no act of their own, and
can be saved by no act of their own; that they were
�(
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corrupted by a man and woman who lived six thousand
years ago, and must be saved by the murder of a man
who lived over eighteen hundred years ago. This is
what is taught every child, with few exceptions.
What does human culture believe? That such
teaching is utterly preposterous. It believes every
child is born innocent, liable to actual dangers, to be
saved from them by others’ care in early life, ultimately
by its own intelligence and activities, quite irrespective
of any apple eaten in Paradise or murder committed in
Palestine.
The dogmas are just the reverse of the knowledge,
and yet there is no serious combined effort among the
intelligent people to substitute knowledge for proven
falsities in the training of children.
It is too obvious to be insisted on that such a
phenomenon is immoral, not to say criminal. Yet
many who see the evil are unable to see or suggest
the remedy. The impediment that seems to lie in the
way is the principle of patriarchal liberty under which
the various sects have been able to combine in a
political community. We cannot step in between
parent and child and interfere with any teaching which
professes to be religious. Were such a principle
adopted it would be the Liberals who would suffer
most. Liberalism cannot afford to advocate any in
terference by law, not even to protect a child from
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having its eyes put out—its intellectual eyes—or its
moral back broken by the weight of false dogmas
parentally imposed.
We are not, indeed, responsible for not doing what
we cannot do, but we are responsible for doing our
very best with what ways and means are at our
disposal. There is no call to quarrel with our tools
until we have made the most of them. Have we done
that ? Are we aiming to do that! Consider this, for
instance : suppose it were no longer for the interest
of any social institution, such as a Church, that these
dogmas should be taught to any. Suppose, if your
imagination is equal to it, that the endowments of the
Church were all transferred to institutions which teach
no creeds ; all national property going to endow that
which all agree to be real knowledge; all sectarian
property being taxed because it is private property.
That would be the simplest political justice. Because
that is not the state of the law, you and I are made to
pay every year to support dogmas we abhor. Sadi
said that if there were a tax upon reading the Koran
in public many holy men would be dumb. Though I
would not say that of the Bible, it may safely be
said of the Athanasian Creed : if every time those
anathemas are uttered from the pulpit the curser of
his opponents were taxed instead of bribed, that
solemn blasphemy would cease. And many other
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things would cease if law, fashion, and respectability
did not throw around them a glamour which hides
their monstrosity.
Without disestablishment of the Church, the dis
establishment of dogmas generally,—removal of the
immunities of the dissenting sects,—cannot take place ;
and without disendowment, and the taxation of church
property, a vast power would be given up to the
unchecked control of superstition. It is, therefore, a
plain, legitimate, and not intolerant aim for Liberalism
to labour for the total disendowment of all creeds.
Parents would then have no inducement, no bribe to
submit their children to a catechetical tuition which
they did not approve ; and it is very doubtful if
many parents, were the matter thus thrown absolutely
upon themselves, would summon the catechist to their
families. If we could only compel common sense to
act upon what is now left to sacerdotal self-interest,
many a child would be shielded from inoculation in
error.
You may smile at the idea of our succeeding in
disendowing all creeds. But we may succeed in dis
endowing them in many minds. Every clear agitation
for a rational cause is a process of education; it
commands the attention, and if it be right and
reasonable it must make its way with the process of
of the suns.
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Besides this political direction of our influence, we
may turn our social advantages, whatever they may
be, to the side of what we believe true. The great
power of error lies in the social advantages it can
bestow upon the young, who can feel such advantages
long before they can realise the falsities gilded by
them. The desire for polite and attractive society is
not only natural but worthy, and liberal thinkers owe
it as a duty both to truth and to society that they
should contribute all they can to associate their views
with the standards of good taste, refinement, beauty,
and innocent gaieties. It must be remembered that
in the world the decorations and enjoyments of life
represent its unorthodoxy. The Church has come to
patronise them through compulsion of long experience.
It began with nunneries and convents, dust and ashes,
cowls and hair-garments; ugly anti-social habits and
habiliments were the natural insignia of creeds that
taught man’s depravity and despair. Every earthly
beauty and joy is a protest against orthodoxy, and
they legitimately belong to the religion of Liberalism
and Humanity. Social enjoyments, mirth and beauty,
are heresies which appeal far more to the young
generation than scientific statements. The liberal
movement in this country was historically evolved out
of the Puritan movement, and some of those sombre
traditions still adhere to it; but these should be
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outgrown. Carefulness in dress, observance of fashion
■so far as it is healthy, dancing, interchanges of hospi
tality, should not be regarded as frivolous, but as
related to the progressive civility of the world, the
true accompaniments of its liberation from sacrificial
ideas of religion. Liberalism will be largely benefitted
by more generous outlays in this direction, and by
■each thinker taking care to do his and her part that
the tastes shall not be starved while the intellect and
moral nature are fed. It is of the utmost importance
that in the steady effort of the young to improve the
style and position of their families, they should less
and less have to seek their society chiefly outside of
liberal circles at cost of their religious and intellectual
principles.
It is equally incumbent upon all liberal thinkers to
¿o something towards raising the moral tone of society
from its theological depravation into harmony with the
standard of personal veracity and honour. It is not
veracity and it is not honour that men should submit
without an effort to having their children taught pious
falsehoods and placed under the influence of priests
whose creeds they despise. We need a severer
standard of veracity and honesty than that. It is a
poor subterfuge to say that the rising generation should
be left free to form its own opinions. As well say a
garden should be left free to produce what it pleases.
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It will produce weeds, and so will the mind not
carefully cultured. We owe to all we can influence
our very best thought, our maturest experience, and
we cannot escape that responsibility. We must tell
our children just what we believe true, and let them
know that it is a basis for them to build on. They
are to think for themselves.
