1 10 3 https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/beaa8bd0f65f9064671ff451e931d2f7.pdf?Expires=1780531200&Signature=EZdMOw63FF5LX3eHof01Gnqe6K0rY8J3FohDPDLqZLWZbcXBMAsHmqnjFxFXfWASvbHi%7E89Ikl4pFb3xP8fCWqyl7%7EO4QY5izmu9%7E0LSersvfoc3yJDpysPv4fD5kxKCbuEvb6UCKWYH0E8MRowGvaKaRereILDiOHbhnkuySA-JkHhqt32wLW8FbSG98fdy0ZUR8EkjLVVzQ67lNOOMwJ6c55vDvrA56GnGNSXlCb0PgsInm-kfYihccPRPa6eB4Siaybp0Grwj%7EiYhWB-YLaxuu%7E%7EfV%7EMxGIksBnhdMBSJU5AZjEC6jwMC5HMPorsSUgvuQeimT5ywj0NYC9pYOA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 7a601b1ba9d801989c83ae1779e59018 PDF Text Text ISogal Institution of Sreat ISritain. WEEKLY EVENING MEETING, Friday, January 24, 1862. , The Rev. John Barlow, M.A. F.R.S. Vice-President, in the Chair. 5 / . George Rolleston, M.D. LINACRE PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, OXFORD. On the Affinities and Differences between the Brain of Man and the Brains of certain Animals. The speaker having commenced by giving a short explanation of his diagrams of human and other brains, proceeded to enumerate the several sets of opinions which men might bring with them to an investigation of his subject. It was possible to combine either view of the origin of species with either of the two creeds of the idealist or of the materialist; and to the four sets of opinions thus made up, a fifth— that of Positivism—must be added. It was not asserted that these conflicting theories could all be true simultaneously ; but the facts to be detailed were elastic enough to bear compression within any one of those formulas. Beginning with the internal anatomy of the brains which he had to compare and contrast, the speaker said that the question as between man and the ape might be stated thus :—Has the ape such a biradiate, two-horned ventricular cavity within its brain as has the dog, or has it not rather such a one as has man himself, triradiate and three-horned ? By the aid of drawings of dissected brains of the dog, of an old-world and of a new-world monkey, and of man, it was seen that the interior of the simious brain was even more pre-eminently a three-horned cavity than was that of the human brain; and that the new-world monkey contrasted with man to even greater advantage in this, and the disputed point of the closely-allied hippocampus minor, than did the much more anthropomorphous old-world ape. Tiedemann’s retracta­ tion of his error as to the processus digitati of the greater hippocampus was alluded to; the speaker insisting that though such discoveries and rectifications might seem of weight and consequence to persons imbued, as was Tiedemann, with materialistic views, they possessed no anthropological interest whatever for the idealist. Certain anatomical plates of Eustachius’, published some 150 years ago, were shown to give representations of the interior of the human brain which coincided in all points with figures of the interior of the �2 Professor Rolleston on the [Jan. 24, brain of the orang, which had been published within the current month by two Dutch anatomists, in the English ‘ Natural History Review.’ Passing, then, from the anatomy of the internal to that of the external surface of the brain, the speaker said that the points of agree­ ment and of difference upon which he should have to dwell could be arranged under two heads—either they were such as the eye could judge of even though its owner were not an anatomist ex professo, depending a§ they did upon general outline and configuration ; or they were such as a deeply-going analysis of the convolutions alone could elicit. Under the first head were enumerated the more elegantly ovoidal and tapering shape, the more accurate semicircularity of the superior, and the irregularity of the inferior boundary line, as signs of defect and diminisliment in the ape’s brain ; but the outcropping of the cerebellum from beneath the overlying cerebral hemispheres, which had been so much insisted upon as a distinctive mark of the inferiority of the simious encephalon, was shown to depend largely upon the changes of relative position which the several masses of nervous matter, comprised under the one term “ encephalon,” undergo when they are removed from their supporting brain-case. The absolute necessity of comparing the configuration and propor­ tions of brains preserved in spirits with the configuration and propor­ tions of plaster-casts of the cavities they occupied during life, was dwelt upon with special reference to Mr. Marshall’s observations upon this point in the ‘ Natural History Review’ for July, 1861. It was in the gorilla alone of the Simiadae that M. Gratiolet (‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 1860, p. 803) had found the posterior cerebral lobes doing otherwise than “recouvrant completement le cerveletand it was this peculi­ arity, together with other characteristics of its encephalon and other structures, which had induced him to speak of it as “ the last, the most degraded of all the anthropomorphous apes and to class it with the baboons, whilst he ranked the chimpanzee with the macaques, and the orang with the gibbons. The last point of general configuration and measurement in which the simious was contrasted with the human brain was that of their several altitudes ; and it was shown that whilst men differed but little inter se as to the height of their brains, it was precisely in this very dimension that they differed, perhaps more widely than in any other, from all apes whatsoever. After expressing his sense of the obligations which anatomy owed to M. Gratiolet’s analysis of the cerebral convolutions, the speaker proceeded to give in detail the points of resemblance and of contrast which that analysis had enabled us to detect as subsisting between human or simious brains. The chief points in which, under this head, the human was seen to contrast to advantage with the ape’s brain were two. First: The absence in man of “ the external perpendicular fissure,” or, in other words, the filling up in him of what is more or less of a chasm in the ape, by a large quadrangular mass of convolu- �18621.] x Brain of Man and the Brains of certain Animals. 3 tions. Second : The much greater size and complexity of the frontal lobes. But it was shown that these differences affected what have been called “ secondary ” and “ tertiary ” convolutions, and indeed the latter of these chiefly, whilst the “ primary ” convolutions, the great typical lines and ridges, were the same in both classes of brains. The apparatus for the mechanical, (and possibly also physiological,) unification of the hemispheres, which is known as the corpus callosum, was stated to have in man just double the sectional area which it had in the apes ; whilst the very lowest weight which an adult and healthy human encephalon was recorded to have fallen to, was yet double, and more than double, of the very highest which had ever been attained in the weighing of an ape’s brain. The results of the anatomical investigation were summed up thus. “ This doubly and more than doubly greater weight, the doubly greater corpus callosum, that subquadrate lobule, lettered a, and yS in the diagram, those complexly convoluted frontal lobes, 1, 2, and 3, are, I believe, the four great points in which the human brain asserts its superiority over that of the ape.” The metaphysical or anthropological bearings of the investigation might be summed up thus. How similar soever the simious might be shown to be to the human brain, the argument which Bossuet drew thence for the essential difference between mind and matter, would but be rendered the stronger. If organs are common to man and to brutes, one is necessarily forced to the conclusion that intelligence is not attached to organs; and the cogency of this argument, M. St. Hilaire remarks, increases as the number of organs, common to the two subjects of comparison, becomes more numerous and their resem­ blance more striking. The anatomist, however, though not obliged to concede, could yet afford to argue upon, the assumption that mind and matter always vary concomitantly. For, granting this, it by no means followed, that, of the two terms of the comparison, mind was the second, body the first. The effects of prolonged mental states of different natures, the operation of education in marring or in elevating the physical features, the instinctive value which we all give to physiognomy, whether before us in actuality, or reproduced and preserved for us by art, as affording indications of character, were glanced at as lines of evidence to show that the mind might modify, whilst the body was adapted ; that the immaterial might fashion, whilst the corporal was conformed into accordance with it. “ All alike, when coldly and dispassionately viewed as concomitantly varying phenomena, lead us to hold that our higher and diviner life is not a mere result of the abundance of our convolutions. How harmony may have come to exist between them our faculties are incompetent either to decide or to discover; but this shortcoming of man’s intelligence affects neither his duties nor his hopes, neither his fears nor his aspirations.” [G-. R.J �HBH � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. 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Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On the affinities and differences between the brain of man and the brains of certain animals Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rolleston, George Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: 3 p. ; 22 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. The Rev. John Barlow in the Chair. Read at the weekly evening meeting Friday, January 24, 1862 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Royal Instiution of Great Britain Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1862 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5282 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (On the affinities and differences between the brain of man and the brains of certain animals), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Subject The topic of the resource Biology Anatomy Animals Anthropology Brain Comparative Anatomy Conway Tracts Human beings https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/0e90816a72f0c135fd125294be441a07.pdf?Expires=1780531200&Signature=kNcgI0lHsD5yagqSU%7EUARIYqlv73QhrTRKYYpgGrYiUQc2VwvgDmMJkuu1AypwC2cAz694dLdDvePColeN42YS950GySeELDHa5MGnI-aN7vb3KahGytCwBrblq31zif7N1HCLQoPi4ZwhTeu6mthgFwxbXc8WNnspegPA71pFP1rVHpPsWUPTrUMSG32CDiTtvRjhCchCAn1bySFWKO-Go1Cq1HeBHvhRCm1H3ukZYPVpuVU2UWJVmtslQLIMJKakFt-bqSkqPPzMW53jWVle5FQK5w5DTspq14j3Op1-NAsRKuUIT7tXwPmurJpA5y8VEs5A%7EkkZ-dRsLYDchyQA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 1fac906f1bea6343c7da7377f74f9abf PDF Text Text 7. r(i i. NEGRO’S PLACE IN BY JAMES HUNT, Ph.D,, F.S.A., F.R.S.L., F.A.S.L., FOREIGN ASSOCIATE OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE UPPER HESSE SOCIETY FOR NATURAL AND MEDICAL SCIENCE, ETC., BTC. AND PRESIDENT OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. [Read before the Anthropological Society of London, Nov. 17th, 1863.] LONDON: PUBLISHED FOR THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, BY TEUBNER AND CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. ��vii DEDICATION. men who are competent to give any decided opinion as to the value of my communication. We have had plenty of African travellers, but there is perhaps no other man living who, by previous education and study, is better able than yourself to paint the Negro and other African races as they exist, regard­ less of what we may consider should'be their state. I was necessarily confined to a limited space in my paper, but you will see that I have added notes in support of my views. I have also thought it desirable to print all the import­ ant passages in M. Pruner Bey’s admirable Memoir on this subject. As Physician to the Viceroy of Egypt, he had ample opportunities of studying the anatomy and physiology of the Negro. The only part of his paper I have omitted is some descriptive matter relating to the variety of races in Africa: not the object of the present inquiry. I shall feel grateful if you will state my great obligations to the author of Wanderings in West Africa, should you meet with its accom­ plished, agreeable, and unbiassed author. In conclusion, I am glad to inform you that the Society whose birth you witnessed only requires one thing for its complete success, viz., that you should return to England and give to Anthropology not only the benefit of your large stores of knowledge, but also that you should preside over the affairs of a Society destined under such a Presidency to accomplish the great and important objects for which it was established. Believe me, My dear Burton, Yours very faithfully, JAMES HUNT. Ore House, Hastings, England. December 9, 1863. N.B.—I ought to tell you that I had a goodly number of supporters among the audience at Newcastle ; and amongst numerous letters I have since received, I give the following extract from a letter, just written to me by a lady who as- �viii DEDICATION. sisted in the microscopical investigations of some scientific men in the Confederate States of America. Some of the notes taken on the occasion referred to were to the following effect:— “ The skeleton of the Negro can never be placed upright. There is always a slight angle in the legs, a greater in the thigh bones and still more in the body, until in some instances it curves backwards. All the bones of the legs are flattened and wider than in the European ; and the arm-bones have always a tendency to fall forward, while the head stoops from the shoulders, and not from the neck, as in other nations. To make the skeleton stand equal in its weight on all parts, you must give it these inclinations. “ The blood is vastly dissimilar,—the red corpuscles are greatly in excess, and the colourless have an extraordinary tendency to run together: the mole­ cular movement within the discs differs in every respect, and when tried with a solution of potass, the protrusions from the cell-walls take every inter­ mediate form, reverting with great rapidity to the normal condition. It is an attested fact, that if there is a drop of African blood in the system of a white person, it will show itself upon the scalp. The greater the proximity, the darker the hue, the larger the space : there may not be the slightest, taint perceptible in any other part of the body, but this spot can never be wiped out, no intervening time will ever efface it; and it stands in the courts of law in the Southern Confederacy as a never-failing test, unimpeachable as a law of Nature. “Their eyesight decays very early, failing generally after thirty, but very few become totally blind; and in the three instances I ever met, they were blind to light, but found their way easily through the streets and over their dwellings during the hours of darkness. The hair is very peculiar; * three hairs, springing from different orifices, will unite into one; it is very friable, like moss, the ends splitting up.” The above intelligent remarks, although they contain nothing new, are chiefly valuable from the fact that ladies in the Con­ federate States seem to be better informed on the subject than many men of science in this country. In time the truth will come out, and then the public will have their eyes opened, and will see in its true dimensions that gigantic imposture known by the name of “ Negro Emancipa­ tion.”—J. H. * See, also on this, the able memoir by M. Pruner-Bey, communicated to the Anthropological Society of Paris: De la chevelure nornrrn' caractdristique des races humaines, d’apres des recherches micros copiques. 8vo. Paris, 1863, �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. I propose in this communication to discuss the physical and mental characters of the Negro, with a view of determining not only his position in animated nature, but also the station to be assigned to him in the genus homo. I shall necessarily have to go over a wide field, and cannot hope to treat the subject in an exhaustive manner. I shall be amply satisfied if I succeed in directing the attention of my scientific friends to a study of this most important and hitherto nearly neglected branch of the great science of Anthropology. It is not a little remarkable that the subject I propose to bring before you this evening is one which has never been dis­ cussed before a scientific audience in this Metropolis. In France, in America, and in Germany, the physical and mental characters of the Negro have been frequently discussed, and England alone has neglected to pay that attention to the question which its importance demands. I shall, therefore, make no apology for bringing this subject in its entirety under your consideration, although I should have preferred discussing each point in detail. I hope, however, this even­ ing to bring before you facts and opinions that will lay a good foundation for future inquiry and discussion. Although I shall dwell chiefly on the physical, mental, and moral characters of the Negro, I shall, at the same time, not hesitate to make such practical deductions as appear to be warranted from the facts we now have at hand, and trust that a fair and open discussion of this subject may eventually be the means of re­ moving much of the misconception which appears to prevail on this subject both in the minds of the public, and too frequently in the minds of scientific men. While, however, I shall honestly B �2 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. and without reservation state the conclusions at which I have arrived, I shall at the same time listen with deep attention and respect to those who differ from me, and who support their opinions by facts, by the opinions of some travellers, or by their own observations. Heretofore, however, it has hap­ pened that much human passion has been introduced, not only into public discussions, but especially into the literature on this subject. Even such a generally fair and philosophic writer as Professor Waitz has accused men of science with promulgating * scientific views which are practically in favour of the so-called “ slavery” of the Confederate States of America. Many other scientific men could be named who have equally been guilty of imputing such unfair and uncharitable motives. While, on the other hand, writers who are thus accused retort by apply­ ing to their opponents all sorts of epithets. One author, for instance, exclaims : “ How I loathe that hypocrisy which claims the same mental, moral, and physical equality for the Negro which the whites possess.”-)- No good can come of discussion conducted in such a spirit. If we wish to discover what is the truth, we must give each other credit for scientific honesty, and not impute base or interested motives. In the first place, I would explain that I understand by Negro, the dark, woolly-headed African found in the neighbour­ hood of the Congo river. Africa contains, like every other continent, a large number of different races, and these have become very much mixed. These races may be estimated as a whole at about 150 millions, occupying a territory of between 13 and 14 millions of square miles. I shall not enter into any disquisition as to the great diversity of physical conformation that is found in different races, but shall simply say that my remarks will be confined to the typical woolly-headed Negro. Not only is there a large amount of mixed blood in Africa, but there are also apparently races of very different physical characters, and in as far as they approach the typical Negro, so * See Introduction to Anthropology, edited from the first volume of Anthropologie der Naturvolker, by J.Frederick Collingwood, F.R.S.L., F.G.S., F.A.S.L., and Hon. Sec. of the Anthropological Soc. of Lond., 1863, p. 92. f Negro Mania: being an examination of the falsely assumed equality of the various races of man; by John Campbell, Philadelphia, 1851, p. 11. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLAGE IN NATURE. 3 far will my remarks apply to them. But I shall exclude en­ tirely from consideration all those who have European, Asiatic, Moorish or Berber blood in their veins. My object is to attempt to determine the position which one well-defined race occupies in the genus homo, and the relation or analogy which the negro race bears to animated nature generally- We have recently heard discussions respecting Man’s place in nature : but it seems to me that we err in grouping all the different races of Man under one generic name, and then compare them with the anthropoid Apes. If we wish to make any advance in discussing such a subject, we must not speak of man generally, but must select one race or species, and draw our comparison in this manner. I shall adopt this plan in comparing the Negro with the European, as represented by the German, Frenchman, or Englishman. Our object is not to support some foregone conclusion, but to en­ deavour to ascertain what is the truth by a careful and con­ scientious examination and discussion of the facts before us. In any conclusion I may draw respecting the Negro’s cha­ racter, no decided opinion will be implied as to the vexed ques­ tion of man’s origin. If the negro could be proved to be a distinct species from the European, it would not follow that they had not the same origin—it would only render their identity of origin less likely. I shall, also, have to dwell much on the analogies existing between the Negro and the Anthropoid Apes; but these analogies do not necessarily in­ volve relationship. The Negro race, in some of its characters, is the lowest of existing races, while in others it approaches the highest type of European : and this is the case with other savage races. We find the same thing in the Anthropoid Apes, where some species resemble man in one character and some in another. The father of English Ethnology, Dr. Prichard, thought that the original pair must have been Negroes, and that mankind descended from them. His words are: —“ It must be con­ * cluded that the process of nature in the human species is the transmutation of the characters of the Negro into those of the * Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 1813, p. 233. B 2 �4 ON THE NEGEO’s PLACE IN NATUEE. European, or the evolution of white varieties in black races of men. We have seen that there are causes existing which are capable of producing such an alteration, but we have no facts which induce us to suppose that the reverse of this change could in any circumstance be effected. This leads us to the in­ ference that the primitive stock of men were Negroes, which has every appearance of truth/’ It is not a little remarkable that although Blumenbach and Prichard were both advocates for the unity of man, they materially differed in their argu­ ments. Blumenbach saw, in his five varieties of man, nothing but degeneracy from some ideal perfect type. Prichard, on the contrary, asserted he could imagine no arguments, or knew of no facts, to support such a conclusion. Prichard, however, was not alone in this supposition; for Pallas, Lacepede,f * Hunter, J Joornik§, and Link,|| were also inclined to the same view. We muSt^not dwell on such speculations; for on the present occasion we shall not touch on the origin of man: it will be enough if we assist in removing some of the mis­ conceptions regarding the Negro-race existing in the minds of some men of science. It is too generally taught that the Negro only differs from the European in the colour of his skin and the peculiarity of his hair; but such opinions are not supported by facts. The skin and hair are by no means the only characters which distinguish the Negro from the European, even physically; and the difference is greater, mentally and morally, than the demonstrated physical difference. In the first place, what are the physical distinctions between the Negro and the European ?