Occasions are not wanting to realise for ourselves,
and to impress upon the young, the steadily corrupt
ing influence of proven errors established by law. We
have just witnessed in the legislative assembly of this
great nation how easily, when a constitutional super
stition is touched, men, who in worldly affairs are
gentlemen, relapse into coarseness, calumny, and
lawlessness. In the name of what they call God, but
which is no more a God than Mumbo-Jumbo,—a
fetish made up of the aggregate ignorance of church
men who find it a paying stock, recreant Jews
courting Christian favour, Catholics sniffing again the
burning flesh of Smithfield once mingled with their
incense,—in the name of that God who cursed
nature, kindled Tophet for man, and founded in the
world as under it a government of fire and faggot,
they have not hesitated at any meanness, falsehood,
or injustice to inflict a blow upon intellectual liberty,
and even national liberty which dares disregard
dogma. We have seen one bearing the title of Knight,
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which used to mean defender of woman, dragging up
the name of a lady of spotless character amid brutal
laughter, trying to rob of reputation one whom an
unjust judge had already robbed of her child. All
this we have seen done in the name of an established
phantasm called God. The outbreak of fanaticism in
some deputies from wild districts is far less base than
the partizan fury, which, in its eagerness to strike their
conqueror, led a party to vote like one herd upon a
question of fact and law. By a remarkable coincidence
the law is just what will most annoy their opponentsand
most delay public business, so punishing the country
for taking its business out of their hands. There’s truth
and honour for you! These are the followers of Jesus
and protectors of Omnipotence ! These be thy gods,
O people of England, who demand that woman should
be insulted, law defied, and the sanctuary of law
turned into a bear-garden, rather than that a man
holding the opinions of the majority of scientific men
in Europe shall be admitted to sit beside sanctified
sporting squires, priest-ridden papists, and capacious
city-men, making gold out of his blood who had not
where to lay his head ! The Member for Northampton
no doubt has his faults; but now when he suffers not
for his faults but for his virtues, and when in his person
are assailed the rights of every independent thinker in
this nation, I will undertake to affirm that he is nearer
to that man whom the Sanhedrim scourged than the best
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of his assailants, and that the spirit which pursues him
because of his testimony against priestcraft and his
fidelity to the people, is the self-same spirit that
crowned Christ with thorns and pressed poison to the
lips of Socrates.
We need not much regret this revolutionary out
break of superstition allied with the class-interests pre
served by superstition. A more salient illustration of
the wolfish hunger for power underlying the unholy
alliance of pious and political tyranny was never
given to a people. If the Member for Northampton
had lived to Methuselah’s age, and made a daily
speech in Parliament, he could not have done so much
as his enemies have done in a few days to advance the
cause of atheism, so far as that means disbelief in
the God of his oppressors. The Bishop of Peter
borough says the French Revolutionary Assembly
decreed the suppression of God; but the revolutionary
House of Commons has decreed his disgrace. Their
deity is unmasked and turns out to be only a party
whip. If John Milton were living he might see in
this disgrace of the political deity the hand of the
real God overthrowing the usurper of his place. In
his time also imperialism made God into a prop of its
despotism, and Milton then wrote, “ Sure it was the
hand of God to let them fall, and be taken in such a
foolish trap as hath exposed them to all derision ;
�(
22
)
........................ thereby testifying how little he accepted
(prayers) from those who thought no better of the
living God than of a blind buzzard idol, fit to be so
served and worshipped.”
This nation is more hopelessly sunk in superstition
than I believe it to be, if it be not now awakened to
the politically destructive tendencies of dogmas
imported from barbarous tribes. It is, however, of
importance that we should see to it that the lesson is
not lost upon the rising generation. We have in this
country a great literature in which the highest
principles of morality and honour are reflected. On
the other hand, we have a so-called religion in which
all the massacres of Judaism and Christianity, their
treasons to humanity, are sanctified.
We have
simply to let every unsophisticated mind look
on this picture and on that.
We have only
to point to theological morality in Parliament
putting a premium on hypocrisy, by declaring that
it is ready to receive an atheist if he conceals his
opinions; to theological morality trampling law for
party ends; to theological morality foul-mouthed,
insolent, treating honesty of mind and honesty of
speech as crimes. We have only to ask the con
science of the mother, whether she would be glad
to have her child grow up to so encourage conceal
ment of thought, so brow-beat honesty, so over-ride
�law, slander man and insult woman, all for the sake
of God ? We have only to ask the heart of youth
whether it is prepared to worship a God so upheld,
or for any success or ambition to pretend to believe
in a religion so built on baseness ?
I believe that these questions are stirring millions of
hearts this day, and that the rising generation will
show it when fully risen. I believe that it is largely
because lessons like this have been impressed
upon past generations that the present struggle of
freedom against sacerdotalism has come.
It is also because our wise fathers taught those now
grown gray that their trusty weapons were to be free
and honest thought, fact, argument, lawful, that we
now see Oppression taking to violence, to revolution,
and Progress standing by the law. Let us better their
instruction. Let us impress upon the rising generation
that in calmness and justice is their strength. Let us
teach them the gentle, irresistible force that goes
with intellectual power, with study, mastery of their
cause, and above all the might that ever gathers to
the higher standard of morality and humanity.
�SOUTH PLACE
CHAPEL*
WORKS TO BE OBTAINED IN THE LIBRARY.
BY M. D. CONWAY, M.A.
Prices.
The Sacred Anthology: a Book of Ethnical s. d.
Scriptures......................................................... 10 0
The Earthward Pilgrimage.................................
5 0
Do.
do.......................................... 2 6
Republican Superstitions .................................
2 6
Christianity .....................................................
1 6
Human Sacrifices in England
.......................
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Sterling and Maurice...........................................
0 2
Intellectual Suicide...........................................
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The First Love again...........................................
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Our Cause and its Accusers......................
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Alcestis in England...........................................
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Unbelief : its nature, cause, and cure ............. 0 2
Entering Society
...........................................
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The Religion of Children ...
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What is Religion ?—Max Muller's First Hibbert
Lecture ...................................................... 0 2
Atheism: a Spectre...........................................
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The Criminal’s Ascension.................................
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The Religion of Humanity.................................
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A Last Word.....................................................
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NEW WORK BYM.D. CONWAY, M.A.
Idols and Ideals (including the Essay on Chris
tianity ), 350 pages
.............
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Jiembers of the Congregation can obtain this Work in the
Library at 5s.
BY MR. J. ALLANSON PICTON.
The Transfiguration of Religion.......................
BY A. J. ELLIS, B.A., F.R.S., &c., &c.
Salvation
.....................................................
Truth
Speculation .....................................................
Duty
...............................................................
The Dyer’s Hand
...........................................
BY REV. P. H. WTCKSTEED, M.A.
Going Through and Getting Over
.............
BY REV. T. W. FRECKELTON.
The Modern Analogue of the Ancient Prophet
BY W. C. COUPLAND, M.A,
The Conduct of Life...........................................
0 2
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2
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Report of the Conference of Liberal Thinkers, 1878, 1/-
�
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Victorian Blogging
Description
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A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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The rising generation: a discourse before the South Place Society, June 27th 1880
Creator
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Conway, Moncure Daniel [1832-1907.]
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Place of publication: London
Collation: 23, [1] p. ; 15 cm.
Notes: Part of Morris Miscellaneous Tracts 2. Printed by Waterlow and Sons, London Wall. With list of works to be obtained in the Library of South Place Chapel at end of pamphlet.
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[South Place Chapel]
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[1880]
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G3348
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Child rearing
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<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (The rising generation: a discourse before the South Place Society, June 27th 1880), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
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Text
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English
Child Rearing-Moral and Ethical Aspects
Children
Dogma
Education
Free Thought
Moral Education
Morris Tracts
Rationalism
Youth-Great Britain-Religious Life
-
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Text
METHOD OF EDUCATION:
A. 1ST ADDRESS
INTRODUCTORY TO THE SESSION 1859-60
♦
OF THE
ST. LOUIS MEDICAL COLLEGE,
BY
J. H. WATTERS, M.D.,
Professor of Physiology and Medical Jurisprudence.
ST. LOUIS:
GEORGE KNAPP & CO., PRINTERS.
1 8 59.
��METHOD OF EDUCATION:
An Address Introductory to the Session 1859-60 of the St. Louis Medical
College. By J. H. WATTERS, M.D., Professor of Physiology and Med
ical Jurisprudence.
Gentlemen,—Under favorable auspices we meet to-night to
celebrate the opening of our eighteenth session, and in behalf of
the faculty I welcome you as students to these halls dedicated to
medical education.
The ardent aspirations of the young of a country to fit them
selves for useful and honorable activities, brings happiness not
only to the individual, but secures life, intelligence and refine
ment to society—stability, power and influence to the state. It is
this which engenders and fosters the very vitality, spirit and soul
of a community. General society — yes, our whole country—is
interested in this assemblage of young men gathered hither from
the various parts of our extensive and prosperous valley, all in
spired with a common desire to be enabled to render a reasonable
answer to the problem of life. Some answer, whether it be rea
sonable or not, must be given by every man. It is not optional,
but the necessity is implied in the very existence of a rational be
ing : it is not a request, but an imperative demand. Should one
think to avoid it by silence or refusal to act, he deceives himself;
for his very silence and supineness become contempt, and contain
already his answer.
Man is by nature most munificently gifted; but his character and
activities are the apswer he renders to the question, “ what will he
do with it”—with his life, his mind, his reason, his image of God?
The various grades of characters, from the lowest besotted dregs
of society to the highest and noblest men, present merely the dif
ferent uses made of nature’s high gifts. Consider now
“ The wisest of the sages of the earth
That ever from the stores of reason drew
Science, and truth, and virtue’s dreadless tone
�6
and now reflect upon this solemn fact, that
“ Him, every slave now dragging through the filth
Of some corrupted city his sad life,
Pining with famine, swoln with luxury,
Blunting the keenness of his spiritual sense
With narrow schemings and unworthy cares,
Or, madly rushing through all violent crime,
To move the deep stagnation of his soul,—
Might imitate and equal.”
We hear in our youth too much cant about “ poor weak human
nature, the flesh, and the deviland those who would throw
upon the shoulders of these imaginary personalities the necessary
and legitimate results of individual slothfulness, inactivity, and re
fusal to use what has been given, would obliterate what little of
the image of God is yet visible in humanity, and would put a stop
to progress—not by bold and open opposition, which would be ac
companied with corresponding reaction, but by smothering and
destroying the already enfeebled energy and spirit.
That each individual may use his talents and powers in the best
and most reasonable way possible, is the object of all education,
whether literary, professional, scientific, or religious. In other
words, the object of education is to enable man, in his activities,
to harmonize with the Infinite, the Universal, the Absolute. It is
only as his activities do harmonize and thus cooperate with the
Infinite, that man is emancipated and exalted; while in so far as
they are discordant, man militates against God, and in the con
flict is always vanquished, degraded and enslaved. This proposi
tion is universal, and extends in its application through the whole
range of human activities. And, gentlemen, as you propose to as
sume the responsible vocation of physicians, the object of your
professional studies is that you may be enabled so to act upon
physical nature as to cure disease and relieve suffering. This,
too, can be done only by cooperating with the universal and abso
lute in perfect obedience to the physical laws; which laws are to
us the outward expression or representation, in space and time, of
universal reason. If our acts are not in obedience to these laws,
our medications, like the prayers of the wicked, are an abomina
tion. It is a common saying that nature cures disease, and that
the physician’s province is to assist nature. While this expression
admits of very liberal interpretations, yet literally it is most false.
Man under no circumstances assists nature; this is neither his
province nor prerogative : it is his highest privilege to use nature.
But how are we to use nature ? By what method are we enabled
�7
to take advantage of her laws ? In other words, what relation has
education to success, science to art? This is the question I pro
pose discussing to-night; and while I address you, gentlemen,
especially, as medical students, the method by which you will be
enabled to attain the objects of your calling, is the method of
every human activity whatever—of your social and political rela
tions no less than professional.