* § * Travels through the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, in 1793-4. t Vue Generate, etc. Paris, 1822. ’ j Disputatio inauguralis de Hominum Varietatibus et earum causis exponens etc. Joannes Hunter. Edinburgh, 1775. ’ § Wysgeerig-natuurkunding Onderaoek, etc. Amst., 1808. || On this point Link (Die Urwelt, etc.,Berlin, 1821-2) says Soemmerings investigations (Die Korperliche Verschiedenheit des Negers, Frankfurt, 1785,) show how much more the Negro in his internal structure resembles the Ape than the European. The latest productions of the animal world were mammals, and it stands to reason that the most recent race should be that which is the most remote from the other mammals, and that race should be the oldest which approaches them most, namely, the Negro. Colour- also confirms tliis everywhere, when we observe white and black animals of the same species. The latter always form the original stock, the former the deviation.” �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 5 The average height of the Negro is less than that of the * European, and although there are occasionally exceptions, the * “ The stature of the Negro approaches the middle size. The tribes above the middle stature are probably more numerous than those below it. I know of no instances of dwarfism among Negroes, though, the monuments of Egypt show that there were dwarfs among the Negroes at. a very remote epoch. Nevertheless, giants and dwarfs occupy a certain place in the ideas and stories of the Negro, as well as tailed men. We know what to believe as regards the latter point. With respect to dwarfs, the Bosjesmen seem to answer the ideas of the Negroes, for they play in their stories the same part as the Hyperboreans in the traditions of ancient Greece. _ Obesity is exceptionafiy found in males of high rank, and more frequently in the women. The dis­ position to grow fat is less rare among the short than among the tall Negroes. The taller are frequently lank and very angular. “ On examining the physiognomy of the Negro, I would first observe that the palpebral fissure is narrow and horizontal; but the aperture of the nostrils presents instead of a raised triangle a tranverse ellipsis; that the point of the nose is obtuse, round, and thick; that the ear is small, detached from the head, with a lobule little separated. To this must be added the cheeks stuffed by the masseters, the conformation of the jaws and lips, and the ensemble of the physiognomy of the Negro presents a singular mixture. The inferior part reflects sensuality, not to say more; above the mouth we might say it is the face of a new-born child enlarged. The absence of expi’ession in the features produces the effect of an unfinished work. The change of colour, so significant in the white man, that mute language, but more effective than the spoken word which moves us, is almost entirely absent in our African brothers. The black veil which covers the whole,_ even withdraws the play of the muscles from the eye of the observer, unless it be in moments of passionate agitation. . _ “ The eye alone enables us to judge what passes in the depth of the mind. This mirror is sufficiently bright to enable us to distinguish two classes, which may be compared to the choleric and phlegmatic temperaments. The travellers who have observed the Negro in his native country indicate some expressive, and, so to say, national shades, which distinguish the peoples of the Sudan. This is in harmony with the differences in features, stature, we shall speak of in the sequel. We find thus among the authors the terms, “dignified and proud, jovial and gay, intelligent and cunning;” also, “ insignificant and inexpressive, melancholy and morose, dull and stupid.” Thus the Negro participates also in this respect largely of the nature of man in general; but it cannot be said of him what was applied to the American, “ Gentleness hovers on his lips, and ferocity gushes from his eyes.” “ The neck of the Negro is generally short; it is scarcely 8 to 9 centimetres, excepting very tall subjects, when it attains 10 centimetres; the prominence of the larynx is rounded; the shoulders are less powerful than in the Turanian or Aryan. The Negro prefers carrying his burden on the head. The Negro is shrunk in the flank, the abdomen frequently relaxed; the umbilicus, situated nearer the pubis than in the European, is slightly prominent. “ After these short remarks on the conformation of the trunk, we must fix our attention on the limbs. AVc have already indicated the proportion of the parts which compose them. It now remains to describe their particular form. The arm and the forearm of the Negro present neither the muscular contours of the European nor the rounded shape of the American. The palm of the hand, as well as the sole of the foot, are always of a bistre colour. The palm is narrow and flattened; that is to say, the thenar and hypothenar eminences, as well as the tactile cushions, are little developed. The folds of the palm are very simple and rudimentary. The fingers are elongated; of little thick­ ness at the ends ; the nails are flat, bistre coloured, and rather widened at the end. “ In the inferior limb we observe the fold of the buttocks less rounded, the �6 ON THE NEGRO'S PLACE IN NATURE. skeleton of the Negro is generally heavier, and the bones larger and thicker in proportion to the muscles than those of the Euro­ pean. The bones are also whiter, from the greater abundance of calcareous salts. The thorax is generally laterally compressed, and, in thin individuals, presents a cylindrical form, and is smaller in proportion to the extremities. The extremities of the Negro differ from other races more by proportion than by form : the arm usually reaches below the middle of the femur. The leg is on the whole longer, but is made to look short on account of the ankle being only between lgin. to l^in, above the ground; this character is often seen in mulattoes. The foot is flat, and the heel is both flat and long. Burmeister has pointed out the resemblance of the foot and the position of the toes of the Negro to those of the ape. The toes are small, the first sepathighs more angular' in front and specially at the back; the knees approxi­ mated ; the calf usually weak, short, and laterally compressed; the feet spread out; the heel wide and prominent; the lateral borders of the feet straight, their anterior portion widened; the great toes short and small. The foot is rarely highly arched; on the other hand it is elongated, and what it wants in height is made up by the tibia, which is longer in proportion. “ This conformation of the foot of the Negro has induced a learned naturalist to take the foot as the starting point to fix the type of races. But the particulars given by M. Simonot, on the diversities met with in this re­ spect among the peoples of the Senegal, which accord with the reports of other travellers and my own observations, throw doubt upon the constancy of the conformation. On the other hand, it is certain that the type of the inferior limb, as I have described it, is the appanage of the majority of Negroes. The flat foot is, however, also met with in a large number of races approaching more the Aryan than the Negro; for instance, in some tribes of America and Polynesia. It is also frequent in Russia, and it frequently influences the re­ form of the military service in the rest of Europe. The shortening of the great toe, combined with a slight distance from the rest, has been noted in the Negro, in some races of Malaisia, and the Hottentot as a constant character approaching these peoples to the ape. The importance of the great toe is in­ contestable, for it is the first bone which disappears from the extremities on descending the animal series. I think it therefore necessary well to examine this point as regards the Negro. Now it is true that the great toe in the Negro rarely rises above the second, but neither is it often shorter. This applies also to the pretended lateral distance which may moreover be owing to the employment of thongs in their shoes, as done by the Arabs, for instance. It is clear that all that has been asserted relative to the opposition of the great toe of the Negro is reduced to the simple question : Is there a muscle, or at least an aponeurotic tendon, subservient to this pretended use ? No­ where, and never has anything like it been discovered in the human genus. But a slight shortening of the great toe undoubtedly exists, not merely among the Negro tribes, but also in ancient and modern Egyptians, and even in some of the most beautiful types of Caucasian females I have seen. This character is not merely constant in the ancient Egyptian statues, it is also seen where art has fixed the characters of the ideal man, namely, in the sculptures of Greece. I am, however, as far from wishing to establish the identity of the foot of the Negro with that ideal type, as I am to class the inhabitants of Alsace among the Negroes, because many of them present the same peculiarity. (Pruner Bey. Memoire sur les Negres, 1861.) �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 7 rated from the second by a free space. * Many observers have noticed the fact that the Negro frequently uses the great toe as a thumb. The knees are rather bent, the calves are little deve­ loped and the upper part of the thigh rather thin. The upper thigh-bone of the Negro has not so decided a resemblance to the ape as that of the bushman.j- He rarely stands quite up­ right, his short neck and large development of the cervical muscles give great strength to the neck. The shoulders, arms, and legs are all weak in comparison to the corresponding limbs in the European. The hand is always relatively larger than in * “ In most of the Africans the heel projects. From the skin of their feet being often of a horny hardness, sandals appear to me much better adapted than the shoe, as it allows of greater flexibility and movement. Lawrence in his ‘ Lectures on Man’ says, that the calves of the leg in the Negro race are very high, so as to encroach upon the hams. His observation I can fully corroborate, as well as Dr. Winterbottom’s remark respecting the largeness of the feet, and the thinness and flexibility of the fingers and toes.”—Sierra Leone, by Kobert Clarke, p. 49. Mr. Louis Fraser also says, “ He will pick up the most minute object with his toes; his 'great’ toe is particularly flexible.” t “ It is quite certain that the ape which most nearly approaches man, in the totality of its organisation, is either the chimpanzee or the gorilla.; and as it makes no practical difference, for the purposes of my present argument which is selected for comparison, on the one hand, with man, and on the other hand, with the rest of the primates, I shall select the latter (so far as its organisation is known) as a brute now so celebrated in prose and verse, that all must have heard of him, and have formed some conception of his appearance. I shall take up as many of the most important points of differ­ ence between man and this remarkable creature, as the space at my disposal will allow me to discuss, and the necessities of the argument demand; and I shall inquire into the value and magnitude of these differences, when placed side by side with those which separate the gorilla from other animals of the same order. In the general proportions of the body and limbs there is a re­ markable difference between the gorilla and man, which at once strikes the eye. The gorilla’s brain-case is smaller, its trunk larger, its lower limbs shorter, its upper limbs longer in proportion than those of man. I find that the vertebral column of a full-grown gorilla, in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, measures 27 inches along its anterior curvature, from the upper edge of the atlas or first vertebra of the neck to the lower ex­ tremity of the sacrum; that the arm, without the hand, is 31) inches long; that the leg, without the foot, is 26) inches long; that the hand is inches long; the foot 11.) inches long. In other words, taking the length of the spinal column as 100, the arm equals 115, the leg 96, the hand 36, and the foot 41. In the skeleton of a male Bosjesman, in the same collection, the proportions, by the same measurement, to the spinal column taken as 100, are—the arm 78, the leg 110, the hand 26, and the foot 32. In a woman of the same race the arm 83, and the leg 120, the hand and foot remaining the same. In a European skeleton I find the arm to be 80, the leg 117, the hand 26, the foot 35. Thus the leg is not so different as it looks at first sight, in its proportions to the spine in the gorilla and in the man, being very slightly shorter than the spine in the former, and between one-tenth and one-fifth longer than the spine in the latter. The foot is longer and the hand much longer in the gorilla; but the great difference is caused by the arms, which are very much longer than the spine in the gorilla, very much shorter than the spine in the man.”—Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature, by T. H. Huxley, 1863, p. 70. �8 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. the European : the palm is flat, the thumb narrow, long, and very weak. It will be seen from Dr. Pruner Bey’s table that the humerus and the femur in the Negro and European, of equal height, are shorter in the Negro than in the European: while the tibia, the foot, the radius, and the hand are more elongated than in the Negro race. That the fingers and arms are longer has long been affirmed, and Negroes are quite conscious of this fact, but we have to thank Dr. Pruner Bey for the absolute * proof. The great distinguishing characters of the Negro are the fol­ lowing’ : the forehead is flat, low, and laterally compressed. The nose and whole face is flattened, and the Negro thus has a facial angle generally between 70-75 degs., occasionally only 65 degs. The nasal cavities and the orbits are spacious.f The skull is very * M. Pruner gives the following measures of the bones of the limbs in centimeters. Designation of Measures. Mean Measures. Negroes. Europeans Individual Measures. Negroes. Males.! Fe­ Males. Fe­ Man. males. males. Total height of Skeleton.... 160'04 148'66 172'23 Femur................................... 44'72, 42.50 47'00 38'09 35'33 38 76 Tibia........................ I.ength of foot ................... 24'50 21'83 25'00 31'27. 29'50 33'72 H umerus........ . Radius.................................. 24'63; 23'00 25'46 Length of hand................... 18'54! 17'00 18'84 164'42 160'0 44'00 43'0 37'71 39'0 23'37 23'5 34'57 31'5 24'85 24'5 18'14 19'0 Europeans. Wo­ man. Man. Wo­ New­ Child born man. Infant 5 yrs. old. 1560 41'5 38'5 21'5 31'0 25 0 18'0 157'0 42'0 360 23 0 31'0 21'0 17'0 160'0 45 0 36 0 240 34'0 27'0 20'0 42'25 67 6'0 1010 25 0 220 2 * 6 5'75 18'0 13'0 N.B.—“ The preceding measures having been taken on skeletons, are only strictly correct as regards the isolated bones: femur, tibia, humerus, and radius. The lengths of hand and foot, and the total height of the skeleton, can only be approximative, as they are more or less modified by the mounters of the skeletons. “ By the side of the mean measures I have placed six individual measure­ ments, viz.: a Negro and European of the same stature, and a European female and a Negress of the same height; and also a new-born European infant and a European child five years old. I wished to add a European child from thirteen to fifteen years old. It is at that age, according to M. Carus, that our children most approach the Negro by the relative dimensions of their extremities. “ The skeletons of the European females, which served for measurement, are in the gallery of the museum, having been placed at my disposal by the kindness of M. Quatrefages. Nearly all of them are those of females above the middle height.” f Facial cranium.—“ Before considering the anatomical details of the facial cranium, it is indispensable to note the disproportion existing between the size of the face and the cerebral cranium. This character, already indicated by Cuvier, depends chiefly on the excessive development of the jaws and the size of the cavities of the organs of sense. The orbits are large, funnel-shaped, �ON THE NEGRCTS PLACE IN NATURE. 9 hard and unusually thick, enabling the Negroes to fight with or carry heavy weights on their heads. The coronal region with obtuse angles; their inferior margin is thick, round, more advancing than the superior margin ■, the inferior is flattened; the depression lodging the lachrymal gland is very deep. The lachrymal canal is large, and almost exclusively formed by the nasal apophysis of the maxillary. The bones of the nose are short, narrow but quadrangular, very rarely triangular, and ex­ ceptionally soldered together, always joined at obtuse angles; they are some­ times on the same plane. The nasal aperture is large, of an irregular triangular form, wide, without a spine, or only the rudiment of one. The root of the depressed nose is only exceptionally in a right line with the fore­ head ■, the width of the root of the nose increases the distance between the eyes a little more in the Aryan, but less than in the Turanian race. Some­ times the nose of the Negro resembles, by its round aperture, that of the Hottentot. The cornets, especially the middle, are swelled out ■> the vertical lamina of the ethmoid is spread out, and the vomer stands out. “ The malar bones are neither large nor high, but are either embossed in the centre of their external surface, or distorted outwards by their inferior border. The superior jaw presents frequently in its malar apophysis a vertical pit,- then the cheekbones form an angle, and their prominence appears great. When, on the contrary, the apophysis is flattened, and the inferior border of the malar is much advanced, this character, joined with the narrowness of the forehead, gives to the face a form approaching the pyra­ midal shape. The prominence of the external orbital apophyses of the coronal, the projection of the malar bones, and the antero-posterior direction of their frontal apophyses produce a malar angle less open than in the Aryan race whilst, on the contrary, the lateral compression of the anterior lobe of the brain is marked by rather a right angle formed by the external wall, of the orbit with the temple. The ascending apophyses of the maxillary have their internal border more or less curved according to the shape of the nose. “ Prognathism, that is to say, the inclination of the alveolar border of the superior jaw downwards and forwards from behind constitutes one of the most constant characters in the skeleton of the Negro. Three degrees are dis­ tinguished :— “ (1.) The alveolar arch, elliptic instead of parabolic, generally convex throughout, rarely concave at its external part, is alone inclined, and the teeth are vertical. “ (2.) The direction of the teeth is that of the jaw. In these two cases the superior incisors pass a little beyond the superior dental arch. “ (3.) The highest degree, which may be called double prognathism, presents itself when the inferior incisors are, like the superior, projected obliquely; then the junction of the two rows of incisors form the angle of a chisel. This latter form is not the most frequent. But in double prognathism, cases have been observed where, by a slight shortening of the horizontal rami of the inferior maxillary, the superior incisors presented upon their posterior sur­ face triangular facettes produced by the points of the inferior incisors. “The molar teeth of the superior jaw descend sometimes lower than the incisors, or are at least at a level with them, but rarely do the molars in the Negro participate in prognathism, as is the case with some Australians, or Oceanic Negroes. Never is, to my knowledge, the prognathism of the Negro confined to a simple inclination of the alveoli. I have only remarked this disposition in some female crania of the Aryan race of India. “ The palatine arch, and especially the alveolar apophyses are not merely much elongated, but more enlarged in the Negro than among the Aryans. This arch is, on the average, about sixty-five millimeters in length in the Negro, and only fifty-eight in the Aryan. “ The inferior jaw, always more or less massive, is distinguished by a chin, retracted, generally large and rounded, rarely pointed, and by the thickness �10 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. is arched, but not so much developed as in the European woman. The posterior portion of the skull is increased, in proportion to that of the anterior part being diminished. But M. Grratiolet has shown that the unequal development of the anterior lobes is not the sole cause of the psychological inequalities of human races. The same scientific observer has also stated that in the superior, or frontal races, the cranial sutures close much later than in the inferior or occipital races. The frontal races he considers superior not simply from the form of the skull, but because they have an absolutely more voluminous brain. The frontal cavity being much larger than the occipital, a great loss of space is caused by the depression of the anterior region, which is not compensated for by the in­ crease of the occipital region. M. Gratiolet has also observed that in the frontal races the sutures of the cranium do not close so early as in the occipital or inferior race. From these researches it appears that in the Negro the growth of the brain is sooner arrested than in the European. This premature union of the bones of the skull may give a clue to much of the mental inferiority which is seen in the Negro race. There can be no and length of its external rami. Its ascending rami are large, short, and then’ junction with the horizontal are rarely at right angles. The coronoid apophyses are always large, with an elliptic surface, flattened or oblique on its external half. The glenoid cavities are large and mostly of little depth. The teeth of the Negro are long, large, strikingly white, and not easily used up. The inferior molars sometimes present five tubercles, an anomaly which is sporadically found in all races of mankind. The jaw of the Negro never presented to me any trace of an intermaxillary bone (I owe to M. E. Rous­ seau’s kindness the firm conviction of the non-existence of the intermaxillary bone in man in the normal state. His treatise places this important fact, now for ever acquired by anatomical science, beyond any doubt), though the incisive suture may be perfectly distinguished in the adult Negro at a period when the cranial sutures are mostly obliterated. “ The consistence of the cranial bones of the Negro is always considerable; but their thickness varies much, chiefly according to the volume of the cranium. Placed by the side of the Oceanian Negro, for instance, the cranium of the African would in this, as well as other respects, produce the impression of belonging to a civilised man, opposed to that of a savage, if this term be applicable to a man who, more or less, lives in a state of nature. “ Before quitting the examination of the cranium, I cannot pass over the facial angle of the Negro. It naturally varies, as in the other races, accord­ ing to the greater or lesser inclination of the face, according to the develop­ ment of the frontal sinuses; and, as regards the conformation of the face, it sinks, though rarely to 70°. But, on the other hand, the frontal angle of the Negro reaches to 80°. We, however, attach but a relative value to these two angles, for though the median fine of the forehead is rather vertical in the Negro, the cranium is faulty, as regards the forehead, by an evident lateral contraction.” (Pruner-Bey). �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 11 doubt that at puberty a great change takes place in relation to ^psychical development; and in the Negro there appears to be an arrested development of the mind exactly harmonising with the physical formation. Young Negro children are nearly as intelligent as European children; but the older they grow the less intelligent they become. They exhibit, when young, an animal liveliness for play and tricks far surpassing the European child. The young ape’s skull resembles more the Negro’s head than the aged ape: thus showing a striking analogy in their craniological development. It has been pointed out that there were four forms of the hu­ man pelvis, and that they might be classified under the following­ heads :—The oval (European), round (American), square (Mon­ gol), and oblong (African). The latest researches of Dr. Pruner Bey enable him to affirm that this law is perfectly applicable to the Negro. The head of the Negro is the best type of the long skull, with small development of the frontal region. The form of the pelvis is narrow, conical, or cuneiform, and small in all its diameters. Vrolik has asserted that the pelvis of the male Negio bears a great resemblance to that of the lower mammalia. With respect to the capacity of the cranium of the Negro, great difference of opinion has prevailed. * Tiede*. Dr. Pruner-Bey gives the following interesting summary of the Osteological peculiarities of the Negro race:— Of the Cranium.—“ Cerebral cranium.—The antero-posterior diameter of the cerebral cranium approaches 19 centimeters; the transversal diametei’ is about 13.6; the face measures, from the chin to the hair, 18 centimeters; and the distance of the zygomatic arches is 13 centimeters. I class the cranium of the Negro in the category of harmonic dolichocephali. Cerebral Vertebrae.—“ The coronal bone is rather short and narrow than re­ ceding backwards, frequently distinguished by slender superciliary arches, rarely by frontal bumps, but usually by a protuberance on the median line, which corresponds with the third primordial convolution of the brain. A slight compression is clearly marked on the two sides of the protuberance. The nasal apophysis is always more or less large, according to the conforma­ tion of the nose. The orbital apophyses, large at the base, are more curved downwards than outwards. The temporal portion of the coronal presents frequently on the top a slight dilatation, at the bottom on the contrary it is compressed. The contours vary, according to the general form of the cranium, when this is very much elongated and compressed on the sides, the coronal is more elliptic, and more parabolic when the contrary is the case. The frontal sinuses exist; they are but moderately developed as all the aerial reservoirs. The summit of the cranium presents along the sagittal suture an ogival or flattened, rarely vaulted, conformation. The great extent of the second cranial vetebra, and its predominance over the first and third, is clearly de­ fined, specially at the posterior part where the parietals slope gently down towards the occiput, whilst their descent towards the temples is always very N 1 I �12 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. mann’s researches, although very limited, have until recently been accepted as satisfactory. He stated it as his opinion that “ The brain of the Negro is, upon the whole, quite as large as that of the European and other human races; the weight of the brain, its dimensions, and the capacity of the cavum cranii prove abrupt. In cases where the cranium of the male negro approaches the female type, the posterior descent of the parietals approaches a vertical line, and the horizontal section represents a wedge, instead of an ellipsis, which predomi­ nates in the typical form of the Negro cranium. “ When the cranium is viewed in profile, the temples appear deeply hollowed in front, flattened or elongated backwards. The anterior margins of the temporals are frequently joined to the coronal, on account of the shortening of the great alee of the sphenoid. The parietal knobs are lower and less marked in the male than in the female, and the superior semicircular lines, though well marked, reach rarely the arch of the cranium. The squamous part of the temporal is relatively low and long its margins are irregular. The zygomatic arches are convex, rarely flattened ■> the meatus auditorius presents a large and usually round orifice. The greatest width of the cranium is thus as frequently found at the posterior and superior angle of the squamous temporal as at the level of the parietal protuberances. Taken from this point, the cranium diminishes in breadth towards the occiput, especially when the latter projects, which is seen in most cases. There is a rather striking parallelism between the coronal and the superior part of the occipital squama; the latter being relatively small, curved, narrow, like the frontal squama and in the elliptic crania it is arched in the centre. In this case its margins intercept an obtuse angle; in the contrary case they are parabolic. The Wormian bones may be met with in the crania of Negroes, and even form a complete series along the lambdoid suture; but these cases are rare. “ The base of the cranium is always relatively narrow; that part of the occipital squama where the muscles are attached, presents sometimes a hori­ zontal, but more frequently a slightly inclined, long, and narrow plane. In the first form the superior part of the squama rises more to a right angle towards the lambdoid suture than in the second form. The surface of the squama, marked by the imprint of the muscles, represents a truncated pyramid the base of which touches the anterior border of the great occipital foramen. This aperture, always of a more or less elongated shape, is slightly inclined from before backwards, so that its posterior border at least is above the level of the palatine arch. Its position in relation to the centre of gravity is in accord with dolichocephaly. (The distance from the occipital hole to the base of the nose and the alveolar margins of the incisors, is naturally more considerable in the Negro than in the orthognathous races; but the distance of this hole to the base of the forehead, presented only slight differences. In the brachycephalous races, on the contrary, especially in those with flattened occiput, the occipital foramen is farther back. It is, moreover, difficult to find crania in which this aperture corresponds exactly to the centre of the cranium, as asserted by some anatomists.) The condyles of the occiput are elongated, narrow, much inclined. The petrous portion of the temporal volumi­ nous. The basilar bone is long, narrow, slightlyinclined from before backwards. The development of the mastoid apophyses corresponds with the greater or lesser massiveness of the cranium; the styloid apophyses are frequently much elongated; the pterygoid apophyses are large, distant, and more or less in­ clined. The union of the palate with the maxillary is usually formed by an indented or undulated, instead of by a plain suture. The palate is elongated, elliptic rather than parabolic, superficial, or deep. It is only in exceptional cases that its width exceeds its length. All the apertures at the base of the cranium are very spacious. We are at the same time struck by the elliptic contours of this base and its general flatness, which renders the elevation of the borders of the occipital foramen more perceptible.” �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 13 this fact.”* All recent researches have, however, done much to show that Tiedemann’s investigations are not only unsatisfac­ tory, but that his conclusion is not warranted by the facts which we now have at hand. Blumenbach’s, Knox’s and Lawrence’s conclusions did not accord with Tiedemann’s. But the most satisfactory researches on this point are those made by the late Dr. Morton, of America, and his successor, Dr. J. A. Meigs, of Philadelphia. Dr. Meigs, in following out the researches of his predecessor, has found that in size of the brain, the Negro comes after the European, Fin, Syro-Egyptian, Mongol, Malay, Semitic, American Indian, and the Esquimaux; but that the brain of the Negro-race takes precedence of the ancient civilised races of America, the Egyptian of all periods, the Hindoo, the Hottentot, the Australian, and the Negroes of Polynesia. Thus we see that the Negro has at least six well-defined races above him and six below him, taking the internal cavity of the skull as a test. Pruner Bey says that his own experience with the external measurements did not yield essentially different results. But we now know that it is necessary to be most cautious in accepting the capacity of the cranium simply as any absolute test of the intellectual power of any race. The recent researches of Huschke on this point are most sig­ nificant and valuable. He gives the following mean measure­ ments of the surface of the cranium, viz. :— Male Negro. 53206 square millimetres. Female. 49868 ,, „ Male European. 59305 square millimetres. Women. 53375 „ „ Relative size of three cranial vertebra) expressed in hun­ dredths (1). 1st Vertebra 2nd and 3rd together - Negro. ■ 7-7 92-3 Negress. 8-1 91-9 Male European. 9-7 90-3 Female European. 9-68 90-32 100-0 75-7 24-3 100-0 76-4 23-6 100-0 72-7 27-3 100-00 74-1 25-9 100-0 2nd Vertebra alone 3rd Vertebra 100-0 100-0 100-0 “ It is surprising,” says Pruner Bey, who quotes these tables, * Philosophical Transactions, 1836. �14 ON THE NEGRO S PLACE IN NATURE. “ to observe to what a degree the mean capacity of the Negro * cranium approaches in its ensemble that of the European female, and particularly how much in both the middle vertebra pre­ dominates above the two others; whilst on the contrary, in the European male, the posterior vertebra, and particularly the anterior, are more developed in relation to the middle vertebra than they are in the Negro and in the European female. It * Pruner Bey quotes the following Table respecting the cerebral cranium of the Negro. * Mean Measures in Millimeters. DESIGNATION OF MEASURES. Mean of 12 Negresses. Mean of 24 Negros. 1°. DIAMETER (by Compass). 186.4 124.8 100.0 113.4 125.0 112.7 134.2 117.7 Antero-posterior Vertical rlnferior frontal . Superior frontal . Transverse Bi-temporal Diameters Bi-auricular Bi-parietal -Bi-mastoidian 2°. CURVES (by Metrical 176.4 511.7 305.2 504.0 105.0 0 136.5 V 355.9 114.4 ) 492.5 295.5 489.8 108.3 0 128.3 V 364.5 109.9 ) 95.8 108.7 119.2 108.0 130.0 111.6 tape). Horizontal circumference Transversal bi-auricular curve Vertical antero-posterior circumference Frontal part Decomposed in: Parietal part 1°. Middle part Occipital part f Length from the occipital foramen . „o t r? • Distance from the ante2 • Inferior rior margin of the foraI men to the frontal emit nence 34.0. V 138.3 104.3' 3°. OTHER MEASURES. Distance in a straight ) to Nasal eminence . line from the meatus I to occipital protubeauditorius . . ) rance Dimensions of the occipital r length . foramen . . .1 breadth 113.1 107.1 110.9 35.9 30.3 107.0 34.0 28.0 4°. MILLESIMAL RATIO. o ( horizontal circumference . 1000 Circumferences | yertical . 985 f length (antero-posterior diameter) 1000 Diameters •! breadth (parietal diameter) 720 (height (vertical diameter) 669 1000 984 1000 737 585 * See Memoires de la SociAtd d’Anthropologie, 1861. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 15 should be remarked that the occipital vertebra of the Negress is more spacious than that of the Negro.” Tiedemann affirmed that the brain of the Negro did not resemble that of the Oran-utan more than that of the Euro­ pean, except in the more symmetrical distribution of the gyri and sulci. Tiedemann also denied Sommering’s assertion that the nerves of the Negro are larger, in proportion to the brain, than in the European; but Pruner Bey has confirmed Sommering’s opinion. There seems to be, generally, less difference between the Negro and the Negress, than between the European male and * female: but on the other hand, the Negress, with the shortened humerus, presents a disadvantage “which one might be tempted to look at as a return to the animal form” (Pruner). Law­ rence says,f “ the Negro structure approaches unequivocally * The Negress.—“ Before reviewing the chief varieties which the Negro type offers to travellers, it is necessary to cast a glance at the Negress. “ She possesses a cranium shorter, rounder, and wider in the posterior part of the middle vertebra; the parietal protuberances are more prominent, the apertures of the orbits frequently nearly circular, characters which approach her a little to the European female. As regards stature and the length, of the hair, as well as in the proportions of the parts composing the inferior limb, the Negress resembles her husband more than the European female re­ sembles her husband. As regards the latter point, it is not rare to find also in Europe, fem a,les of high stature and a muscular aspect. The features of the face do not, in the two sexes of the Sudan, present the same differences as in the Aryan race. The mammae are less rounded, but already more conical in early age. Their relaxing is rapid and excessive. This peculiarity is, however, though in a less degree, found in Oriental females in other places, and of different, origin. The pelvis presents, as regards width, some advan­ tage over that of the male; the iliac bones are inclined towards the horizon, thinning towards the centre, without, however, being transparent; the haunches are rounder, steatopygy (fatty lumps on the buttocks) is only ex­ ceptionally met with. The neck of the matrix is large and elongated; the aperture of the vagina has a forward direction, despite of the inclination of the pelvis.” (Pruner Bey.) t Mr. Lawrence thus summarises the chief physical characters of the Negro “ The characters of the Ethiopian variety, as observed in the genuine Negro, tribes, may be thus summed up :—1. Narrow and depressed forehead; the entire cranium contracted anteriorly; the cavity less, both in its circumfer­ ence and transverse measurements. 2. Occipital foramen and condyles placed farther back. 3. Large space for the temporal muscles. 4. Great develop­ ment of the face. 5. Prominence of the jaws altogether, and particularly of their alveolar margins and teeth; consequent obliquity of the facial line. 6. Superior incisors slanting. 7. Chin receding. 8. Very large and strong zygomatic arch projecting towards the front. 9. Large nasal cavity. 10. Small and flattened ossa nasi, sometimes consolidated, and running into a point above.”—Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man, 1819, p. 363. �16 ON THE NEGRO’S PTACE IN NATURE. to that of the apewhile Bory St. Vincent, and Fischer f * do not greatly differ in their description of the anatomy of the Negro from the facts I have adduced. There is no doubt that the Negro brain J bears a great re­ semblance to a European female or child’s brain, and thus * Bory de St. Vincent (L’homme, Paris, 1827) says:—“Large; the skin black and entirely glossy, with the rete mncosum of Malpighi thicker and also black; hair black, woolly, felted together; the anterior part of the skull very narrow; flattened on the vertex, and rounded behind; eyes large, subrotund, prominent, always damp, cornea yellowish, iris tinted of a chestnut black, eye­ brows very short; nose flat (nasal bones flattened); zygomatic arches pro­ tuberant ; ears of moderate size and prominent; lips thick and brown; inside of the ears bright red; jaws, especially the lower one, projecting; incisor teeth procumbent; chin short, round, receding; beard rare; breasts pearshaped, loose during milking; thighs and shanks partially curved.” •f Fischer (Synopsis Mammalium, 1829-30), says:—“ The brain is less, and the origins of the nerves thicker than in the American races, an opposite con­ dition prevailing in the Japetic races; skull-cap one-ninth less ample than in the European, sutures more narrow; all the bones whiter; intermaxillary bone inclining above the chin; pelvic bones broad; muscles, blood, and bile of deep colour; fcetid sweat; filthy; voice sharp and shrieking; nervous-phlegmatic temperament.” + Pruner-Bey makes the following observations respecting the brain: “ Soemmering had already observed that the peripheral nerves are larger, relative to the volume of the brain, in the Negro than in the white man. This fact is demonstrated in all its details by the beautiful preparation from the skilful hand of M. Jacquart, exhibited in the gallery of the Museum of Natural History. “The brain, narrow and elongated, presents on its surface always a brownish tint on account of a considerable injection of venous blood. The superficial veins are very large, and resemble by their stiffness the sinus of the dura mater. The grey matter shows in the interior a clear brown colour; the white substance is yellowish. I am inclined to attribute this colour rather to the blood than to a special pigment. Melanotic patches may be met with in the meninges as elsewhere. Soemmering has observed blackish spots on the spinal marrow. The cortical layer of the grey substance of the cerebral hemispheres is of less thickness than in the European. Regarded in front the brain presents a rounded point; from the top the parts appear grosser and less varied than in the European. The convolutions, especially the anterior and the lateral, are flat and of little depth, excepting the primary convolution, the curvature of which produces the frontal eminence. In fol­ lowing the undulations from the front backwards, we remark less lateral deviations in the convolutions, which render the Aryan brain a real labyrinth. In the middle lobe the convolutions seem considerably raised, but they are coarse. The posterior lobe has always appeared to me flattened on the top, as the anterior at the base. Viewed in profile, it is chiefly the direction of the fissure of Sylvius and its interior which has occupied the attention of anatomists. (Huschke cites with reserve the observations of Van der Kolk, who places in parallel some peculiarities of this region of the Negro brain with the disposition existing in apes. This part of cerebral anatomy has as yet been little cultivated, and before arriving at conclusions we should wait until the modifications which the human brain undergoes in all the periods of its develop­ ment are better known than they are at present; hence I confine myself simply to draw attention to Van der Kolk’s remarks. In order to establish race characters upon such data, we should not forget what Rousseau says of the hrs,in of Cuvier: “ Multiplied convolutions were in the centre, sur- �17 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. approaches the ape far more than the European, while the * Negress approaches the ape still nearer. With regard to the chemical constituents of the brain of the Negro, little that is positive is yet known. It has been found, however, that the grey substance of the brain of a Negro is of a mon-nt,<■.fl by a mammilated exuberance, which formed an integral part of these convolutions.” Are we on that account disposed to assume that this great man belonged to another race ?) With regard to the former, I have never been able to observe any appreciable difference between the brain of the Negro and that of the Egyptian, which I have placed side by side in order better to study the relation of the parts externally. The superior part of the brain above the corpus callosum is relatively little elevated. The cerebellum has a less angular form than in the European; the vermis and the pineal gland are very large. Finally, the consistence of the cerebral mass is unquestion­ ably greater in the Negro than in the white man. “ The inspection of the Negro brain shows that the convolutions of the centre are clearly marked as in the Aryan foetus of seven months (Reichert), and that the secondary details are less distinct. By its rounded apex, its less developed posterior lobe, it resembles the brain of our children; by the prominence of the parietal lobe it resembles that of our females, only that the latter is broader in the European female. The form of the cerebellum, the volume of the vermis and the pineal gland also place the Negro by the side of the Aryan child. “ Having indicated the general characters relating to the external form of the great nervous centre, I must say a word with respect to its weight and the relative proportions between cerebrum and cerebellum. The number of observations on this point is very restricted, nevertheless we obtain some important points. First, the extremes present a scarcely credible difference, were it not confirmed by the great diversity in the measurement of the hori­ zontal circumference of the cranium. Mascagni gives 738 grammes as the weight of one brain and 1587 grammes as the weight of another. The results obtained by Scemmering and Cooper seem to approach the average weight: 1354,5 and 1458 grammes. The mean for the weight of the cerebellum com­ pared to that of the cerebrum would be : : 13,83 : 85,93. Measurement shows that the cerebellum of the Negro, in accord with the general form, excels by 3,13 in length that of the European, which is, however, broader. Weight and measurement establish that the two sexes present less differences in both respects in the Negro race than in the Aryan race.”—Pruner Bey. * “ The situation of the foramen magnum of the occipital bone is still a matter of dispute. Dr. Prichard thought it to be ‘the same in the Negro as in the European/ and so it may be, if no allowance be made for the face. The situation of the foramen magnum of the occipital bone is not the same in the Negro as in the European. Dr. Prichard says it is exactly behind the transverse lines, bisecting the antero-posterior diameter of the base of the cranium. Supposing this measurement to be correct, which it is not, it has nothing to do with the pose or position of the head upon the vertebral column, which, all must know, depends on the position of the condyles of the occipital bone. A line bisecting the antero-posterior diameter of the skull, and divid­ ing into two equal parts, passes in the European head through the centre of the condyles of the occipital bone; and the same measurement applies nearly to the antero-posterior diameter of the entire head. Not so in the coloured races. In speaking of the base of the cranium, I am not quite sure to which Prichard and his followers allude; for very generally in anatomical works the base of the skull, including the upper jaw, is confounded with the true base of the skull.” Robert Knox. Anthropological Review, vol. i., p. 266. C 4 �18 xj r? THE NEGRO 8 PLACE IN NATURE. darker colour than, that of the European, that the whole brain ,has a smoky tint, and that the pia mater contains brown spots, which are never found in the brain of a European. M. Broca has recently had an opportunity of confirming the truth of this * statement. With regard to the convolutions, there is unani­ mous testimony that the convolutions of the brain of the Negro are less numerous and more massive than in the European. Waitz thinks that the only resemblance of the Negroes brain to that of the ape is limited to this point.fi Some observers have thought they have detected a great resemblance between * The following observations by M. Paul Broca on the brain of the Negro is extracted from Bulletins de la Soc. d’Anthropologie, 1860. Before reading a manuscript addressed to the Society by Professor G-ubler, of the Faculty of Medicine, M. Broca stated the circumstances which induced Pro­ fessor Gubler to present it. A negro died in the Hospital de la Pitie. The body was brought to the amphitheatre of Clamart, when M. Broca asked of the prosector of the hospital to examine the brain of that body. Owing to the great heat of the month of August, the body was already in an incipient state of decomposition, and the brain was too soft to study the convolutions. M. Broca had, therefore, to confine himself to examining the colour of the substance. In order to render the examination more easy, M. Broca opened at the same time the cranium of a white subject, which was brought in the same day. The pia mater of the Negro presented in certain spots a brown tint; nothing of the kind existed in the white subject. The white substance of the Negro brain had a smoky tint, but it was especially in the grey sub­ stance that the brown tint was marked. The two brains were placed in two separate vases containing the same quantity of alcohol. After three days they were sufficiently firm to be examined. The difference of coloration was then as decided as on the first day. In order approximately to de­ termine the relative weight of the two brains, they were, after the re­ moval of the membranes, dried upon some linen during a few minutes, and placed in the scale. The brain of the white subject weighed 1003 gram­ mes, that of the black weighed only 925.5 grammes, being a difference of 8.3 per 100. This individual fact would be insignificant if it did not accord with the known data. Thus it is well known that the measure­ ments of the capacity of the cranium made by Meigs, according to Mor­ ton’s method, gave an average of 93} cubic inches for European and AngloAmerican crania, and only 82-} for Negro crania, being a difference of 11} cubic inches; that is to say, that the cranial capacity of the Negro being represented by 100, that of the European is represented by 111. M. Broca had preserved in alcohol the least altered portion of the Negro brain, and presented it to the Anthropological Society; but fearing that the long contact with the alcohol might modify its coloration (which, however, it did not), he showed it when fresh to the Biological Society. Already, some ten years ago, M. Bayer made to the same Society an analogous present; and it is known that since Meckel in 1753 published a paper on this subject in the Memoirs of the Prussian Academy of Science, many authors have stated that the brain of the Negro is notably of a darker colour than that of the white man.” fi See Introduction to Anthropology, by Dr. Theodor Waitz. Edited from the first volume of Anthropologie der Naturvolker, by J. Frederick Colling­ wood, Esq., F.G-.S., F.B.S.L., F.A.S.L., Honorary Secretary of the Anthropo­ logical Society of London, p. 93. �19 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. the development of the temporal lobe in the Negro and ape; but much further observation is required on this important subject. The eyes are more separated than in the European, but not so much so as in the Mongol. The aperture of the eye is narrow, horizontal, and both eyes are wide apart. All the teeth, especially the last molars, are generally large, long, hard, and very white, and usually show little signs of being worn. In some Negro-skulls there has been found an extra molar in the upper jaw. There is also sometimes a space between the incisors and canine teeth of the upper jaw. The inferior molars sometimes present in the Negro race five tubercles, and j this anomaly is sporadically found in other races. It has been ’ * noticed in the European and the Esquimaux, but is affirmed by 1 my friend Mr. Carter Blake to be more frequent in the Negro and Australian than in any other race. Sometimes Negroes * * “ An exa.