As the object of all education is to enable man to harmonize his
activities with the Infinite, the Universal, the Absolute, this object
can be attained only so far as we know the Infinite, the Universal,
the Absolute. I am aware that there are those high in authority
who contend that the capacity for this knowledge is not vouch
safed to man. If this be so, then indeed are we most miserably
circumstanced. What! here—possessing hopes, desires, aspira
tions, longings for something better—condemned to disappoint
ment and ignoble defeat upon every side, except in so far as our
activities are in harmony with the Infinite, and yet having no ca
pacity to know that Infinite by whom we are judged and to whom
we are subject! This can not be so: else man could not adapt
means to ends; the result of his spontaneity would be altogether
accidental; his fortune would not be in his own hands. It is not so:
the development of science condemns it; our railroads, telegraphs,
and manufactures, and all the arts, condemn it; our social, politi
cal and religious relations condemn it; all culture and progress
condemn it. As the result of every human activity is determined
by its relation to the Infinite, the relation which any people bear
to the Infinite is expressed not only in their moral, social, political
and religious condition, but also as well in their machinery, their'
manufactures, their agriculture, their navigation, their architecture,
their painting, their sculpture, their poetry, their ornaments, their
dress, in all their activities and in every expression of their sponta
neity. All advancement and progress of the individual, of society,
of humanity, is proof that we have the faculty to know the Abso
lute to which we are subject, as all success is but an expression of
this knowledge, and a resulting harmony between our activities
and the Infinite.
But man is guided in his activities by his intelligence, and mind
is in its very nature active, spontaneous, self-determinate. Know
ledge, therefore, must be the determination of the mind itself, else
the spontaneity and self-determination of mind would be super
seded and abrogated by knowledge, which is absurd. Consequent
ly, the mind must possess the faculty of determining itself harmo
niously with the Universal and Absolutewhether you agree to
�8
designate this power of the mind thus to determine itself, as know
ledge of the Universal and Absolute, or not, matters nothing, so far
as the question under discussion is concerned—By what method
is man enabled to harmonize his activities with the Infinite, the
Universal, the Absolute ? This faculty is reason. Reason being
one and absolute to man, to nature, and to God, it is most appa
rent, that, so far as our activities harmonize with reason, they must
in that very fact harmonize with the Universe and with God.
Therefore, the method by which the object of all education is to
be attained, is the method by which we are enabled to harmonize
our activities with .Reason. This proposition, gentlemen, embod
ies the central idea which I hope to present to you to-night in an
intelligible manner. You yill observe the important point, that
in this proposition we have substituted Jieason for the Infi
nite, the Universal, the Absolute. I know full well, that, in
making this substitution here in a public lecture, I am in no little
danger of being understood as making man equal with God. But
if there were no danger here, there would be little or no occasion
for this lecture ; and if, on account of this danger, I had chosen
another theme, or had treated this in a manner to conform to the
more general and popular notions, I would in that have been hug
ging my own shackles; whereas my theme this night is, How are
we freed, emancipated, exalted? A just man has not his freedom
curtailed by just laws in so far as he cognizes justice, because the
law unto himself frees him from the external laws; that is, the ex
ternal laws cease to bind and restrain him just in so far as from his
own self-determination he would fulfil them. Just so, and for the
same reason, a reasonable man has not his freedom annulled by
the laws of reason in so far as he knows reason. As one in his own
spontaneity determines himself according to reason, he ceases to
be restrained by the external laws of reason. If all moral and
physical laws be laws of reason, then indeed can man be delivered
from the dominion of necessity only so far as reason in him be
comes self-conscious. We believe in Divine Omnipotence; that
in the Infinite “we live, and move, and have our beingthat with
out Him we can not think a good thought or do a good act; and
yet we believe that man is free and justly accountable. The truth
and consistency of these two positions is all I contend for in the
substitution I have made of Reason for the Infinite, the Absolute,
the Universal. He who believes in human freedom can not but
believe that man possesses the faculty of determining liimsflf in
harmony with the Universal; for in so far as man is determined
by anywhat not himself, he is necessitated and not free. He who
�9
believes in human freedom and also in Divine Omnipotence and
Omniscience, must believe these twq positions consistent; unless,
indeed, he be himself a slave, clinging in blind fanaticism to the
very chains which bind him. And what does he mean by consist
ency except their mutual harmony with reason? And when he
acknowledges that two truths must be consistent, in this necessity
he recognizes reason as the universal umpire, authoritative to man,
to nature, and to God.
If, therefore, the object of all education is to enable us to har
monize our activities with reason, then the method we seek is the
method of reason becoming self-conscious, or, in other words, it is
the method of reason coming to a knowledge of itself. This is
perfectly clear, that in order that we may harmonize our activities
with reason we must know reason. But the reason alone can
know reason; consequently we can know reason only as the reason
becomes self-conscious. Did you ever see a little child held before
a looking-glass ? Through its senses it cognizes the phenomenon
and through its understanding it is convinced of duality,—it peeps
behind the glass fully expecting to find another child. But as it
comes to know itself, with apparent rapture it recognizes itself
in the image. Not the senses, nor yet the understanding, but only
reason can know and comprehend reason. The spontaneity of man
may be under the dominion of the senses, or of the understanding,
or of the passions; but as these are all finite and related to the in
finite only in and through reason, when they guide, the blind lead
the blind and both fall into the ditch together. But when oui*
spontaneity is guided by reason, the outward expressions of this
spontaneity—our activities, our works—must harmonize with rea
son, with nature, and with God. The great problem of humanity,
therefore, is to identify our spontaneity in each, every and all of
its various possibilities with self-conscious reason. Our question,
therefore, as to the method by which the object of education is to
be attained is now reduced to this form: What is the method of
the reason in becoming self-conscious ?
As we are students of nature, and as in this department especial
ly we hope to assist in the great struggle of humanity, and to leave
the world the better of our having lived, (if this be not our ambi
tion we are unworthy of humanity,) I shall seek this method only
as expressed in the more developed sciences. And we may hope
to get some insight thus, because Science is the formal recognition
of reason. Do not allow yourselves to anticipate me here, and to
object in your thoughts to this position, that the physical sciences
treat of nature and her laws, and, consequently, that a knowledge
�10
of these laws can be obtained only through observation and ex
periment. Be patient one moment and we will consider this matter
together. It is admitted that observation and experiment are ne
cessary conditions to a knowledge of nature and her laws, but you
must admit also that you neither see, feel, taste, nor smell the physi
cal sciences. It is true you put ores and compounds into the
crucible, but you neither put therein nor take hence the science of
chemistry; it is true certain angles and distances must be obtained
by observation, but the transit instrument and the telescope are not
wonderfully devised machines for the manufacture of the science
of astronomy; you may examine and peep, but the science is not
there—you can not get it thus. What, then, is the relation between
observation and science ? This question is sub judice, and until
decided it might be well to suspend our anticipated objection.