-mi-nation of the teeth in a considerable number of African Negro m-nnin. has enabled us to draw the following conclusions :—In the African Negro the teeth are usually of large, but not excessive, size ; they are regular, commonly sound, although caries is occasionally observed, and they seldom present that extreme amount of wearing down of the cutting and grinding surfaces which may be found so commonly in the Australian and Polynesian. The incisors are large, broad, and thick, but not of greater absolute dimen­ sions than in numerous individuals amongst the white varieties. The teeth do not depart from the human type in their relative proportions for whereever the incisors and canines are of considerable size, the true molars are likewise large, and maintain that superiority which is a distinguishing feature of the teeth of Man. The lateral incisors are well formed, and in the perfect entirety of them outer angles they adhere more invariably to the human type than do the same teeth in some more civilised races. The canines are not proportionally longer or more pointed than in the white man. The premolars agree in configuration and relative size with the typical standard. The true molars are usually of large size, generally larger than in the European ■, the dentes sapientiee, although smaller than the other molars, are in the majority of instances of greater relative and actual dimensions, and the fangs of the last-named teeth are usually distinct in both jaws. But in the character of their grinding surfaces and their general contour, the molars of the African Negro present no departure from the typical configuration, and, as in other races, there are many instances in which a general description will not entirely apply............ We would observe that, according to our limited experience, the general characteristics of the African Negro dentition are best exemplified (albeit liable to exception) in the Negroes of the Western Coast. The teeth in the crania we have seen from Eastern Central Africa, and from the Mozam­ bique, appeared to us to present less markedly the minor differences above noted. The prognathic development of the jaws also, and the consequent obliquity of implantation of the incisor teeth, though common in a varying degree to all African nations, not excluding the Egyptians, attains its greatest development in crania from the Western Coast.”—F. C. Webb. Teeth in Man and Anthropoid Apes, p. 41. c 2 fl �20 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. have thirty-four instead of thirty-two teeth. The skin between the fingers, according to Van der Hoeven, reaches higher up than in the European. The skin is also much thicker, especi­ ally on the skull, the palm of the hand, and the sole of the foot. The rete mucosum, which is the chief seat of coloration, presents nothing particular as regards structure. * The hair of * M. Pruner thus speaks of the skin:—“ Having now indicated the more prominent characters of the skeleton, I pass to the examination of the Negro with his integuments. “ The skin, supple and cool to the touch, presents a velvety aspect (besides the shades of colour already mentioned). Upon the abdomen such pro­ minences form zigzags and broken fine lines; on the forearm they are seen in the form of small lozenges, and even in the extremities the skin is not altogether smooth. This aspect is partly the consequence of the great deve­ lopment of the glandular apparatus, indicating a great turgescence of the tissues. Thus the skin of the penis does not merely present simple folds, but mainmilated eminences. The dermis is thicker than in the other races, specially on the cranium, the palm, and the sole. The epidermis of an ashgrey colour is very resisting. The rete mucosum, which is the chief seat of the coloration, presents nothing particular as regards its structure. Its contents, viz., the pigment, is deposited in a shapeless mass, or in granules, chiefly around and in the interior of the nuclei of polyhedric cells, which are dis­ posed in numerous irregular layers. The pigment presents shades of colour according to the position of the cells. The deeper and more coloured cells are of a blackish brown, whilst those approaching more the dermis of a more or less dilute yellow resemble the serosity of the blood (Koelliker). The coloured web may be considered as the complement of the epidermis, to which it adheres more closely than to the dermis, so that it is detached in blistering, though some patches usually remain on the dermis. The colour of the cicatrices in Negroes differs according to the colour of the individual, and the time elapsed since the cicatrisation. I have observed nothing noteworthy in this respect. It is known that the lines in tattooing present a deeper colour than the skin from the materials rubbed in. “ The Negro loses a portion of the pigment on being transported to the north. It is always upon the prominent parts, such as the nose, the ears, &c., that a slight diminution is observed in dark subjects. I have, however, never observed this change in individuals with a velvety black skin which has sometimes a blueish shade. But in chronic diseases the diminution of the pigment is very perceptible; thus the Negro grows, in a certain manner, pale like the European. It is a general rule that the deeper coloured a Negro is, compared to other individuals of his tribe, the better is his health. With regard to the relation between the degree of coloration and the intellect, the accounts of travellers do not agree. Thus, Dr. Barth asserts that in the centre of the Sudan, the most glossy jet black skin belongs to the most intelligent tribes. The example of the Yaloffs seems to confirm this as regards the West. Mr. Speke, on the contrary, states with regard to the Eastern populations between Mozambique and Lake Nyassa, that the tribes of a lighter colour, though Negroes in all other respects, by far excel in activity, bravery, and intelligence their jet black brothers. Very probably both versions are correct; for we see in India, as well as Arabia, the two extremes of colour combined with the same intellectual capacities in peoples evidently congeners. “ The intensity of the colour does not depend on the geographical latitude in the tropical zone of Africa. The extremes of the chromatic scale are in juxtaposition in the principal spots, on the Senegal as well as on the �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 21 the Negro is essentially different from that of the European, and consists of coarse, crisp, frizzly sort of wool, growing Gaboon, north of the Niger and south of Lake Tsad, towards the Bay of Biaffra as in Mozambique, where M. Froberville counted thirty-one different shades of colour. Continued displacements have so much intermixed the tribes, and amalgamated entire nations, that it would be vain to determine, even by approximation, the primitive country of the true Negroes, and to derive therefrom any theory regarding the influence of geographical latitude on coloration. It is equally impossible to establish the degrees of inter­ mixture which the representatives of the chromatic map have undergone. But, taking the deep brown or black Negro as the starting-point, can we attribute his colour to the soil, the air, the position of the sun, the great fluctuations between the diurnal and nocturnal temperature, an aliment rich in carbon such as the butter-tree, fermented liquors, &c., on one side, and the physiological reaction of the organism on the other? Must we, as regards the latter point, take in account the important part which the skin a,nd the liver take in the respiratory functions according as we proceed from north to south? Must we admit that, in this respect, extremes meet, so that in turning to the high north, we find the coloration increase as we approach the pole ? Science is as yet not in possession of the necessary facts to solve this question; experimental physiology must encounter it. As regards the etiology of the colour of the Negro, we must recur to the laws ofheredity.” The same author makes the following remarks respecting the distribution of the pigment on the mucous membranes, the subcutaneous tissue, and the viscera:—“ The pigment is in the form of black patches, found not merely upon the tongue, the velum, the conjunctivae, and the external angles of the eye, but also upon the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, etc. “ The cellular tissue is very abundant, especially on the erectile organs. The mammiE, penis, lips, ears, and nostrils. The colour of the conjunctivae, always more or less injected, is more or less yellowish; the fat is always of a wax colour. An analogous coloration is observed in all the cellular and fibrous membranes and even in the periosteum. The development of the muscles, excepting the masseters, the external muscles of the ear, the larynx, and sometimes of the temporals, are not in proportion to the weight of the bones; their colour is never of the bright red of the European, but rather of a yellowish tint, sometimes approaching the brown. M. Eschricht has found the muscles of the larynx very strong, the crico-thyroidei are especially large; he has moreover found that a portion of the fibres of these last muscles ascend to the internal surface of the thyroid cartilage. Should that be a trace of the internal crico-thyroid muscles of the hylobate apes ? The visible mucous membranes of the mouth, the nostrils, etc., are of a cherry colour, excepting the lips which are bluish. “ As upon the skin, so is the glandular system much developed in the internal integument; the intestinal canal always presents a broken aspect, especially in the stomach and the colon. The intestinal mucus is very thick, viscid, and fatty in appearance. All the abdominal glands are of large size, especially the liver and the supra renal capsules; a venous hypersemia seems the ordi­ nary condition of these organs. The position of the bladder is higher than in the European. I find the seminal vesicles very large, always gorged with a turbid liquid of a slightly greyish colour, even in cases where the autopsy took place shortly after death. The penis is always of unusually large size, and I found in all bodies a small conical gland on each side at the base of the fraenum. “ The vascular apparatus is very strong; but the nervous system visibly predominates over the arterial. The small arteries present everywhere numer­ ous flexuosities. “ The heart is powerfully organised and the right cavities are always very spacious. I have never observed here the least anomaly. The blood of the �22 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. in tufts like the wool of sheep. It is rarely more than three inches long, and generally not nearly so much.* The larynx in the Negro is not much developed, and the voice resembles sometimes the alto of an eunuch. In the male the voice is low and hoarse, and in the female it is acute and shrieking; at least, this is the opinion that has generally been given by Hamilton Smith and others : but there appear to be exceptions, for Dr. R. Clarkef says that ec a pleasing manner, soft and win­ ning ways, with a low and musical laugh, may in strict truth be declared to be the heritage of most of the Negro women.” There is a peculiarity in the Negro’s voice by which he can always be distinguished. This peculiarity is so great that we Negro (apart from anaemia and the dropsy) is always very thick, viscid, and pitchy; it rarely is projected in a jet in bleeding; it strongly adheres to the vessel, and always presents a serosity of a more or less dark yellow colour. The lungs relatively much less voluminous than the viscera of the abdomen, are usually melanose and pushed in by the stomach, the spleen, and the liver ; it might be said that the latter organ usurps their place.” * “The hair of the adult Negro is very fine, hard and elastic; generally black, exceptionally of a fiery red, resembling wool, in describing several circles from 6 to 8 millimeters. Its length in the male is usually from 9-12 centimeters. In the Negress of East Africa it rarely descends below the shoulders. These women wear the hair in small tresses, carefully greased. In the male the hair frequently has the appearance of a regular wig. Its insertion seems to follow another law in the Negro than in the white man. In the lattei’ it presents irregular lines which converge and diverge in cross­ ing, whilst in the former it is always circular. From this disposition fre­ quently result separate tufts as in the Hottentot, and this peculiarity is very common among the Negresses of which I have spoken. “ The hair of the Negro is not cylindrical. Transversal sections show that its circumference is always an ellipsis, the large diameter exceeds the small diameter by l-3rd to 3-5th. What is, moreover, remarkable, is that the large diameter, examined in different sections, does not remain parallel to itself; it turns as it were around the axis of the hair, so that the summits of these small ellipses, instead of being disposed in a straight line, describe around the hair two spiral curves (Koelliker). It is to this disposition that the crisp state of the hair of the Negro is due. With regard to the elementary micro­ scopic structure, the hair of the Negro differs from that of other races only by its medullary portion. The central medullary and aeriferous canal which is clearly seen in hair with elliptical circumference, and of which some traces are found in the cylindric ham of Turanians, is absent in the Negro, even in those of his race which have red hair. “ In the Aryan race, the hair of the same individual presents different shades in different parts of the body, but it is certain that the hair of the Negro is finer, elliptical and crisp, and that I have never found in it any trace of a medullary canal. The Negro race has, moreover, no down upon the body; and but few hairs on the pubes and armpits. The beard comes late in the male; it is silky or slightly crisp on the upper lip, more or less frizzled on the cheeks and the chin. The eyelashes curved; the eyebrows but little furnished are generally but little arched. The contrary is, according to Dr. Barth, ob­ served in the Mousgous.”—Pruneb-Bey. f Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. ii of New Series. �ON THE NEGRO h PLACE IN NATURE. 23 can frequently discover traces of Negro blood when the eye is unable to detect it. No amount of education or time is likely ever to enable the Negro to speak the English language with­ out this twang. Even his great faculty of imitation will not enable him to do this. Having thus briefly recapitulated the anatomical peculiarities of the Negro, we now come to the physiological difference be­ * tween the Negro and European. * Mr. Plainer Bey gives the following :—Physiological Fragments.—“ The penetrating odour which the Negro exhales, has something ammoniacal and rancid; it is like the odour of the he-goat. It does not depend on the aqueous perspiration, for it is not increased by it. It is probably a volatile oil dis­ engaged by the sebaceous follicles. This odour much diminishes by clean­ liness, without, however, entirely disappearing. We are not aware whether this race-character changes by a uniform diet, as is the case with the fishers and opossum hunters in Australia. “ The observations on the temperature of the internal cavities of the Negro race are not numerous enough to draw conclusions. It is, nevertheless, use­ ful to note the results of the researches of M. d’ Abbadie. In Upper Ethiopia this celebrated traveller found at all seasons, in the buccal cavity of the Negro, a higher temperature than in individuals belonging to other races. The young Negresses always preserve in Egypt this excess of temperature; not so the young Negroes: these have the mouth warmer than young men of other races in hot weather, but colder, on the contrary, in cold weather. “The pulse of the Negro in Egypt nearly corresponds to that of the other inhabitants, being, from 60-70 pulsations per minute. The contrary is obseiwed in male children, from 10-13 years, and in young females from 14-20: for the former 74-96; for the latter 84-104 pulsations per minute. “ The senses of the Negro are not developed as in other races which are nearer to the state of nature, or live in a different climate. Vision does not in the Negro surpass that of the European; the flattening of the cornea renders the Negro rather presbyopic than myopic. From his inclination and talent for music, hearing seems his most developed sense; at any rate he ex­ cels, in this respect, the Egyptian. To judge from the extent of the nasal cavities, smell ought to be very acute, such, however, does not appear to be the case. This applies also to the sense of taste; the Negro is omnivorous Touch, this general corrector of the white races, is little developed in the Negro, which accords with the flattening of the tactile cushions. But the most striking phenomenon with regard to general sensibility, is the apparent apathy of the Negro as to pain. In the most serious affections of internal organs, the Negro, arrived at a certain point, cowers on his bed (at least in the hospitals) without responding by any sign to the care of his physician. How­ ever, in a state of civilised slavery, where he has acquired some knowledge, he becomes more communicative, without, however, betraying any manifesta­ tion of pain. Bad treatment causes the Negro, the Negress, and the child to abundantly shed tears, but physical pain never provokes them. The Negro frequently resists surgical operations, but when he once submits, he fixes his eyes upon the instrument and the hand of the operator without any mark of restlessness or impatience. The lips, however, change colour and the sweat runs from him during the operation. A single example will support our view. A negress underwent the amputation of the right half of the lower jaw with the most astonishing apathy; but no sooner was the diseased part removed, than she commenced singing with a loud and sonorous voice, in spite of our remonstrances, and the wound could only be dressed after she had finished her hymn of grace. �24 ON THE NEGRO S PLACE IN NATURE. The assumption of the unity of the species of man has been based chiefly on the asserted fact that the offspring of all the “ The phases of development present in the Negro race some peculiarities which appear to me worth notice. We know next to nothing of the embryo­ nic state. The Negro infant is born without prognathism, with an ensemble of traits which is more or less characteristic as regards the soft parts, but which is scarcely marked in the cranium. In this respect the Negro, the Hottentot, the Australian, the Neo-Caledonian, do not indicate in the osseous system the difference which will arise later. The new born Negro child does not present the colour of the parents; it is of a red colour mixed with bistre and less vivid than that of new-born European children. This premature colour is, however, more or less deep, according to the regions of the body. From reddish it passes to slate-grey, until sooner or later, according to the climate and soil, it corresponds to the colour of the parents. In the Sudan the m eta.m orph osi s. i.e., the development of the pigment, is generally completed at the end of the first year; in Egypt only at the end of three years. The 'hair of the Negro baby at first is rather chestnut than black; it is straight and slightly curved at the point. I was unable exactly to determine the extent of the fontanelles, but to judge from the cranium, the difference in this respect from the Aryan child is not appreciable. “ The first dentition commences nearly at the same epoch as with us. I have however, observed in Egypt cases of precocious as well as retarded dentition. Suckling continues during two years at least. After the first dentition, we already observe upon the cranium certain distinctive characters, viz.:—The median line of the forehead raised, the chin retracted, the superior jaw slightly inclined, the nose widened, the occiput prominent. Still the young Negro presents, until the time of puberty, a pleasing exterior. Puberty supervenes in girls between the ages of 10-12, and in boys between 13-15 years. It is then that the great revolution in the forms and proportions of the skeleton rapidly proceeds. This process and its results follow an inverse course as regards the cerebral and facial cranium. The jaws are enlarged with­ out any compensation for the brain: it is not meant that there is an arrest of development—no, the difference of race manifests itself merely by a dif­ ferent order of increase in the growth of the respective parts. Whilst in the Aryan man the moderate increase of the jaws and the bones of the face is abundantly compensated and even surpassed by a development or rather en­ largement of the brain, specially of the anterior lobe: the contrary takes place in the Negro. Great compression, chiefly lateral, produced from with­ out inwardly by the muscles destined for animal life; small reaction in the interior on part of the brain, and we have the mould of his cranium and his brain formed as we have described it. Everything is in harmony with the organism. No doubt this mode of viewing the conformation of the Negro cranium is open for discussion. “ The course taken by the obliteration of the cranial sutures, furnishes a significative commentary to these phenomena. The medio-frontal suture as well as the lateral part of the coronal suture is in the Negro invariably closed already in early youth. In the adult Negro the union proceeds then to the middle part of the coronal suture and the sagittal suture—or as I have ob­ served on crania in East Africa—on all sutures at once. The lambdoid suture is that which remains open longest, especially on the summit. At the base of the cranium, on the other hand, the basilo-sphenoid suture is frequently found open. As regards the incisive suture, it not only persists in the infant Negro, but is very distinct in many Negro crania of an advanced age. The obhteration of the sutures seems in the Negro race to be more rapidly effected in the female than in the male. “ Prognathism has been, and may be considered, at least partly, as the result of the action of the inferior jaw on the concentric arch of the superior jaw. At any rate, the mode of articulation of this bone with the temporal, seems �ON THE NEGRO b PLACE IN NATURE. 