Physical science is rendered possible only in and through the
identity of the laws of nature and the laws of thought. This is
a self-evident proposition; for if nature could in her mode of
action be whimsical or unreasonable, where, I ask, would be the
criterion whereby we could know nature or determine her mode
of action ? There would be none, and we would necessarily be ut
terly in the dark. If there be physical science at all, therefore, the
laws of nature must be identical with the laws of thought, and
Science must be the recognized identity. The senses do not and
can not give us science; observation and experiment can only give
phenomena. Physical science exists only so far as reason has come
to a recognition of itself in the phenomenal. That is, so far as we
have science reason must have become the criterion whereby na
ture is recognized as laws of thought. But reason can become
the criterion only in so far as it becomes self-conscious, or as it
knows itself. Consequently, we may hope by an examination and
careful analysis of the sciences, to learn something of the method
whereby the object of all education is to be attained; in other
words, of the method of reason in becoming self-conscious or in
recognizing itself. Though we may thus only obtain a partial in
sight, yet even this is not to be altogether despised.
As mathematics is more developed and more generally under
stood than any other science, we will direct our attention to it
especially. And let it be understood that our object here is not
to reduce all science to what has been termed the mathematical
method, but rather to seek in the mathematics the method of the
reason in becoming self-conscious, as all science (mathematics, of
course, included) has been shown to be the reason coming to know
and recognize itself. As my object, as a teacher, is always more to
�11
excite thought than to amuse,—to draw out the mind rather than
to instil dogmas, I hope you will excuse me for selecting for your
consideration a subject requiring so much study. My excuse is
that the principles involved in this subject, though they may seem
abstract, are most practical, forming as they do the very foundation
of all knowledge and all success.
Mathematics as a science starts with certain primary proposi
tions, which are divided usually into two classes—Definitions and
Axioms. But what mean these propositions ? whence came they,
and where is the authority for the use made of them in mathemat
ics ? If we can obtain correct answers to these questions, we will
have approached very near what we seek: but do not be uneasy, I do
not intend to lead you over the paths already well worn by the Sen
sationalists and Idealists. First let me call your attention to this most
important consideration— That there can be no existence, law, mode
of action, or phenomenon, without limitations; for all these im
ply determinations, and there can be no determinations without lim
itations. This is self-evident and absolute; think of it one moment.
There can be no this and that without a difference, and there can be
no difference without limitations. To vision, pure light would be
equivalent to pure darkness; there can be no seeing without a
mingling of the two—without shades or colors. Power is equiva
lent to no power without resistance; you can not lift yourself by
the hair; as Archimedes could not find a pou std, or place to fix
his machine, he could not move the earth. The equation sign
stands forever between absolute motion and no motion; the an
cients did not recognize the parallel lines, and they attached the
predicate no motion to the earth. And our physical sciences (so
called) now are mostly legerdemain to induce the student, by com
plicating the process, to believe he has succeeded in lifting him
self ; in lieu of the earth, physical science is placed on the back of
a tortoise. As there could be nothing to know, therefore, without
limitations, so there could be no knowing. As all things and phe
nomena depend upon the union of opposites, as of motion and rest,
of power and resistance, of light and darkness; so science is based
upon the union of opposites necessarily. As what is to be known
has its existence in this union, evidently the knowing must be bas
ed upon it. Now pure space, like pure light, is without limits, and
consequently is without determination. There is no this, as deter
mined from that; there is no here and no there; no outside and
no inside; no circumference, and no centre. As, for vision pure
light must be united with its opposite—darkness, so the science
of geometry must be based upon the union of the pure idea space
�12
and its opposite. Now, what stands opposed to space as darkness
is opposed to light? You at once recognize it as the point. The
point is not space, but it is related to space as its opposite, as its
negation, as its limitation. We are now prepared to understand
the meaning of the Definitions upon which geometry is based.
These definitions are the limitations of space by its opposite—the
point;—the motion of a point may be said to generate a line; the
motion of a line, to generate a surface; the motion of a surface, to
generate a solid. So, while pure space is without limitations or
determinations, yet united with its opposite we have definitions as
the bases of science. We now have a here and a there, a this and
a that. By this union we have a straight line, a curved line, a tri
angle, a square, a polygon, a circle, an ellipse, a parabola, an hy
perbola, a polyedron, a prism, a parallelopipedon, a sphere, an ellip
soid, &c. &c.
But before investigating further the meaning of the definitions
of mathematics, we must investigate whence they came; a know
ledge of their origin will contribute to the understanding of their
nature. You are aware that many contend that all our knowledge,
including of course mathematical definitions and axioms, is deri
ved from sensation; and that others contend, no less confidently,
for the existence of innate ideas, and for this origin of all know
ledge. It is not pertinent to our present object to meddle with
either of these systems. We have seen that all determination is
through limitation; that is, if all limitation were removed from
any thing, all determination would be removed; and what would
be left would be equivalent to nought—is nothing—the thing
would no longer have existence. But do you say something would
still be left ? Think one moment; your something left being with
out determinations, wherein, I ask, is its difference from nothing ?
You call it something, I call it nothing, and you can not apply a
predicate to your something which I can not also apply to my
nothing; if you can, then your “something left” has limitations
which is contrary to the hypothesis. It is perfectly apparent,
therefore, if we know not the limitations, we know not the thing;
and that, in so far as we know the limitations, we know the thing
in itself—the thing having an existence only in these limitations.
Therefore, if things in themselves were not related to us, we could
never know them; if there were no bond of union between nature
and ourselves, all things in nature by which we are surrounded
would be to us as though they were not,—we would be uncon
scious of their existence. Consequently, if we know nature at all,
(and no one will be likely to deny this,) there must be some means
�13
of our knowing or becoming conscious of the limitations of things
in themselves. But how can the mind know or become conscious
of that which is outside of itself? This is the difficult but most
important question. If we admit the duality of nature and mind,
must we admit that the mind can get outside of itself to know na
ture ? This would be a manifest absurdity, for nothing can get
outside of itself. Then, to admit a knowledge of nature, are we
compelled to do away with the duality, and to become out and out
materialists on the one hand, or idealists on the other ? I think
not. Then, if the mind can not get out of itself, how can the mind
know nature if duality be admitted ? I think I see one, and only
one possible solution of this problem; for, in admitting that the
mind can not get out of itself, we admit that our knowledge of na
ture comes from the mind knowing itself. This is the problem:
Admitting the duality of nature and mind, and that the mind can
not get out of itself, how can the mind know nature ?
It is admitted that we have some knowledge of nature, and, con
sequently, that there must be some relation between mind and
the external world. Now if we admit duality, the only possible
relation is that of mutual limitation; that is, in so far as nature and
mind are distinct and dual, they must reciprocally exclude and ne
gate each other. And in so far as they are distinct, the only pos
sible relation they can have on the side of their duality must be
xthe mutual limitation through this reciprocal exclusion and nega
tion. This is the only possible relation upon the admission of dual
ity, because neither could get outside of itself, which would of
course be necessary for any other relation. Consequently, this re
lation, so far from requiring the denial, is in virtue of the duality;
and, as this is the only possible relation consistent with duality, this
must be the avenue to a knowledge of nature; or else, we must de
ny either the duality, or, the possibility of such knowledge. These
three are the only possible alternatives:—You must either do away
with the duality and become materialists on the one side, or ideal
ists on the other; or else, admitting the duality, you must deny
the possibility of a knowledge of nature; or else, admitting both
the duality and a possibility of a knowledge of nature, you must
find in the mutual exclusion and limitation the condition of this
knowledge. Endorsing this last alternative, we must endeavor to see
how nature and mind mutually excluding and limiting each other, is
the avenue to a knowledge of nature. We are not now concerned
with the inquiry how nature and mind limit each other, but our
present inquiry starts with the fact that they must limit each other,
upon the admission of duality. This is the solution: Nature and
�14
mind mutually excluding and limiting each other, in so far as the
mind cognizes its own limitation, in that act, being limited by na
ture, it recognizes the limitation of nature. To illustrate: suppose
A and B own adjacent farms; A, in knowing the limitations of his,
knows, in that very fact, the limitations of B’s so far as they mutu
ally limit each other; just so, the mind, in knowing its own limita
tions, knows the limitations of nature so far as they exclude and
limit each other. Thus the mind knows nature in knowing itself.
This is the only possible solution; but we need no other as this is in
every respect most satisfactory, containing within itself evidence
of its truth, and is therefore worthy of all acceptation, even though
we were not forced to adopt it, or else either materialism or ideal
ism, or the doctrine that all knowledge of nature is impossible.
But, at first glance, all this may seem to have little to do with the
Definitions of mathematics. Upon reflection, however, I suspect it
will be found to have somewhat to do not only with mathematics
but with our political, social and even religious condition, with the
steam engine and weaver’s shuttle and doctor’s pill, and even with
our bread and butter.
But to continue;—all knowledge, therefore, including mathema
tics and the natural sciences, is the mind knowing itself. If this
be so, you may ask, how do we know that nature is actual and
real? You may say, “upon the admission of the duality of nature
and mind, and, that they mutually limit each other, it is clear
enough that the mind, in knowing itself, knows nature in so far as
they thus limit each other; but, if the mind only knows itself, how
do you get the duality ? How does the mind know that an actual
nature stands over against it limiting it; and that these limitations
of itself, which only it knows, have an external condition at all ?”
This knowledge comes through sensation, which gives us a con
sciousness of objectivity. This will be clear, I think, if you will
call to mind a point already discussed at some length. As we have
seen that all existence and phenomena depend upon the union of
opposites, as of motion and rest, of power and resistance, of light
and darkness, so all consciousness implies duality. Consequently,
consciousness in the line of our spontaneity—that is, a limitation
where we know there is no internal limitation—gives us objectiv
ity authoritatively. The primary condition of our knowledge of
the existence of nature, as opposed to and as limiting mind, is mo
tion. But I must not dwell upon this part of my subject.
On the other hand again, one disposed to sensationalism will ob
ject,—“this is all nonsense to talk about the mind knowing nature
by knowing itself,—I see and feel objects themselves, but I do not
�15
know the mind,—I can not see it!” I grant you your position fully—
that you see and feel objects, and that you know mind very little;
probably if you could only get it under a microscope, or into a cruci
ble, you would know it better. But I thank you for your objection
just here in close juxtaposition with the one of the idealist already
considered; as we have to steer here between Scylla and Charybdis,
we must keep in mind their localities. In reply to idealism just now,
it was maintained that objectivity is given authoritatively in sensa
tion, in that all consciousness implies duality,—the union of op
posites. This seems to the senses to approach dangerously close
to you, O voracious Charybdis! who would draw all knowledge
into th£ abyss of sensationalism. You say you do not know mind,
but that you know nature, objects, matter, which are given in
sensation. Hence you peep at nature; you make observations and
experiments; you turn her round to make her present herself to
your senses on as many sides as possible; probably you may use
a microscope to assist the senses; you note down very carefully
the results—what you see; you classify this and call it Physical
Science ! And to be so lucky as to see something fir§t, say a new
fossil, and to describe it and classify it, entitles one to endless fame
in the history of Science ! Can it be that now, in the latter half of
the nineteenth century, such a gross and bungling counterfeit is
palmed upon humanity so currently! You say you know little or
nothing of mind because you can not see it,—this I have granted
without the slightest mental reservation; but you say you know
nature and objects around you because you see them and feel
them! Hold! you feel the fire and say it is hot; you see the rose
and say it is red; you taste sugar and say it is sweet. But the
sugar is not sweet, the rose is not red, the fire is not hot; these are
but sensations which you objectify and put into things which you
say you know in sensation. Now you must acknowledge that you
know not the things you imagine you see, and you say that you
know not mind as you can not see it;—what, then, do you know ?
Your physical science is no science, containing as it does the two
factors—the things seen and the individual seeing—most hetero
geneously mixed up, neither known, both undetermined, and one
of them (the individual seeing) extremely variable. Call this
Science! It is mockery, it is trifling with common sense to palm
such stuff off as science.