25 mixtures of the so called races of man are prolific. Now this is assuming what yet has to be established. At present it is only proved that the descendants of some of the different races of man are temporarily prolific; but there is the best evidence to believe that the offspring of the Negro and European are not indefinitely prolific. This question is one which must be dealt with separately and proved by facts. At present we find that all primd facie evidence is against the assumption that permanent mixed races can be produced, especially if the races are not very closely allied. This subject, however, merits a special discussion, and belongs to that large and important question—human hybridity. We, therefore, cannot agree with much to contribute to it; for I have met with this conformation preferentially in the races in which the glenoid is large but of little depth, and the condyles of the maxillary more or less flattened, or at least elliptic; it coincides with a more or less pronounced harmony of the row of teeth. These conditions facilitate the movement of the jaw from behind forwards, whilst in the cranium with deep and contracted glenoid cavities, and with condyles more or less rounded or pointed, the movement of the jaw is preferentially vertical. I am, however, well aware of the insufficiency of this etiology, and I ask myself whether prognathism is not simply the expression of a movement towards animality. It has been thought that prolonged lactation may in the Negro favour prognathism but I must observe that this custom prevails among many Oriental nations which are orthognathous. Moreover, it is known that the conformation is not exclusively peculiar to the African Negro. The majority of human races, whether dolicho- or brachycephalous, participate in it, as well as some civilised peoples : for instance the Peruvians, the Chinese, and JavanoMalays, at least the plurality of individuals comprising those nations. We And also exceptional cases more frequently in the ancient and modern Egypt­ ians, less among the Jews, and less still in Western Europe. In all these cases, this conformation, however, does not exceed the first degree of the three distinct degrees we have established. “ It must also be observed that the relative depression of the middle part of the face joined to the prominence of the jaws, is the essential condition of prognathism, and of the results derived from the measurement of the facial angle. We thus comprehend that the two straight lines drawn from the meatus auditorius to the forehead, and the alveolar border of the palatine suture, rarely present in favour of the latter a difference of two millimeters. This shows us that the depression of the nose in the Negro is as essential to produce prognathism, as the increase of the jaws from behind forwards. Par­ turition, and lactation ordinarily give but little trouble to the Negress. Her fecundity seems to be great, for she produces up -to ten children; but the manners and even the institutions much reduce the mimher of offspring. Decline commences in the Negress between thirty-five and forty. Whilst the ugliness which accompanies age in the female is excessive, we find that in the male the hair blanches early, and at an advanced age his external aspect loses its harmony. Even in the races of the Sudan, with clear complexions and expressive features, as for instance in the Foulahs, which some hesitate to place among the Negroes, Dr. Barth remarks on the ugliness they exhibit in old age. He observes that their face has something of the ape at that period, and he makes similar observations as regards the old ladies of the Maghis tribe, whose harmonious features when young he so much admired.” �26 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. the asserted statement, especially when we find that the two scientific men who have in recent times paid the most atten­ tion to this subject—I allude to Messrs. Broca and Nott— have come to the conclusion that the offspring of the Negro and European are not indefinitely prolific. With the permission of the Society, I will enter into that question at some future day. M. Flourens asserted that the Negro children were born white; but recent observation has shown that this is not the case. Benet, ex-physician of Runjeet Singh, and Dumoutier, affirm that the children are born chestnut colour. M. Primer Bey confirms this fact from personal observation. In the Negro race there is a great uniformity of tempera­ ment. In every people of Europe all temperaments exist; but in the Negro race, we can only discover analogies for the choleric and phlegmatic temperaments. The senses of the Negro are said to be very acute, especially smell and taste; but Pruner Bey says that there has been much exaggeration as to the perfection of the senses of the Negro, and that his eye-sight in particular is very much inferior to the European. The most detestable odours delight him, and he eats every­ * thing. While the anatomical and physiological questions must be decided by actual facts, there still remains to investigate the psychological peculiarity of the Negro. It is here, perhaps, that the greatest amount of misconception exists in the minds of the public generally, and not unfrequently in the minds of some men of science. Wedded to the theory of a single pair for the origin of man, they attempt to show that there is in mankind no variety, nothing but uniformity. To show I do not exaggerate on this point, I will quote the words of an esteemed friend, which he read last year at Cam­ bridge. He says :—“ Eor as God made of one blood all the nations of the earth, and endowed them all with the same animal, intellectual, moral, and religious nature : so has he * Mr. Louis Fraser informs me that this is not always the case, and that sometimes a Negro will leave a vessel on account of a disagreeable odour, saying, “ Cap’n, your ship stink too much, I can’t stop.” �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 27 bound them all together—in accordance with the high behest that they should increase and multiply and replenish the earth —in one common bond of universal brotherhood?' ’ Mr. Dunn, however, it must be acknowledged, does not carry out the principles he here enunciates, for he fully admits the fact that, practically, Negro children cannot be educated with the whites. He also admits that some of the lower races are not able to receive complex ideas, or have little power of think­ ing, and none of generalisation, although they have excellent memories. The assertion that the negro only requires an opportunity for becoming civilised, is disproved by history. The African race has had the benefit of the Egyptian, Carthaginian, and Roman civilisations, but nowhere did it become civilised. Not only has the Negro race never civilised itself, but it has never accepted any other civilisation. No people have had so much communication with Christian Europeans as the people of Africa, where Christian bishops existed for centuries. Except * some knowledge of metallurgy they possess no art; and their rude laws seem to have been borrowed and changed to suit their peculiar instincts. It is alleged that the Negro only requires early education to be equal to the European; but all experiments of this kind have proved that such is not the fact. With the negro, as with some other races of man, it has been found that the children are precocious : but that no advance in education can be made after they arrive at the age of maturity, they still continue, mentally, children. It is appa­ rently of little consequence what amount of education they re­ ceive, the same result nearly always follows, the reflective faculties hardly appear to be at all developed. The dark races generally do not accept the civilisation which surrounds them, as is shown in the South Sea, where they remain the uncivilised race by the side of the Malays. The opinion of Dr. Channing of America, is often quoted respecting the Negro. He says:—<c I would expect from the Negro race when civilised, less energy, less courage, less intellectual origi­ * It is said that when the Negro has been with other races, he has always been a slave. This is quite true: but why has he been a slave ? �28 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. nality, than in ours; but more amiableness, tranquillity, gentle­ ness, and content.” Now, if it were possible to civilise them, there is no doubt they would show less energy, courage, and intellectual originality (of which they would be utterly deficient) and, as to their amiableness, tranquillity, gentleness, and con­ tent, it would be more like the tranquillity and content shown by some of our domestic animals than anything else to which we can compare it. It has been said that the present slave­ holders of America“ no more think of insurrection amongst their full-blooded slaves than they do of rebellion amongst their cows and horses ! ”* It has also been affirmed (and I believe with truth) that not a single soldier has been required to keep order in the so called “ Slave States” of America. The many assumed cases of civilised Negroes generally are not those of pure African blood. In the Southern States of North America, in the West Indies and other places, it has been fre­ quently observed that the Negroes in place of trust have Euro­ pean features,and some writers have supposed that these changes have been due to a gradual improvement in the Negro race which is taking place under favourable circumstances. It is assumed that great improvement has taken place in the intellect of the Negro by education, but we believe such not to be the fact. It is simply the European blood in their veins which renders them fit for places of power, and they often use this power far more cruelly than either of the pure blooded races. At the same time, there are doubtless many exceptions to this rule; depending perhaps on the amount of mixture of blood and inherited peculiarities. It has been affirmed that occa­ sionally there are seen Negroes of pure blood who possess * “ The Southern planter, with a consciousness of superiority that would be ashamed to resort to fiction or imposition of any kind, takes off his coat and works in the same field and at the same labour as his ‘ slave.’ The thought of the latter contesting his superiority never once enters his mind. As said by a sound statesman and gallant soldier of the South, ‘ we no more think of a Negro insurrection, than we do of a rebellion of our cows and horses.’ The planter rules as naturally as the Negro obeys instinctively; the relation between them is natural, harmonious, and necessary, and their interests being indivisible, there can be no cause or motive, either for the abuse of power on the part of the master, or of rebellion on the part of the servant.”—Negroes and Negro “ Slavery.” By J. H. Van Evrie, M D Nev York, 1861, p. 29. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 29 European features : but I believe such not to be the fact, and Pruner Bey also says that “ with regard to the re­ gular Caucasian features, with which some tiavellers have endowed certain Negro peoples, I must state that among many thousand Negroes who have come under my own observation, there was not one who could lay claim to it.” Instances have often been quoted of reputed European skulls with Negro characters. Such an instance there is in the College of Surgeons, another in Morton’s museum, and one in Gall’s collection; but if we admit these to have be­ longed to the pure race, we shall only be admitting that in * one character the European skull sometimes resembles that of the Negro; but there will be plenty of other characters to show that they did not belong to the same race or species, and it ought simply to caution us not to base our ideas of race or species upon one character. We know that species of the mammalia frequently cannot be distinguished by the form of the skeleton, and we must therefore not be surprised to find that we are unable to prove a distinction of species in mankind if we take the cranium or even skeleton as a sole test. We now know it to be a patent fact that there are races existing which have no history, and that the Negro is one of these races. From the most remote antiquity the Negro race seems to have been what it now is.fi We maybe pretty sure * A large amount of mixture has continually been going on between the natives and the traders, especially on the rivers. The traders are not the finest specimens of their race, and much of the immorality of the settlements may be owing to this mixed blood. The following custom has existed for ages, and render most uncertain the parentage of some Africans who even come direct from the interior:—“ The European stranger, however, travelling in their country, is expected to patronize their wives and daughters, and these unconscious followers of Lycurgus and Cato feel hurt, as if dishonoured, by his refusing to gratify them. The custom is very prevalent along this coast. At Gaboon, perhaps it reaches the acme; there a man will in one breath offer the choice between his wife, sister, and daughter. The women of course do as they are bid by the men, and they consider all familiarity with a white man a high honour.”—Wanderings in West Africa, vol. 2, p. 24. f As a proof that the African race has not changed during the last 2,000 years, the following description of an “ Aunt Chloe” of the days of Virgil may be interesting:— Afra genus, tota patriam testante figura, Torta comam, labroque tumens, et fusca colorem; Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo, Cruribus exilis, spatiosa prodiga planta; Continuis rimis calcanea scissa rigebant. �30 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. that the Negro race has been without a progressive history; and that Negroes have been for thousands of years the uncivilised race they are at this moment. Egyptian monuments depict them as such, and holding exactly the same position relative to the European. Morton truly observes : “Negroes were * numerous in Egypt, but their social position in ancient times was the same that it now is, that of servants and slaves.” Some writers have assumed that the Negro has degenerated from some higher form of civilisation, but we see no evidence to support such an assertion. We, however, fully admit that there are found traces of a higher civilisation, especially along the coasts visited, during all ages, by Europeans. The working of metals and imitation of European manufactures also exist in many parts of Africa. Indeed, there seems to be a great same­ ness in this respect throughout all Africa. Consul Hutchinson has given an interesting account of the finding of some imple­ ments used by the natives of Central Africa exactly resembling those used by the Anglo-Saxons. Consul Hutchinson thus describes them :f—“ You will be surprised, no doubt, to hear that I brought down with me from the tribes of Filatahs, in Central Africa, iron heads of spears with wooden shafts and iron spiked ferules, heads of javelins and arrows, double-edged swords, knives, beads for orna­ ments, potteryware for culinary purposes, exactly similar in pattern to those that are described by Mr. Wright, in a paper on f Fausset Antiquities,’ which he read before the British As­ sociation at Liverpool, in 1856, and which antiquities I need scarcely tell you were excavated at Canterbury, as well as proved to have been used in this country before the introduc­ tion of Christianity to our shores. Even the cowrie (the shell As it is the fashion to quote Cowper on the Negro in the anthopological dis­ cussion, I append his translation of the above, which although feeble, yet conveys the spirit of the original. “ From Afric she, the swain’s sole serving maid, Whose face and form alike her birth betrayed; With woolly locks, lips tumid, sable skin, Wide bosom, udders flaccid, belly thin, Legs slender, broad and most misshapen feet, Chapped into chinks, and parched with solar heat.” * Crania jEgyptiaca. Philadelphia, 1844 (eighth conclusion). f Transactions of the Ethn. Soc., vol. i, new series, p. 328. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 31 of the Cyprcea moneta), which is described in. Mr. Wright’s paper as having been found among other relics of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, is in this very day the currency among the Filatahs. It may perhaps increase the interest of my statement, which can be demonstrated by the articles I brought home (being de­ posited at the Royal Institution museum at Liverpool), when I add that they were obtained from tribes who had no record of ever having been visited by any white man previous to the time of our voyage at the end of 1854.” There is good reason to believe that, like all inferior races, there has been little or no migration from Africa since the earliest historical records. The European, for ever restless, has migrated to all parts of the world, and traces of him are to be found in every quarter of the globe. Everywhere we see the European as the conqueror and the dominant race, and no amount of education will ever alter the decrees of Nature’s laws. We hear much of late in this country of the equality of the Negro and European, because we have little real knowledge of the Negro; but in America the Negro is better known. As Dr. Van Evrie observes : “ In the United States, among a * people almost universally educated, and where the fact of ‘ equality ’ is almost universally understood and acted on, per­ sonally as well as politically, the advocacy of woman’s ‘ equal­ ity,’ in the sense that they (in England) argue it, or c equality ’ of the Negro to the white man in any sense whatever, is in­ excusable on the ground of ignorance; and those thus warring against the laws of nature and progress of society, deserve to be treated as its enemies, or as absolute maniacs, and irre­ sponsible for the evils they seek to inflict upon it.” It has been assumed on very insufficient evidence that the Negroes in America improve in intelligence in every generation, and that they gradually approach the European type. M. Quatrefages recently directed our attention to this point, as did Sir Charles Lyell many years ago. It is affirmed that the head and body also approach the European without any mixture of the races. * Negroes and “Negro Slavery.” New York, 1861, p. 10. �82 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. M. Quatrefages quotes the following from M. Elisee Rectus : * “We do not intend here to touch upon the question of slavery, we would merely state a certain fact—the constant advance of Negroes in the social scale. Even in physical respects they tend gradually to approach their masters; the Negroes of the United States have no longer the same type as the African Negroes; their skin is rarely of velvet black, though nearly all their progenitors have been imported from the Coast of Guinea; their cheekbones are less prominent, their lips not so thick, nor the nose so flattened, neither is the hair so crisp, the physiognomy so brutish, the facial angle so acute as those of their brethren in the old world. In the space of one hundred and fifty years they have, as far as external appearance goes, passed one-fourth of the gulph which separates them from the white race.” We believe such not to be the fact, and that no improvement takes place after the second generation. On this point Dr. Nott f has very judiciously observed: “ Sir C. Lyell, in common with tourists less eminent,, but on this question not less misinformed, has somewhere stated that the Negroes in America are undergoing a manifest improve­ ment in their physical type. He has no doubt that they will, in time, show a development in skull and intellect quite equal to the whites. This unscientific assertion is disproved by the cranial measurements of Dr. Morton. That Negroes imported into, or born in, the United States become more intelligent and better developed in their physique generally than their native compatriots of Africa, every one will admit; but such intelligence is easily explained by their ceaseless contact with the whites, from whom they derive much instruction; and such physical improvement may also be readily accounted for by the increased comforts with which they are supplied. In Africa, owing to their natural improvidence, the Negroes are more frequently than not a half-starved, and therefore half-developed, race; but when they are regularly and adequately fed, they become healthier, better developed, and more humanised. Wild horses, cattle, asses, and other brutes are greatly im­ * Unite de VEspace Humaine. Paris, 1861. f Types of Mankind. Philadelphia, 1857, p. 260. �33 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. proved in like manner by domestication; but neither climate nor food can transmute an ass into a horse, or a buffalo into an ox.” The real facts seem to be, that the Negroes employed in domestic labour have more intelligence than those who are employed at field labour, who are nearly in the same mental condition as when they left Africa. We must bear in mind, however, that there are only some of the African tribes of Negroes who are docile and intelligent enough for domestic purposes : the Eboes are generally selected for this purpose. We see therefore in this improvement of the Negro simply the effect of education, but not of climate or other physical agents. We fully admit that the domestic Negroes are im­ proved in intelligence in America, resulting from the imitation of the superior race by which they are surrounded; but much of the improvement in intellect is owing to the mixture of European and Negro blood. The Negro is not generally edu­ cated because it is affirmed that he is no sooner taught to read than he will take every chance of reading his master’s letters; and if he be taught to write, he will soon learn to forge his master’s signature. This applies with equal, and, perhaps, greater force to those free, semi-civilised Negroes who are held by some in such theoretical veneration. I have intentionally avoided dwelling on the great diversity of physical type found in Africa, as this is foreign to our subject. There can be no doubt, however, that there is, both in North and South Africa every shade of colour and races with very different features. There are also in Central Africa some races such as the Mandingos, Fulahs, and Wolofs, who are quite distinct from the typical Negro. In these races, some of the characters found in the typical Negro are found in only a very modified degree. How many races inhabit Africa., and their relation to one another, is not the subject of present inquiry. M. Pruner Bey has very judiciously made the follow­ ing observations on this point:— “We must admit that the inferior orbital margins are fre­ quently narrow and retreating ; that the noses become longer and more prominent; that the lips turned up in some tribes D �34 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. are only full in others ; that prognathism diminishes without however disappearing entirely; that the aperture of the eye becomes wide ; that the hair short and woolly in most, grows longer ; that the transverse diameter of the chest becomes en­ larged ; that even the pelvis, though much more rarely, ac­ quires more rounded outlines; that the limbs acquire more harmonious proportions ; that the hips, thighs, and legs become more fleshy and the foot more arched; but as regards the crowning of the work, i.e., the skull, especially the cere­ brum, all the variations in the Negro race remain confined within limits which deserve our attention. In the Aryan race the skull presents three fundamental types, the elongated form (producing in some exceptional cases prognathism) which approaches the limit of the Negro type; the short and round form, approaching the Turanian race ; and finally, the typically beautiful oval form, which seems to have resulted from a combination of the two former. Nothing like it is to be found in the Negro. The skull is and remains elongated, it is elliptical, cuneiform, but never round; his facial bones may approach the pyramidal form by the increasing distance be­ tween the cheekbones, and may in this respect resemble the Kaffirs and the Bechuanas, but this is all/'’ This generalisa­ tion appears to me to be in accordance with all the known facts respecting the craniological development of the chief African tribes, which thus form one great ethnic family, although com­ posed of many distinct races. I need not enlarge on the well-known and admitted facts respecting the intense immorality which exists amongst the Mulattoes and others of mixed blood. * There are, at the same * The following extract is a striking confirmation of this remark :—“ But the worst class of all is the mulatto—under which I include quadroon and octaroon. He is everywhere, like wealth, irritamenta malorum. The ‘ barsinister,’ and the uneasy idea that he is despised, naturally fill him with ineffable bile and bitterness. Inferior in point of morale to Europeans, as far as regards physique to Africans, he seeks strength in making the families of his progenitors fall out. Many such men visiting England are received by virtue of their woolly hair and yellow skin into a class that would reject a fellow-countryman of similar, nay of far higher, position; and there are amongst them infamous characters, who are not found out till too late. London is fast learning to distinguish between the Asiatic Mir and the Munshi. The real African, however—so enduring are the sentimentalisms of Wilberforce and Buxton—is still to be understood.”—Wanderings in West �35 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. time, perhaps, some exceptions to this general rule, which, how­ ever, hasheen observed in every country where thesepeople exist. Of all the questions connected with the Negro, the most difficult to settle is that of his intelligence. Amidst conflicting testimony, it is difficult to discover the truth. AVe may ad­ Africa. 1863. Vol. i. p. 271. This is by no means a modern idea, for I find the following extract from a work entitled “ A new voyage to Guinea,” by William Smith, Esq., appointed by the Royal African Company to survey their settlements, make discoveries, &c., in a second edition pub­ lished in 1745, p. 213. Speaking of the Mulattoes of the Gold Coast at that time, this author observes: “ Upon this coast are a Sort of People called Mullatoes, a race begotten by the Europeans upon Negroe Women. This Bastard Blood is a Parcel of the most profligate Villains, neither true to the Negroes, nor to one another; yet they assume the Name of Chris­ tians, but are indeed as great Idolaters as any on the Coast. Most of the Women are public Whores to the Europeans, and private ones to the Negroes. In short, whatever is bad among the Europeans or Negroes are united in them; so that they are the Sink of both. They are frightfully ugly, when they grow in Years, especially the women.” There is, how­ ever/ an earlier description of these peoples from which the author seems to have partly borrowed his ideas. Nearly the same words are given in William Bosman’s work on Guinea, published at the end of the 1 /th century. Is not this picture true of Mulattoes as a class all over the world ? Bosman says (ioc. Cii. 141):—“Though I have been tedious in this, I hope you will pardon it; for I must own my Itch of Scribbling is not yet over, and I cannot help giving you an account of a wonderful an extraordinary sort of People, I mean the Tapceyers or Mulattoes; a race begotten by the Europeans upon the Negro or Mulatto-Women. This Bastard Strain is made up of a parcel of profligate Villains, neither true to the Negroes nor us, nor indeed dare they trust one another; so that you very rarely see them agree together. They assume the Name of Christians, but are as great Idolators as the Negroes themselves. Most of the Women are public Whores to the Europeans and private ones to the Negroes, so that I can hardly give them a character so bad as they deserve. I can only tell you whatever is in its own Nature worst, in the Europeans and Negroes is united in them; so that they are the sink of both. The Men, most of which are Soldiers in our service, are clothed as we are; but the Women prink up themselves in a particular manner: Those of any Eashion wear a fine Shift, and over that a short Jacket of silk oi stuff, without sleeves; which reaches from under the arms to their hips, fastened only at the shoulders. Upon their heads they wear several caps, one upon the other; the uppermost of which is of Silk, plated before and round at the top, to make it fit soft, upon all which they have a sort of Fillet, which comes twice or thrice around the Head. Thus dressed they make no small show. On the lower part of their body they are clothed as the Neyro-Women are; and those who are poor are only distinguishable by their dress: they going naked in the upper part of their body. “ The whole Brood, when young, are far from handsome, and when old, are only fit to fright children to their beds. If a painter were obliged to paint Envy, I could wish him no better original to draw after than an old MulattoWornan. In process of time, their Bodies become speckled with white, brown, and yellow spots, like the Tigers, which they also resemble in their barbarous natures. But I shall here leave them, for fear it may be thought that I am prejudiced by hatred against ’em; but so far from that, that there is not a single person who hath anything to do with them but he must own they are not worth speaking to.” D 2 �36 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. mit? however, that there are instances of the pure Negro showing great powers of memory, such as the acquirement of languages; but we must also remember that memory is one of the lowest mental powers. Numerous instances have been collected by different partisan writers to show that the Negro is equal intellectually to the European; but an examination of these cases nearly invariably leads to the conclusion that there has been much exaggeration in the statements made by writers as to the aptitudes of the Negro for education and improvement. The exhibition of cases of intelligent Negroes in the saloons of the fashionable world by so-called “ philanthropists ”* has frequently been nothing but mere imposture. In nearly every case in which the history of these cases has been investigated, it has been found that these so-called Negroes are the offspring of European and African parents. I propose on some future occasion to lay before you evidence to show, that nearly all the Negroes who are asserted to have arrived at any mental distinc­ tion had European blood in their veins : and think I shall be able to show that of the fifteen celebrated Negroes whose his­ tories were collected by Abbe Gregoire there is not one who is of pure Negro blood. Some writers who advocate the specific difference of the Negro from the European have very injudiciously admitted that occasionally the Negro is equal in intellect to the European, but this admission has materially * The following words of Thomas Carlyle deserve to be recorded in every discussion on the Negro:—“ Sunk in deep froth oceans of ‘ Benevolence/ ‘ Fraternity/ ‘ Emancipation-principle/ ‘ Christian Philanthropy/ and other most amiable looking, but most baseless, and in the end baleful and all­ bewildering jargon, sad product of a sceptical eighteenth century, and of poor human hearts left destitute of any earnest guidance, and disbelieving that there ever was any, Christian or heathen, and reduced to believe in rosepink sentimentalism alone, and to cultivate the same under its Christian, anti-Christian, broad-brimmed, Brutus-headed, and other forms—has not the human species gone strange roads during that period ? And poor Exeter Hall, cultivating the broad-brimmed form of Christian sentimentalism and long talking, and bleating and braying in that strain, has it not worked out results ? Our West India legislatings, with their spoutings, anti-spoutings, and interminable jangle and babble; our twenty millions down on the na.il for blacks of our- own; thirty gradual millions more, and many brave British lives to boot, in watching blacks of other people’s; and now, at last, our ruined sugar estates, differential sugar duties, ‘ immigration loan/ and beau­ tiful blacks sitting there up to the ears in pumpkins, and doleful whites sitting here without potatoes to eat; never, till now, I think, did the sun look down on such a jumble of human nonsenses.” �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 37 weakened their argument in favour of a specific difference. If this is so, let me ask those who hold such an opinion to give the name of one pure Negro who has ever distinguished him­ self as a man of science, as an author, a statesman, a warrior, a poet, an artist. Surely, if there is equality in the mental development of human races, some one instance can be quoted. From all the evidence we have examined, we see no reason to believe that the pure Negro even advances further in intellect than an intelligent European boy of fourteen years of age. Many writers have mentioned the precocity of the Negro children. Sir C. Lyell has observed : “ Up to fourteen years * of age black children advance as fast as the whites and Eliot Warburton has remarked! that the modern Egyptian “when young, is remarkably precocious in intellect, and learns with facility. As he grows up, his intelligence seems to be dulled or diminished: he has no genius for discovery, and though apt in acquiring rudiments, he is incapable of generalising. He fills subordinate departments well, but appears incapable of taking or of keeping a lead/-’ Sir C. Lyell expresses his sur­ prise at the results of the mixture of some European blood with the Negro, and thinks “it a wonderful fact, psychologically considered, that we should be able to trace the phenomena of hybridity even into the world of intellect and reason.” It would, indeed, be remarkable if all men were endowed with the same instincts; but not so wonderful if we do not accept such an unfounded hypothesis. The pure Negro seems incapable of much mental cultivation; and Archbishop Sumner's muchtalked-of “ improveable reason,” as a distinction between men and animals, only finds a limited application in the Negro race. The reason of animals is improved to some extent by domesti­ cation and training, and this is all we can say of the Negro. Dr. Madden observes : “ It will be seen by all the answers the missionary gentlemen in our different settlements have given to my queries respecting the mental capacity of Negro children, that they are considered universally, in that respect, equal to European children, and by some even quicker, in their percep­ * Second Journey to the United States, vol. i, p. 105. f The Crescent and the Cross. �38 OX THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. tions, and more lively in their powers of apprehension.” To which Dr. R. Clarke adds : “ This is observable from the ages * of five to twelve or thirteen years j but from that period of life to the age of eighteen or twenty, it becomes less strongly marked, and there appears to be less activity in the mental faculties.” Professor Owen gives it as his opinion f that we are unable “ to appreciate or conceive of the distinction between the psy­ chical phenomena of a Chimpanzee and of a Bosjesman, or of an Aztec with arrested brain growth ;” but we are able clearly to appreciate the psychological distinction between the Negro and the Chimpanzee : just as we see that there are decided mental and moral distinctions between the European and the Negro. We fully admit, however, that the psychical distinction is simply a question of degree and not of kind. The day is not far distant when we shall be able to analyse the mental character of the Negro far more minutely than we can do in the present infant state of psychological science. J In * Sierra Leone, p. 34. f Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, 1857, p. 20. ' J Bruner-Bey thus speaks of the Psychology of the Negro:—“ The mani­ festations of the affective and intellectual faculties of the Negro may be placed in parallel with his physical type. Sensuality is the great lever of his propensities; from his imitative talent result the qualities which demand our esteem. The first renders him an eminently sociable being; by the second he becomes an artist of a secondary rank. Solitude is insupportable to him ; song and dance are indispensable wants. Materialist in the main, he is in this respect below the more refined Chinese; but, like the latter, he prefers suicide to great privations. He preferentially selects the most violent means to attain this object; he suffocates himself by reversing his tongue towards the larynx; he throws himself from precipices; he drowns himself. He rarely takes the initiative in anything. In spiritual things he repro­ duces, but is not productive. It was only after having acquired the know­ ledge of the existence of letters among other peoples that an individual of the Vei tribe invented an alphabetic primer, the greatest effort which the Negro has ever made in the cultivation of science. The eminently imitative nature of the Negro even reveals itself in that part in which the creative faculty of every race reflects itself; viz., language. It appears to me evident that the Negro in the structure of his languages has endeavoured to produce a copy of all the systems known without attaining the perfection of any oririnal. The same remark applies to the ideas and conceptions referring to regions of the invisible world, towards which the human mind at all times, and in all regions, soared to attempt the solution of the highest problems. The adoration of natural objects, of stones, trees, &c., of the sun, as well of the names of ancestors, demonology, the attribution of superior powers to objects made by the hand of man, divination by the inspection of entrails, human sacrifices, and anthropophagy,—for a mystical object all this found its place in the soul of the Negro, as amongst us in times past; but he surpasses the Scputic,, the Aryan, and even the Chinese, in having completely forgotten �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 39 dwelling on the mental character of the Negro we must, there­ fore, for the present, rely on the general observations of those the signification of the symbol. For him animals would speak the language of man if they were not too lazy. He has probably invented the fable in approachino- by the excess of his instincts, the brute to man. It is specially south of the Equator that the Negro is heavily enchained by a fatal supersti­ tion. Living in continued fear of being bewitched, the simple suspicion of it induces him to immolate hecatombs of innocents. The Judgment of God of the ancient gallants of the North of Europe is not unknown to him, but he prefers poison for the ordeal of suspected persons. Moreover, the Negro takes the world as he finds it, and he neither imagines a system of cosmogony nor any spiritual theory on the attributes of a superior being. On the other band, he readily accepts Islamism, and he probably would never oppose to the introduction of the sublime doctrine of fraternal love that desperate resistance shown by the ancient Saxons and Scandinavians. “ Another point in the psychology of the Negro remains to be examined, and it is not the least important one. I would speak of the facility with which he loses his equilibrium when passing from one extreme to the other, frequently without any appreciable motive, of that contradiction in which he presents himself in his social relations, and the excesses of which he is capable. Patient towards a master who illtreats him, he assassinates one who has cherished him. Defending his cabin with ferocious obstinacy, he would sell his children for a piece of stuff. A kneeling slave before a king of his blood, he would condemn him to death when he is tired of him. ‘ You please no longer men or women, old men or children, sheep or fowls/ say the Negroes of the Sudan to their Sultan, to signify to him that it is time he should execute himself. Caring little about the chastity of his daughters, and prostituting his slaves, the Negro assures himself during his absence of the fidelity of his wife by mechanical means, and he becomes an assassin on the mere suspicion of her adultery. Nevertheless, the Negress has more liberty than Islam women, and she is respected in war. Abusing the weaker sex, and deprecating her even by the difference of aliments which he gives her, he nevertheless accepts a woman as his sovereign, according prerogatives to the Queen-mother, and regulating the rights of succession as the peoples of Asia who live in a state of polyandry. A mutual exchange of the occu­ pations of the two sexes is not rare, even among the Negroes of the Sudan. The women cultivate the soil, and the man spins cotton; he guards the fields, she goes to war. The same contradiction is observed in other things which touch the interest of the Negro. Particularly anxious about the arrange­ ments of the interior of his cabin, he remains naked outside in the heat of the day and the comparatively excessive cold of the night. Very domestic and attached to the soil, the Negro travels over the great continent from one end to the other, either for traffic or to fulfil some religious duties. Whole nations are continually on the move, and gipsies would find their brothers among the Negro race. “ The Negro is not cruel by nature; he remains as far in this respect from the bloody refinement of the Chinese as from the atrocious proceedings of the Aryan Persians. Still the dynasties of Wadai blind their nearest male relations; the despot of the Moluwas mutilates and skins those condemned to death. The civilised Bornoui cuts off the thighs of his war prisoners, and the Mousgous skin the backs of their horses to have a firmer seat. But they do not put their slaves to the plough like some tribes of Touaregs. The punishments inflicted by the Negro on his equals, savour, however, more or less of barbarism.” “ Let us not, however, forget that these excesses do not constitute the rule, and that ‘the black man is to the white man what woman is to man.in general, a loving being and a being of pleasure/ We cite with conviction the words of Golbery, ‘ the Negro is generally sober, industrious, an excel- �40 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. unbiassed travellers and others who have been much associated with the Negro race. In the first place we will see what is the evidence recently published by our English consuls, who have the best opportunities of judging of the character of the people amongst whom they are placed. Consul Hutchinson, who spent no less than eighteen years on the West coast of Africa, and who is as competent a judge as any man now living, says that “ his own observations on the * African tribes tend to show that the African is not exactly the style of ‘ man and a brother which mistaken enthusiasts for * his civilisation depict him to be. ** He gives the result of a ten * years attendance at the Missionary school at Cape Palmas of one of his servants, a Kruman, and says that at the end he was asked what he knew of God ? He replied : “ God be very good ; He made two things—one sleep and the other Sunday, when no person had to work. f ** Consul Hutchinson says that “ the thirst for each other’s blood, which seems a daily habit amongst so many of the Negro tribes in Western Africa, appears to me to be incompatible with ordinary notions of common humanity. ** He says that for scores of years European missionaries and English traders have mixed with them in social intercourse, lent and patient workman, not wanting skill; he governs his family with sagacity and dignity.’ We also subscribe the judgment of Mungo Park, that 'the Negro is compassionate by nature,’ and we may add that the Ne­ gress is even in a state of slavery capable of the greatest devotion. “ Improvidence they have in common with all human races who live in a more or less primitive state, and pride of the stronger against the weaker is not foreign to the Negro. “ The portrait which L. Magyar traces of the peoples east of Angola is not favourable. The Djambandis, though polite to strangers, are described as suspicious, false, malicious, and thievish; the Djohoes are still worse, specially vicious to strangers. They contrast with the Moluwas, who are full of atten­ tion to their guests. Most of the inhabitants of the Lobal are ferocious brigands. The judgment of Mr. Kauffmann on the Negroes of the White Nile is generally not more favourable. “ In social respects the Negro has at least attained the position of shepherd and agriculturist. Besides this some Negro-peoples have founded, inde­ pendent of all foreign influence, a sort of civilisation and considerable states ; they possess the art of metallurgy and the talent for trade to a high degree, and they well know how to profit by the foibles of their masters; their answers, for instance, are always shaped according to the desire of the questioner.” * Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i, New Series, p. 327. f “All missionaries praise the African for his strict observance of the Sabbath. He would have 365 sabbaths in the year if possible, and he would as scru­ pulously observe them all.”—Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i, p. 266. �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 41 yet they still cling “ to their gris-gris, jujus,, fetichism and cannibalism with as much pertinacity as they did many hun­ dred years ago.” He adds : “ Here we have all the appliances of our arts, our science and our Christianity, doing no more good than did the wheat in the parable that was sown amongst the briars and the thorns. To attempt civilising such a race before they are humanised appears to me to be beginning at the wrong end. I have passed many a hour in cogitating and endeavouring to fabricate some sort of education likely to root out the fell spirit that dictates human sacrifices and cannibal­ ism ; but I fear years must elapse before any educational prin­ ciple, in its simplest form, can produce an amendment on temperaments such as they possess.” Consul Burton considers that M. Du Chailhfis remarks con­ * cerning the commercial shrewdness and eagerness, the greedi­ ness and rascality of the Negro, apply to him everywhere in his natural state; that an abnormal development of adhesive­ ness, in popular language a peculiar power of affection, is the brightest spot in the Negro character; as in children,, it is somewhat tempered by caprice, especially under excitement, yet it has entitled him to the gratitude of many a traveller. Exaggeration, he considers, is the characteristic of the mind of both the Eastf and West African. He says that “ they justly hold labour as an evil inferior only to death/-’ These are the opinions which have been published by the * Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i, New Series, p. 317. t Captain Burton thus speaks of the Coast clans of Eastern Africa■__ Supersubtle and. systematic liars, they deceive where duller men would tell the truth; the lie direct is no insult, and the offensive word ‘ Muono-o ’ (liar) enters largely into every dialogue. They lie like Africans, objectlessly needlessly, wnen sure of speedy detection: when fact would be more profit­ able than.falsehood; they have not discovered with the civilised knave, that ‘honesty is the best policy/ they lie till their fiction becomes subjectively fact. W ith them the lie is no mental exertion, no exercise of ingenuity no concealment, nor mere perversion of the truth: it is apparently a local’in­ stinctive peculiarity in the complicated madness of poor human nature. The most solemn and religious oaths are with them empty words; they breathe an atmosphere of falsehood, manoeuvre and contrivance, wasting about the mere, nothings of life—upon a pound of grain or a yard of cloth—ingenuity of iniquity enough to win and keep a crown. And they are treacherous as false; with them the salt has no signification, and gratitude is unknown even by name. —Lake Regions of Central Africa. By R. F. Burton. 