We have seen that the mind can know nature only in knowing
itself, and, consequently, that the mind can know nature only in so
far as they mutually limit each other. Now the grossest sensa
tionalist acts upon this position; for when he says the rose is red,
�16
that sugar is sweet, that fii’e is hot, he actually makes his own
limitations in sensation the limitations of things; and the more re
fined of the class who say, “we can know nothing of nature except
the phenomena,” in this fully endorse the same position. The real
difference between these and me is not here therefore, but rather
in this, that they would restrict mind to sensation, or at most to
the understanding. They, no less than I, acknowledge their own
limitations as all they know of nature or indeed can know. But
it may be asked,—“ if the limitations of mind are the means of our
knowing things, or all of nature that we can know, are we not right
in objectifying our sensations?” Certainly we are right; if we
wished to, we could not help seeing the rose as red, feeling* the fire
as hot, and tasting sugar as sweet. But I do most solemnly pro
test against the currency of this, or of any classification or gen
eralization of what is given in sensation, as science either of na
ture or mind. It is not science, because the mind does not Tcnow
and recognize itself in what is given in sensation. It cognizes
only the sensation, the feeling, the redness, the heat, the sweet
ness, &c., which are cognized as well by beasts; for no doubt
they see the grass as green and feel the fire as hot as well as we.
In the language of Scripture,—“The ox knoweth his owner, and
the ass his master’s crib; but Israel doth not know, my people doth
not consider.” The mere cognition of phenomena is not know
ledge either of the thing or of mind; and although phenomena are
an essential condition of physical science, it is a gross blunder to
suppose we can get knowledge or science by an accumulation,
classification, and generalization of no-knowledge, no-science. You
can not hang your coat on the shadow of a nail; it will not sustain
it, try it as often as you please. From all we have said, it follows
most manifestly that, as the thing exists only in its limitations as
we have seen, and as the limitations of nature are the limitations of
reason, physical science can only exist in this,—the reason becoming
self-conscious and recognizing itself in what is given in sensation.
This is a most difficult process, but it alone is worthy of humanity
and of our highest ambition; the reason in becoming self-conscious
pulls down the “wall of partition,” and admits us into the very
presence of the Infinite, the Universal, the Absolute. It alone can
make us free indeed, not by doing away with the external law, but
by enabling us in our own spontaneity to fulfil the law; which is the
object of all education, and should be of all human aspiration.
But, as we have seen, the mind can not get out of itself, and yet,
what has been given in sensation you have thrown from you and
already put in the thing, or rather, have made it the thing. IIow
�17
are you to get it back into mind again, to enable the reason to re
cognize itself in it? It is absolutely necessary, as you see, to get in
terms of the reasoning the limitations given first in sensation. The
only possibility left now for science, is for the reason to go out and
limit itself by the limitations of sense made object. To illustrate:
suppose you wish to get a cast containing the limitations or form
of a given object; you first take an impression in plaster; you now
make it the object of 'which you take an impression in a given
metal; you now have in metal the limitations of the original ob
ject. So you first take an impression of nature in the terms of ex
ternal sense, you now make this the object and take an impression
of it in terms of the reason. You now have, not science, but the
first condition of science; you have the object in terms of the rea
son,—but the science is the reason coming to know and recognize
itself in this its own object. As the thing in itself exists in those
same limitations which you now have in terms of the reason, the
reason in knowing itself in its own object, knows the thing in itself.
The object of reason thus obtained is always an idea limited by its
opposite,—as we have already seen the “definitions” upon which
geometry is based consist of the idea Space limited by its opposite.
Now we see whence the definitions come, and understand clearly
what they are. We now have some insight, I think, back to where
science must begin, if it begin at all. The definitions upon which
geometry is based, are, in distinction from the objects of sense, ob
jects of reason : they are ideal, not sensual. The words, point, line,
triangle, &c., are but signs to represent to the understanding the lim
itations of the idea; consequently, when I say a triangle is a figure
bounded by three straight lines, I give only a verbal definition of the
word triangle; but the word defined is only a sigu of the Conception.
So when I draw a triangle on the blackboard, the diagram is only a
sensual representation. The real, which the verbal definition and
diagram represent, is the ideal object—the object of reason. There
are many who think they study mathematics, who never grasp the
real definitions, but only the shadow as given in sensations. All these
ever reach are forms and rules. When they get a little older and
dabble in philosophy, they tell us mathematics is based upon hy
potheses and even absurdities; for, say they, “nothing can have
position which has neithei- length, breadth, nor thickness, as the
the mathematician predicates of & point.” This only shows that
the objector himself does not see the point, and it is to be feared
he never will see it, because not given in sensation.
The science of mathematics, in all its various branches, from the
determining the product of two and two, to the highest achieve
�18
ments of Newton or LaPlace, is constituted of the expressions of
the reason in the act of coming to know itself in the various limit
ations of the idea Quantity. This definition follows from what has
already been sufficiently insisted upon, but I will try to make it
even more clear. The data of every mathematical problem must
limit the problem, or it can not be solved. This involves, if clearly
understood, the most that I have said to-night. Every standard
measure of real things must be given both in sensation and in rea
son ; that is, it must be both cognized in sensation and recognized
by the reason. For instance, when I say a foot is one straight line
twelve inches long, here the straight line and numbers one and
twelve are recognized limitations of reason, whereas foot and inch
are cognized limitations of objects. All the standard measures are
such as as are both cognized and recognized together, and hence
used with the least possible effort. But all which is necessary is
that the data should limit both the thing and the idea. Hence, on
the side of sensation I may use inch, foot, yard, pole, or any stand
ard, provided I cognize it; so on the side of reason I am not
restricted to straight line, but may use triangle, square, circle, &c.,
&c., provided they can be both cognized and recognized. Hence
you see the application of the whole of mathematics to physical
science in regard to its quantitative determinations. Though I
can not measure the height of a steeple with a straight line, a foot
stick, I can measure it with a triangle. Here the cognition and
recognition are not together, and apparently in the same act of
mind, as when a foot rule is used, since we can not recognize the
triangle in all its properties by a simple act of the reason. Hence,
when we get the base line, or one side of the triangle, in units of
feet, and the angles in units of degrees—all of which are both cog
nized and recognized—we neglect for a time the side of sensation,
that the reason may recognize itself in the triangle; and when we
thus recognize the other leg of the triangle in units—terms Of the
reason—we then put back these units into feet from which we took
them, and now both cognize and recognize the height of the stee
ple at once; that is, we know it. This is an illustration of every
application of mathematics to physical science.
But the different sciences may involve different ideas; quantity
is not the only idea involved in the physical sciences. The ancient
Greeks did not, for obvious reasons, succeed in developing a science
of other ideas as they did of the idea quantity, and with us other
ideas have but little to do with assumed knowledge, with sci
ence. We do not recognize the Platonic “Idea” as the very
life of all science, of all knowledge and all success; and it is
�19
fashionable in these days to declare, both implicitly and expli
citly, that the Organon of Bacon has superseded the Organon of
Aristotle. As both sensation and reason are essential to physical
science—the one to give the condition, the other the essence and
life—it is difficult to comprehend how the one can supersede the
other, except upon the assumption that reason is nonessential to
science. But if, as we have seen, science consists in the reason
knowing and recognizing itself, then this judgment can be but a
sign of ourselves, that sense has superseded reason in us;—
“ Doth the harmony
In the sweet lute-strings belong
To the purchaser, who, dull of ear, doth keep
The instrument ? True, she hath bought tjhz right
To strike it into fragments,—yet no art /
To wake its silvery tones, and melt with/bliss
Of thrilling song! Truth to the wise exists,
And beauty for the feeling heart.”
I now find that many points are left untouched which I intend
ed to discuss, and which would be necessary to give unity to the
subject; but I find time will not permit, and I must hasten to a
conclusion. Let me remark, however, that Axioms are but expres
sions in terms of the understanding of the living-force of the rea
son of each individual. How erroneous, therefore, is the definition
that an axiom is that which all men receive as absolutely true. An
axiom is an absolute and universal truth, but it may not be recog
nized by all men. If I had sufficient energy of thought or living
force of self-conscious reason, the proposition that the square of the
hypothenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides of a right-angled triangle, would become an axiom; but as I
have not this, and as the mind can not transcend itself, I have to
use the lever of method. But as all this is but the carrying out of
what has already been said, I need not dwell upon it. This living
energy of reason was so great in Plato, Shakspeare, and Goethe,
that they could lift greater weights directly than most men could
with all the appliances of levers and pullies.
We have seen that, as the mind can not get out of itself, (and
this position is implicitly admitted by all, though it may be expli
citly denied,) it can know only through a knowledge of itself. We
have seen that we can know physical nature even, only because
nature exists in its limitations, and these limitations are identical
with the limitations of mind or the laws of thought. And God being
Infinite Mind, in whose image we are created, the mind knows God
only in so far as it becomes self-conscious or knows itself. “ God
�20
is a Spirit, and they who worship Him must worship Him in spi
rit and in truth.” But we have seen, also, that the mind can know
itself only in self-conscious reason, and that reason hence is the
only criterion of truth. It is sad to reflect how little self-conscious
reason there is in the world, in humanity. Though reason is the
only criterion of truth, and it alone can exalt us and free us, by en
abling us to unite and cooperate with the Universal and Absolute,
yet, do we not see this our only hope condemned and upbraided
even in the pulpit, driven from the state, and trampled down and
spit upon by politics, and treated little better by science, so-called ?
When this is gone, what have we left? Nothing but individual
tape-strings! Oh, yes! they all talk loudly about the “ Higher
Law,” and say “ do right! do right I” And you ask them, what is
the Higher Law? what is right?—and they immediately and with
the most impudent assurance present their individual tape-strings,
and commence straightway measuring! measuring! But by what
authority are these stamped? By the senses, the feelings, the pas
sions. But each individual has a different standard stamped by
the same authority, except where what is called education induces
many to use the same string. And what power is umpire in these
irrepressible conflicts thus inevitably induced ? God is out of the
question, as reason has been dethroned, apd nothing is left but
physical force. Hence family, political and religious discord and
strife—one tape-string in conflict with another; no self-conscious
reason, no knowledge of the Absolute. If you direct your mind
through the whole range of human activities, you find labels ac
cording to these tape-strings stuck on every thing—the most sa
cred no less than secular. And this is called Knowledge! Truth!
Higher Law! And Education, in all its various departments, is,
in the main, the drilling into the young these lifeless forms, these
shams, these midnight apparitions, these labels arranged in order
to suit the easy method of the sensational understanding. Oh! it
is sad to behold how grossly humanity is engulfed into the senses.
We boast that we are the lords of creation; which means, that we
can bridle the horse, and that we will ultimately exterminate the
lion: for, the spirit of humanity is indicated, not in the question,
how shall we use those gifts to us which have not been vouchsafed
to beasts ? but rather, how shall we make up our deficit in beastly
gifts ?—“ What shall we eat ? what shall we drink ? and where
withal shall we be clothed?”
�St. Louis Medical College,
November 1st, 1859.
’
Prof. J. H. Watters.
Dear Sir,
At a meeting held by the Class, J. T. Marsh in the
chair, it was unanimously resolved, that a committee be appointed for the pur- •
pose of requesting from you permission to publish your Introductory Address,
delivered before the Class, in College Hall, on the evening of October 31st.
Hoping that the above resolve may receive your approbation, a favorable reply
will meet with the thanks of the Class, and of yours,
Respectfully,
J. L. WILCOX,
GRATZ A. MOSES,
CHAS. KNOWER,
JOHN THOMPSON,
J. C. HICKERSON.
St. Louis, Nov. 2, 1859.
Dear Sirs,
The manuscript of my lecture is at your service ; please present
to the Class my acknowledgment of the compliment,
And believe me, as ever,
Your attached friend,
J. H. WATTERS.
To Messrs. Wilcox, Moses, Knower, Thompson, Hickerson.
�
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Victorian Blogging
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A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
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Conway Hall Library & Archives
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2018
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Conway Hall Ethical Society
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Method of education: an address introductory to the session 1859-60 of the St. Louis Medical College
Creator
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Watters, J. H.
Description
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Place of publication: St. Louis
Collation: 20 p. ; 23 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
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George Knapp & Co.
Date
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1869
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G5184
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Education
Medicine
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Text
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English
Conway Tracts
Education
Medicine