1861. Vol. �42 ON THE NEGROb PLACE IN NATURE. last two consuls who have written on the subject., and we shall now examine the evidence of some other witnesses. * M. Du Chaillu describes the general characteristics of the tribes he visited who spoke the Mpongwe language as far superior to the Negroes of Congo. He saysf “the Negroes * Truthful William Bosman published the following as his opinions re­ specting the Negroes of Guinea in 1705 (loc. cit., p. 117). “ The Negroes are all, without exception, crafty, villanous and fraudulent, and very seldom to be trusted, being sure to slip no opportunity of cheating an European, nor indeed one another. A man of integrity is as rare among them as a white falcon and their fidelity seldom extends farther than to their masters; and it would be very surprising if, upon a scrutiny into their lives, we should find any of them whose perverse nature would not break out some­ times, for they indeed seem to be born and bred villains. All sorts of base­ ness having got such sure footing in them, that ’tis impossible to lye con­ cealed; and herein they agree very well with what authors tell us of the Muscovites. These degenerate vices are accompanied with their sisters— Sloth and Idleness, to which they are so prone, that nothing but the utmost necessity can force them to labour. They are besides so incredibly careless and stupid, and are so little concerned at their misfortunes, that ’tis hardly to be observed, by any change in them, whether they have met with any good or ill success.” Mr. J. W. Jackson makes the following observations on the Negro (Ethnology and Phrenology, 1863, p. 35):—“ The radical defect of the Negro is want of due nervous development. His brain is less in proportion to his body than that of any other grand division of humanity, and as a result, the involuntary and animal functions altogether preponderate. His flat foot, his long heel, his imperfect pelvis, his powerful stomach, his prognathous jaw, his enormous mouth, and his pug nose, are in perfect correspondence with his imperfectly developed brain, in which correspondently passion and affection rule principle and faculty, the basilar and posterior develop­ ments being predominant over the coronal and anterior. Except in a few unfavourable instances, however, he does not exist on the continent in his lowest form; for it is the Oceanic Negro who is the almost irre­ claimable savage, while the African is the improvable barbarian type of his race. The former is useless even as a slave, while the latter is eminently valuable, because he has been broken to work and obedience, and has that hereditary aptitude for sustained toil, of which the utter savage is so gene­ rally devoid. Hence, despite his present degradation, he obviously belongs to the redeemable families of humanity. He is the labourer of the tropics, and is not going to perish out, like a wild Indian, because his buffalo grounds have been enclosed by the white faces. He has his place on the earth which none can take from him, and what we have to attempt is not his extirpation, but improvement. Hence, a study of his character and capabilities is of the utmost importance. From temperament he is slow, but from organisation he is persistent, his lymphatic nature being sustained by a considerable amount of firmness and self-esteem. He is not skilful, his mechanical ingenuity being that of a child; nor is he capable of delicate manipulation, for which his entire organisation is too coarse. His perceptive faculties are stronger than his reflective or imaginative, and he dwells in the real rather than the ideal. He never rises from a fact to a principle, or re-creates beauty from the faultless beau-ideal of artistic conception. He has but little reve­ rence for the past, and no very brilliant anticipation of the future, being from the overwhelming strength of his sensuous nature swallowed up in the present.” f Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i, New Series, p. 306. �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 43 possess an imaginative mind., are astute speakers, sharp traders, great liars, possessing great powers of dissimulation, and are far from being in many respects the stupid people they are believed to be. In everything that does not require mental labour and forethought, they seemed to me to learn almost as fast as any amongst the more intellectual races to a certain point/'’ He further affirms that they have little power of fore­ thought or power of reflection, and that there is “ a total lack of generalisation.” He also says, that although these people “ are often treacherous, they have noble qualities, given to hos­ pitality, and the women show great kindness of heart, especially when one takes into account the way they are treated.” * Brehm says that “ there seems to be a complete absence of moral sentiment amongst the natives of East Sudan, who not merely excuse theft, murder, and treachery, but consider these actions as praiseworthy in man. They first learned under a Turkish ruler to distinguish murder from justifiable homicide in war. Lying and deceitfulness are considered as marks of mental superiority; and those who suffer death on the gallows are buried with the same honours as the rich merchant or the sheik.” Count Grdrzj- narrates of the Negroes in Cuba, “ Their cha­ racter is very degraded; the moral feeling entirely undevel­ oped; all their actions proceed from animal impulse, or a cunning calculation of their own advantage. Generosity and indulgence exhibited by the white man they consider as weak­ ness. Power imposes upon them, and excites their hatred, which would become dangerous were they not aware of their powerlessness. The only efficacious punishment for them is the whip. They delight in sowing discord; are thievish and revengeful; void of any religious feeling, they are given to the crudest superstition. Their frame, however, is well-de­ veloped and powerful; their teeth magnificent:J their legs slender; they digest like beasts of prey.” This certainly is a * Reise-skizzen aus Nordost-Afrika, vol. i, pp. 162, 175. 1855. + Heise um die Welt (Voyage round the World) in 1844. Stuttgard, 1853. I Mr. Louis Fraser says—“Their mode of mastication is very peo.n1ia.r_, being more like a monkey than a man.”—J. H. �44 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. severe judgment, and may be partly explained by the large amount of mixed blood in Cuba. Colonel Hamilton Smith thus describes the Negro. “ The * Negro is habitually dormant, but when roused shows his emotion by great gesticulations regardless of circumstances. War is a passion that excites in them a brutal disregard of human feel­ ings ; it entails the deliberate murder of prisoners, and victims are slain to serve the manes of departed chiefs. Even canni­ balism is frequent among the tribes of the interior. Notwith­ standing the listless torpidity caused by excessive heat, the perceptive faculties of the children are far from contemptible; they have a quick apprehension of the ridiculous, often surpass­ ing the intelligence of the White, and only drop behind them about the twelfth year, when the reflective powers begin to have the ascendancy. Collectively, the untutored Negro mind is confiding and single-hearted, naturally kind and hospitable. Both sexes are easily ruled, and appreciate what is good under the guidance of common justice and prudence. Yet where so much that honours human nature remains in apathy, the typical woolly-haired races have never invented or reasoned out a theo­ logical system, discovered an alphabet, framed a grammatical lan­ guage, nor made the least step in science or art. They have never comprehended what they have learned, or retained a civilisation taught them by contact with more refined nations as soon as that contact had ceased. They have at no time formed great political states, nor commenced a self-evolving civilisation. Conquest with them has been confined to kindred tribes, and produced only slaughter. Even Christianity of more than three centuries^ duration in Congo has scarcely excited a progressive civilisation. Thus, even the good qualities given to the Negro by the bounty of nature, have seemed only to make him a slave trodden down by every remorseless foot, and to brand him for ages with the epithet of outcast. The marked, unceasing proof of a curse as old as the origin of society, not even deserving human forbearance, and true it is that the worst slavery is his lot even at home, for he is there exposed to the constant peril of becoming also a victim slaughtered with the most revolting * Unity of the Human Species, p. 190-7. �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 45 torments. Tyrant of his blood, he traffics in slavery as it were merchandise, makes war purposely to capture neighbours, and sells even his own wives and children.” Van Amringe observes of the Negro race: “ Even after * having lived for centuries with the white people, from whom they have received every possible instruction for the purpose of de­ veloping an attribute which would be so serviceable to them, as well as those whom they serve, it is very far from having any virtue for which they are distinguished, or even trusted. The Canaanite (Neg’ro) is indolent, careless, sensual, tyrannical, pre­ datory, sullen, boisterous, and jovial. Such are the specific characteristics, and the sensual relations are founded upon them. It has been a favourite theory with some visionary philanthro­ pists that intermarriages of the different species would be highly favourable to the race ; but we have never heard of any of them who was willing to commence the practice in their own families. There is certainly no method that could possibly be devised, which would as certainly and as expeditiously de­ grade the whole human family as amalgamation. If there is any hope for the improvement of the condition of the dark races, the history of mankind shows it can only be founded upon the preservation of Shemitic (White) species. This is the only species endowed with any power to drag the cumbrous dark races out of the slough in which they have been wallowing for ages.” Burmeister, an excellent observer, says :f “I need not en­ large on the long hands, slender fingers, and flat feet of the African. Any one who has ever visited a menagerie, cannot fail to have observed the long hand, slender fingers, long nails, * the flat foot, the deficient calf, and compressed shank and thigh of the apes, which so much resemble in every respect the peculi­ arities of the Negro. I have often tried to obtain an insight into the mind of the Negro; but it never was worth the trouble; the only available result obtained was, that there is not much mental life in the Negro, and that all his thoughts Theories Tork'>18^}eSt'>'9atWn t -R. nach Brasitien. 1857. tlie Natura1 History of Man. New �46 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. and actions were merely directed to the lowest requirements of human existence. There is something in the Negro like the cunning forwardness of the monkey tribe., which renders any very familiar intercourse, such, as we have with an European servant, impossible.'” Carl Vogt has recently observed : “ Most of the characters * of the Negro viewed externally remind us irresistibly of the ape; the short neck, the long lean limbs, the projecting pendu­ lous belly, all this affords a glimmer of the ape beneath the human envelope, such similitudes are equally detected on ex­ amining the structure of individual parts.” Mr. Winwood Readef says, “ It must be acknowledged, that putting all exceptions aside, the women of Africa are very inferior beings. Their very virtues, with their affections and their industry, are those of well trained domestic animals. But if the women of Africa are brutal, the men of Africa are feminine. Their faces are smooth, their breasts are frequently as full as those of European women; their voices are never gruff or deep. Their fingers are long; and they can be very proud of their rosy nails. While the women are nearly always ill-shaped after their girlhood; the men have gracefully moulded limbs, and always are after a feminine type—the arms rounded, the legs elegantly formed, without too much muscular develop­ ment, and the feet delicate and small.” . . . . “A. king of Ashanti cut off the hands of a slave, and bade her scratch his head for vermin with the stumps. If any one had accused him of barbarity he would not have understood the accusation. It was his idea of a good practical joke.” J He continues, “ It * Vorlesungen uber den JVEenschen (Seine Stellung in der Schopfung und in der Geschichte der Er de). Giessen, 1863 (seventh, lecture). f Savage Africa, ch. 36. j I know not on what authority Mr. Winwood Reade has made this asser­ tion, but Bosman records a similar case which was perpetrated by Anqua about a.d. 1691. After recording innumerable cruelties, he goes on to say. that one of Anqua’s slaves touched a new coral belonging to one of his wives, “ But Anqua so resented this innocent freedom, that as soon as I was out of the camp, he caused both wife and slave to be put to death, drinking their blood, as he useth to do those of his enemies. For such another trivial crime, . a little before, he had caused the hands of one of his wives to be cut off, after which, in derision, he used to command her to look his head for vermin, which being impossible with her stumps, afforded him no small diversion.”— A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, by William Bosman, translated from the Dutch, 1705, p. 24. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 47 will be understood that the typical Negroes with whom the slavers are supplied, represent the dangerous, the destitute, and the diseased classes of African society. They may be compared to those which in England fill our jails, our work­ houses, and our hospitals. So far from being equal to us, the polished inhabitants of Europe, as some ignorant people sup­ pose, they are immeasurably below the Africans themselves. The typical Negro is the true savage of Africa, and I must paint the deformed anatomy of his mind as I have already done that of his body. The typical Negroes dwell in petty tribes where all are equal, except the women, who are slaves; where property is common, and where, consequently, there is no property at all; where one may recognise the Utopia of philosophers, and observe the saddest and basest spectacles which humanity can afford. The typical Negro, unrestrained by moral laws, spends his days in sloth and his nights in de­ bauchery. He smokes haschisch till he stupifies his senses, or falls into convulsions; he drinks palm-wine till he brings on a loathsome disease; he abuses children, and stabs the poor brute of a woman whose hands keep him from starvation, and makes a trade of his own offspring. He swallows up his youth in premature vice ; he lingers through a manhood of disease ; and his tardy death is hastened by those who no longer care to find him food. Such are the ‘ men and brothers’ for whom their friends claim, not protection, but equality! They do not merit to be called our brethren; but let us call them our children. Let us educate them carefully, and in time we may elevate them; not to our own level—that, I fear, can never be —but to the level of those from whom they have fallen.” This last remark is made in the supposition that the typical Negro is degenerated from some higher African race; but we think such an hypothesis is not warranted by history, archgeo­ logy, or any well established facts. Mr. Reade’s observations were apparently chiefly made on the Gaboon, and his descrip­ tion does not quite agree with the accounts generally given of the Negroes in the Bights or Windward coast. Mr. Reade’s terminology is far from satisfactory. All typical Negroes are Africans ; but all Africans are not Negroes. �48 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. Dr. Van Evrie, of New York, who has paid considerable at­ tention to the character of the Negro, and had ample oppor­ tunities for observation, thus describes the Negro :—“ But * while the analysis of a single bone or of a single feature of the Negro is thus sufficient to demonstrate the specific cha­ racter, or to show the diversity of race, that great fact is still more obviously and with equal certainty revealed in the form, attitude, and other external qualities. The Negro is incapable of an erect or direct perpendicular posture. The general structure of his limbs, the form of the pelvis, the spine, the way the head is set on the shoulders, in short, the tout ensemble of the anatomical formation forbids an erect position. But while the whole structure is thus adapted to a slightly stooping posture, the head would seem to be the most important agency; for with any other head, or the head of any other race, it would be impossible to retain an upright position at all. But with the broad forehead and small cerebellum of the white man, it is perfectly obvious that the Negro would no longer possess a centre of gravity; and therefore, those philanthropic people who would ‘ educate^ him into intellectual equality, or change the mental organism of the Negro, would simply render him incapable of standing on his feet, or of an upright position, on any terms. Everyone must have remarked this peculiarity in the form and attitude of the Negro. His head is thrown upwards and backwards, showing a certain though remote ap­ proximation to the quadrumana, both in its actual formation and the manner in which it is set on his shoulders. The narrow forehead and small cerebrum—the centre of the intellectual powers, and the projection of the posterior portion,—the centre of the animal functions, render the Negro head radically and widely different from that of the white man. Thus an anato­ mist, with the Negro and ourang-outang before him, after a careful comparison, would say, perhaps, that Nature herself had been puzzled where to place them, and had finally compro­ mised the matter by giving them an exactly equal inclination to the form and attitude of each other.” Dr. Louis Buchnerf has drawn a most graphic picture of * On Negroes and Negro Slavery, p. 93-4-7. f Kraft und Stoff. Seventh edition. 1861. �49 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. some of the physical characters of the Negro :—“ An uninter­ rupted series of the most various transitions and analogies connect the animal world, from the lowest to the highest. Even man, who in his spiritual pride deems himself elevated above the animal creation, is far from forming an exception to this rule. The Ethiopian race connects him by a number of the most striking analogies with the animal world. The long arms, the form of the foot, the thin calf, the long small hands, the general leanness, the undeveloped nose, the projecting jaw, the low receding forehead, the small head, the narrow pelvis, the pendulous belly, the deficient beard, the colour of the skin, the disgusting odour, the uncleanliness, the grimaces in talking, the shrieking voice, are the many marks which mani­ festly exhibit the most decided approach of the Negro to the ape. That he also resembles him in his intellectual capacity, is sufficiently known and established by the best observers.” M. Pruner Bey, one of the most eminent of living Anthro­ pologists, has written the most complete memoir on the Negro yet published on this subject. * Many years ago he thus ex­ pressed himselff respecting the psychological character of the Negro:—“ The capacity of the Negro is limited to imitation. The prevailing impulse is for sensuality and rest. No sooner are the physical wants satisfied, all psychical effort ceases, and the body abandons itself to sexual gratification and rest. The family relations are weak; the husband or father is quite careless. Jealousy has only carnal motives, and the fidelity of the female is secured by mechanical contrivances. Drunken­ ness, gambling, sexual gratification, and ornamentation of the body, are the most powerful levers in the life of the Negro. The whole industry is limited to ornaments. Instead of cloth­ ing himself he ornaments his body. Like certain animals, the Negro seems apathetic under pain. The explosions of passion * By the kind permission of the Council, I have been able to print nearly the whole of his last Memoir on the Negro. Some portions are quoted in the text, other parts will be found in copious notes, and I have only omitted the introduction which is merely descriptive of the different African races. Feeling sure that Anthropologists will duly estimate the great value of his treatise on the Negro, I am proud to be the means of M. Pruner-Bey’s labours being made generally known to the English public. t JEgypten’s Naturgeschichte. Erlangen, 1847. E �50 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. occur when least expected, but are not lasting. The tempera­ ment of the Negro has been called choleric, but it is only so to a certain extent. It is a momentary ebullition, followed in­ stantly by perfect apathy. Life has for the Negro no longer any value when he cannot supply the physical wants ; he never resists by increased activity, but prefers to die in a state of apathy, or he commits suicide. The Negro has no love for war; he is only driven to it by hunger. War, from passion or destructiveness, is unknown to him.” This is a sufficiently clear and truthful picture, and the following summary, with which M. Pruner Bey concluded his paper, presented to the Paris Anthropological Society, is equally to be commended for * M. Pruner-Bey also says: “It results from the examination of the organization of the Negro, that it is admirably adapted to the geographical position he occupies. The dark layer in his external integument, and its velvety character, like all blackened and rough bodies, favour the radiation of heat, and act as coolers. Experience has proved that black crape protects also the face from the solar reflection in the ascent of snow-covered moun­ tains. The great development of the glandular system of the skin favours the secretions, refreshing the skin, and protecting it by an unctuous secre­ tion. The thickness of all the layers of the skin protects the Negro from the night frost in his usual condition of nudity. The same considerations apply to the internal integument; the mucous membrane, with its glutinous and abundant secretion; and to all glands, without exception, which by their reaUy enormous volume, in harmony with the excitation by heat, favour and facilitate the change, and the reproduction of organic matter so rapidly used up in the. torrid zone. Do we pass beyond the limits of science, and lose ourselves in the vicious circle of teleology, if we venture to suppose that even the infantile form of the brain of the Negro may have its relative advan­ tages ? What has the noble Hindoo become under an Indian sun, drowned in a sea of spiritualism the most obscure, with his cranium, which by its admirable harmony, its graceful mould, seems exactly to resemble the organic egg which received the Divine breath of Brahma ? He has, it is true, fulfilled an eminent task; but for many centuries he has been a being severed from terrestrial regions, and of little use to his fellow beings. Let us, finally, endeavour to assign to the Negro his place in relation to the quadrumana, to which some authors seriously approximate him, and to that of other human races, which either make use of or despise the Negro. As for me, the moment that an organised being uses for standing and motion that admirable pedestal, the narrow base of which supports an enormous weight; the moment he makes use of the instrument of instruments—the Land; when he expresses his sentiments, his thoughts, his fears, and hopes by speech, I look upon it as a new order of things. While recognising the undoubted value of homologies, which form the bases of zoological science, I cannot, but admire the simplicity of the means employed by creative wisdom to sepa­ rate man from the anthropomorphous ape. The hair on the skin is reduced; a suture is suppressed to draw the teeth closer, and, though prognathism is developed, the lips are thickened; the iliac bones are turned aside instead of being adossed to the vertebral column; the muscles of the thumb are strengthened; the great toe is fixed; nature finally, instead of the temporal lobe, selects the anterior lobe of the brain “ there to fashion the instrument of intelligence which reflects her image.” (Gratiolet.) �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 51 its truth, and moderation. “The Negro has always appeared to me as partaking of the nature both of the child and the old man. Anatomists worthy of our confidence—Jacquart, Serres, and Huschke—have, in this sense, interpreted the details of the anatomy of the Negro. The elongated form of the cranium, the proportions of the cerebral lobes and their respective forms, the prominence of the inferior border of the orbits, the flattened nose, the rounded larynx, the less marked curves of the vetebral column, the lateral compression of the thorax and pelvis, with the vertical direction of the iliac bones, the elongated neck of the uterus, the proportion of the parts composing the extremities, the relative simplicity of the cerebral convolutions, etc., are characteristic features of the Negro race, which are found in the foetus or the infant of the Aryan race, in the dif­ ferent periods of development. The propensity for amusements, for material enjoyments, for imitation, and the inconstancy of affection, are the appanage of the Negro as well as of our children. The flexuosity of the arteries, the flattening of the cornea, the weakness of the muscles, the dragging walk, and the early obliteration of the cranial sutures, the obstinacy and love of repose are met with in the Negro as in our aged men. In short, the great curve of human development, and its back­ ward direction, appears to be sufficiently extended to appreciate the differences characterising the Negro race opposed to our race, always taking in account the differential characters result­ ing from adaptation to external conditions. If our interpreta­ tion leaves open many gaps, the future may fill them up, perhaps, in the same sense. If, finally, the Negro, speaking always figuratively, partakes of the nature of the ape, it must still be admitted that it is not the most ferocious, malicious, nor the most pernicious, but rather the most patient, and fre­ quently the most useful animal. In any case, an honourable mediocrity is his inheritance.” The general deductions we would desire to make are :—1 That there is as good reason for classifying the Negro as a distinct species from the European, as there is for making the ass a distinct species from the zebra j and if, in classi­ fication, we take intelligence into consideration, there is a far e 2 �52 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. greater difference between the Negro and European than between the gorilla and chimpanzee. 2. That the analogies are far more numerous between the Negro and apes, than between the European and apes. 3. That the Negro is inferior intel­ lectually to the European. 4. That the Negro is more human­ ised when in his natural subordination to the European than under any other circumstances. 5. That the Negro race can only be humanised and civilised by Europeans. 6. That Euro­ pean civilisation is not suited to the Negroes requirements or character. No man who thoroughly investigates with an unbiassed mind, can doubt, that the Negro belongs to a distinct type. The term species, in the present state of science, is not satis­ factory ; but we may safely say that there is in the Negro that assemblage of evidence which would, ipso facto, induce an unbiassed observer to make the European and Negro two distinct types of man. The facts I have quoted I believe are sufficient to establish that the Negro is intellectually inferior to the European, and that the analogies are far more numerous between the ape and Negro than between the ape and the European. We shall not enter at length into the three last propositions. Suffice it to say, that no subject needs more attention at this minute than the position which the Negro race is fitted to hold in Nature. I have said it devolves on the student of the Science of Man to assign to each race the position which it shall hold. This is truly a momentous and most difficult problem, but one which science must not evade. As the student of mechanical science has given to the world his inductions and discoveries, so must the student of the Science of Man endeavour to deduce from actual facts principles of guidance for the relations of one race of Man to another. It is painful to reflect on the misery which has been inflicted on the Negro race, from the prevailing ignorance of Anthropo­ logical Science, especially as regards the great question of race. By our ignorance of the wants and aspirations of the Negro, and * * Dr. Van Evrie makes the following remarks respecting the imperfect accounts we have continually received of the Negro. He says (page 49) : �ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. 53 by a mistaken theory respecting his origin, this country has been the means of inflicting a prodigious, and, at present, totally un­ known amount of mischief on these people. Our Bristol and Liverpool merchants, perhaps, helped to benefit the race when they transplanted some of them to America; and our mistaken legislature has done the Negro race much injury by their absurd and unwarrantable attempts to prevent Africa from exporting her worthless or surplus population. All this has been done on the theoretical assumption of a mental equality of the different races or species of Man. In an attempt to benefit the Negro we have brought on him endless misery and rendered some of the most beautiful and productive islands in the world of little more use to humanity at large than they were before the discovery of Columbus.* But men wedded to a theory become blind to all facts, and will learn nothing from experience. All the millions of money which have been spent, and which expenditure has inflicted great hardships on our own working classes, might have been saved had we taken the trouble to investigate the character of the Negro race. “ African travellers, explorers, missionaries, &c., ignorant of the ethnology, of the physiology, of the true nature of the Negro, and. moreover bitten by modern philanthropy, a disease more loathsome and fatal to the moral, than small-pox or plague to the physical nature, have been bewildered, and perverted, and rendered unfit for truthful observation or useful discovery, before they set foot on its soil or felt a single flush of its burning sun. With the monstrous conception that the Negro was a being like themselves, with the same instincts, wants, &c., the same (latent) mental capacities, all they saw, felt, or reasoned upon in Africa, was seen through this false medium, and therefore of little or no value/’ * “ I cannot avoid repeating that Hayti must not be held up as an ex­ ample of what can be accomplished by free labour; but that it ought rather to be the beacon to warn the government of England against an experiment which may prove absolutely fatal to her colonial system. If it be not wished that a fate similar to that which has befallen Hayti should overtake our colonies, that they should be rendered wholly unproductive to the revenue of the country, and that the property invested in them should be preserved from destruction, the advisers of the Crown must pause before they listen to the ill-judged suggestions of enthusiasts; for they must banish from their minds the idea that the work of cultivation can be made productive by means of free labour. Such a thing appears to me impossible. The Negro, constituted as he is, has such an aversion to labour, and so great a propensity for indulgence and vice, that no prospect of advantage can stimulate him; and as for emu­ lation it has not the slightest influence over him. Without force he will sink into a lethargy, and revert to his primitive savage character, and the only feasible and effectual plan to promote his civilisation is to persist in those measures which compel him to labour, inculcate morality, and tend to ex­ tirpate those vices which are inherent in the descendents of the African race.”—Franklin on the Present State of Hayti. �54 ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. Scientific men have yet to do their duty in showing what are the facts. It may be said that some of the propositions I have advanced are in favour of the slave trade. Such, however, is not my own interpretation of these propositions. No one can be more con­ scious of the horrors of the “ slave trade” as conducted at this time. Nothing can be worse for Africa generally than the con­ tinual capture of innocent men and women by brutal Europeans. Few things can be more horrible than the manner in which it is attempted to carry these people across the Atlantic. Nay, more, nothing can be more unjust than to sell any man, woman, or child, into “ slavery”, as understood by the Greeks and Romans, where the fife of the slave was absolutely at the disposal of the master whenever his caprice or fancy thought fit to take it. We protest against being put forward as advo­ cating such views. But while I say this, I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that slavery as understood by the ancients does not exist out of * Africa, and that the highest type of the Negro race is at pre­ sent to be found in the Confederate States of America. Far superior in intelligence and physique to both his brethren in Africa and to his “ free” brethren in the Federal States, no­ where does the Negro attain to such a long life as in the Con­ federate States; and this law formerly obtained in the West * “ No man maltreats his wild brother so much as the so-called civilised Negro. He hardly ever addresses his Kruman except by ‘ you jackass !’ and tells him ten times a day that he considers such fellows as the dirt beneath his feet. Consequently he is hated and despised withal, as being of the same colour as, whilst assuming such excessive superiority over, his former equals. No one, also, is more hopeless about the civilisation of Africa, than the semicivilised African returning to the ‘ home of his fathers.’ One feels how hard has been his own struggle to emerge from barbarism. He acknowledges in his own case a selection of species, and he sees no end to the centuries before there can be a nation equal even to himself. Yet in England, and in books, he will cry up the majesty of African kings,- he will give the people whom he thoroughly despises a thousand grand gifts of morals and industry, and extenuate, or rather ignore, all their- faults and short-comings. I have heard a Negro assert, with the unblushing effrontery which animates a Negro speechifying in Exeter Hall, or before some learned society, that, for in­ stance, at Lagos—a den of thieves—theft is unknown, and that men leave their money with impunity in the storehouse, or in the highway After which he goes home, ‘ tongue in cheek,’ despising the facility with which an Englishman and his money are parted.”—Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i. p. 209. �ON THE NEGRO n PLACE IN NATURE. 55 India Islands before our mistaken interference. Nowhere does the Negro character shine so highly as it does in his childish and fond attachment to his master and his family. The Negro cares far more for his master and mistress than he does for his own children after they are a few years old. I by no means join in that indiscriminate abuse of the Negro character which has been indulged in,, especially by those who have only seen the Negro in his savage state, or the “ emancipated” (from work ?) in the West India Islands. On the contrary, there is much that is to be admired, and more that is useful in the Negro when properly and kindly treated. Brutal masters there are in every part of the world: but we must not found a law on exceptions. Scientific men, therefore, dare not close their eyes to the clear facts, as to the improvement in mind and body, as well as the general happiness, which is seen in those parts of the world in which the Negro is working in his natural * subordination to the European. In some respects, the Negro is certainly not only not inferior, but even far superior to the European. If, for instance, the European were alone in the Confederate States of America, these fertile regions would soon become a barren waste. The Negro is there able to work with impunity, and does himself and the world generally much good by his labour.f Occupations and diseases which are fatal to the * “ Of late, it has become the fashion for the missionary and the lecturer to deny, in the presence of Exeter Hall, the African’s recognition of the Euro­ pean’s superiority. “ The white man,” writes Mr. Robert Campbell, a mulatto, “ who supposes himself respected in Africa because he is white, is grievously mistaken.” I distinctly assert the reverse, and every one who has studied the natural history of man, must have the same opinion.. The same egregi­ ous nonsense was once propounded before the Ethnological Society—where with some ethnology there is no anthropology—by another “African”. And yet the propounder, the late Mr. Consular Agent .Hansen, whose death, by the bye, was an honour, and the only honour, to his life, had shaved his wool, and at the time was wearing a wig of coal-black hair, like a Cherokee’s. Is imitation no sign of deference ?”—Wanderings in Western Africa, vol. i. p. 269. f Again, I would call attention to the noble words of Thomas Carlyle. Speaking of labour, he well says: “ The thing must be done everywhere ; must is the word. Only it is so terribly difficult to do, and will take genera­ tions yet, this of getting our rich European white men ‘ set to work !’ But yours in the West Indies, my obscure black friends, your work, and the getting of you set to it, is a simple affair; and by diligence, the West Indian legislatures, and royal governors, setting their faces fairly to the problem, will get it done. You are not 'slaves’ now; nor, do I wish, if it can be avoided, to see you slaves again; but decidedly you will have to be servants to those that are born wiser than you, that are born lords of you—servants to �56 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. Europeans, are quite Harmless to the Negro. By their juxta­ position in this part of the world, they confer a material benefit on each other. But it may be asked, “ Why remove the Negro from his own country ?” “ Why not humanise him in Africa ?” No doubt this sounds very feasible, and no pains should be spared to in­ troduce every possible humanising influence into Africa. There is little doubt that the African is much easier humanised out of his native land away from all his savage associations; but this need not prevent us from doing all we can towards civilising him in his own country. It has been affirmed on the best authority (although fre­ quently denied) that domestic slaves are only sold in Africa for some crime. No one, we presume, will dare assert that there are no criminals in Africa ! What shall we do with our crimi­ nals may be a problem which is occupying the attention of the political economist of Africa—like his Majesty the King of Dahomey—as well as the government of Great Britain. Is Africa not to be allowed to export her criminals, or are they so worthless and unmanageable that no people will have them ? What is to be done with unruly or criminal slaves ? as a king of Old Calabar said, ff¥ou bind me down not to sell them, * tell me it is wrong to kill them ! What must I do with them ? I will give you some, and then you won’t take them !” the whites, if they are (as what mortal can doubt they are ?) born wiser than you. That, you may depend on it, my obscure black friends, is and was always the law of the world, for you and for all men; to be servants, the more foolish of us to the more wise, and only sorrow, futility, and disappoint­ ment will betide both, till both in some approximate degree get to conform to the same. Heaven’s laws are not repealable by earth, however earth may try—and it has been trying hard, in some directions, of late ! I say, no well being, and in the end no being at all, will be possible for you or us, if the law of Heaven is nob complied with. And if ‘ slave’ mean essentially ‘ servant hired for life,’—for life, or by a contract of long continuance, and not easily dissoluble—I ask, whether in all human things, the ‘ contract of long continuance ’ is not precisely the contract to be desired were the right terms once found for it ? Servant hired for life, were the right terms once found, which I do not pretend they are, seems to me much preferable to servant hired for the month, or by contract dissoluble in a day. An ill-situated servant that;—that servant grown to be nomadic; between whom and his master a good relation cannot easily spring up! ” * The late King Eyamba made this remark to the late Dr. Lawton in 1850, who told it to Mr. W. H. Ashmall, a Liverpool merchant who has resided for eighteen years on the.West Coast of Africa, and to whom I am indebted for his approval of the chief facts contained in this paper. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 57 Would it not be well to allow a regular export of the surplus population, instead of permitting, and indeed encouraging the butcheries of the so called King of Dahomey ? The difficulties of humanising, much less of civilising, the Negro in his own country are very great; yet, if such healthy sentiments were generally diffused in this country as have been lately published in an admirable work, entitled Wanderings in West Africa, it is impossible to say what great results might in time be at­ tained. This author well says, “ Ever remember, that by far the greater number of the liberated were the vilest of criminals in their own lands, and that in their case exportation becomes, in fact, the African form of transportation.”* There is abundant evidence to show that the Negro will not work without a considerable amount of persuasion. Even Dr. R. Clarkef is obliged to admit that the Creoles of Sierra Leone “ manifest the utmost contempt for agricultural pursuits, and the same feeling seems to actuate the half educated libe­ rated African lads.” Another writer observes J that “ In Sierra Leone the Christian tenderness of the British Govern­ ment has tended to demoralise them............... The women have become as vicious as those of Egypt, the basest of kingdoms —worse than the men, bad as they are................Theft is carried to such an extent, that no improvement is possible at Freetown.” * Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i, p. 220. t Sierra Leone. By Robert Clarke, p. 38. Dr. R. Clarke speaking of the Africans of Sierra Leone, says (Transac­ tions of the Ethnological Society, vol. ii, new series, p. 331)—“ Servants con­ sider it no crime to rob the white man, and so long as they are undetected they do not lose caste among their equals, although the latter may be aware of their thefts. . . . They appear to hold agricultural pursuits in contempt, preferring to obtain situations in the government offices and merchants’ stores; while the young women seek employment as sempstresses, etc., seldom entering service as domestics. . . . Comparatively few of the female creoles are married, and in a colony where the marriage ceremony is held in but little esteem, and generally dispensed with, young girls live as concubines, or “sweethearts,” as they phrase it (p. 332). The civilised blacks spare no expense in obtaining the best and newest style of European dress; and this love of finery too often becomes quite a passion amongst the young people, its inordinate indulgence occasionally leading to pilfering and other dishonest acts (p. 326). The Africans are very litigious, and constantly sun,moning each other on the most trivial occasions (p. 330). In one instance (of children born with supernumerary fingers) which came to my knowledge, the infant was on this account, soon after its birth, burnt alive; and, in another case, the child was destroyed by twisting its neck, when it was buried in a dung heap” (p. 333). J Wanderings in West Africa, p. 267. �58 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. I have stated that one of the results of my inquiry leads me to believe that English institutions are not suited to the Negro race. There seems to be a maximum testimony to show that the liberated and the creoles in our colonies are a perfectly worthless set. They accept all the vices of our civilisation with none of its duties. A recent public writer in behalf of the English colonies on the west coast of Africa well says :—“ The African is far more innocent and natural a crea­ ture when he has never been brought within the range of civilised life. The liberated Africans are far superior to the rising generation—in energy, in talent, and in honest prin­ ciples. To handle a hoe has now become a disgrace, and the people have lost their manhood by becoming gentlemen . . . only the ignorant can boast of the extensive freedom we have given the African. Freedom indeed we should have given, but it ought to have been qualified to suit their capacities?"’ * In now bringing my remarks to a close, I cannot, perhaps, do better than quote the graphic picture of the present state of Africa, which has been only published during the last few weeks. There is much true science and healthy manhood in these sentiments. The work of which I speak is evidently the work of a man who has devoted much attention to the study of the great science of mankind; and I am pleased to find that my own views find ample support in the conclusions of this accomplished and scientific observer. Speaking of the Negroes of Bonny, he says :f “The slaves wore a truly miser­ able appearance, lean and deformed, with Krakra lepra and fearful ulcerations. It is in these places that one begins to feel a doubt touching the total suppression of slavery. The chiefs openly beg that the rules may be relaxed, in order that they may get rid of their criminals. This is at present impossible, and the effects are a reduplication of misery; we pamper our convicts, Africans torture them to death. Cheapness of the human article is another cause of immense misery to it. In some rivers a canoe crew never lasts three years. Pilfering—• * The editor of the Sierra Leone Weekly Times, July 30, 1862, quoted in Wanderings in West Africa, vol. i, p. 221. t Wanderings in West Africa, vol. ii, p. 280. �ON THE NEGRO’S PLACE IN NATURE. 59 ‘ Show me a black man and I will show you a thief/ say the traders—and debauchery are natural to the slave, and they must be repressed by abominable cruelties. The master thinks nothing of nailing their hands to a water-cask, of mutilating them in various ways; many lose their eyes by being peppered, after the East Indian fashion, with coarsely-powdered cayenne, their ears are cut off, or they are flogged. The whip is com­ posed of a twisted bullock’s or hippopotamus’s hide, sun dried, with a sharp edge at the turns, and often wrapped with copper wire; it is less merciful even than the knout, now historical. The operation may be prolonged for hours, or for a whole day, the culprit’s arms being tied to a rafter, which keeps them at full stretch, and every fifteen minutes or so, a whack that cuts away the flesh like a knife, is administered. This is a favourite treatment for guilty wives, who are also ripped up, cut to pieces, or thrown to the sharks. If a woman has twins, or becomes mother of more than four, the parent is banished, and the children are destroyed. The greatest insult is to point at a man with arm and two fingers extended, saying at the same, Kama shubra, i. e., one of twins, or a son of some lower animal. When a great man dies, all kinds of barbarities are com­ mitted ; slaves are buried, or floated down the river bound to bamboo sticks and mats, till eaten piecemeal by sharks. The slave, as might be expected, is not less brutal than his lord. It amazes me to hear Englishmen plead that there is moral degradation to a Negro bought by a white man, and none when serving under a black man. The philanthropists, doubtless, think how our poorer classes at home, in the nineteenth cen­ tury, would feel if hurried from liberty to eternal servitude by some nefarious African. But can any civilised sentiments belong to the miserable half-starved being, whose one scanty meal of vegetable per day is eked out with monkey and snake, cat and dog, maggot and grub ; whose life is ceaseless toil, varied only by torture, and who may be destroyed at any moment by a nod from his owner ? When the slave once sur­ mounted his dread of being shipped by the white man, nothing under the sun would, I believe, induce him willingly to return to what he should call his home. And, as they were, our West �60 ON THE NEGROES PLACE IN NATURE. Indian colonies were lands of happiness compared with Oil Rivers ; as for the ‘ Southern States/ the slave's lot is para­ dise when succeeding what he endures on the West Coast of Africa. I believe these to be facts, but tant pis pour les faits. Presently, however, the philanthropic theory shall fall, and shall be replaced by a new fabric built upon a more solid foundation." Finally let me observe, that it is not alone the man of science who has discerned the Negro's unfitness for civilisation as we understand it. Here is the opinion of Mr. Anthony * Trollope, who is certainly quite guiltless of ever having exa­ mined the evidence on the distinction of the Negro and Euro­ pean, and yet truly says of the Negroes :—“ Give them their liberty, starting them well in the world at what expense you please, and at the end of six months they will come back upon your hands for the means of support. Everything must be done for them ; they expect food, clothes, and instruction as to every simple act of life, as do children." We must for the present leave alone all questions as to the origin of the Negro, and simply take him as he exists, and not as poets or fanatics paint him. We shall then learn, that it is only by observation and experiment that we can determine the exact place in nature which the Negro race should hold, and that it is both absurd and chimerical to attempt to put him in any other.j* North America, vol. ii, p. 85. 3rd Edition. 1862. t We believe the following opinion of Mr. George M‘Henry can be con­ firmed by all who have narrowly watched the position of “ Free” Negroes in the Federal States. He says that “he has resided nearly all his life in Pennsylvania, where exists the largest community of free Negroes in the world, and he can testify to the gradual decay in their health and morals as slavery disappeared from the neighbourhood. Neither the laws of the land, nor public societies for his benefit, prevent the African from degenerating; nothing but the controlling influence of a master will keep him from sinking to that barbarous condition which is his natural state,”—The Cotton Trade Considered in Connection with Negro Slavery in the Confederate States, 1863, p. 259. Many other interesting and important facts, showing the superiority of the “ Slave” over the “ Free” (?) Negro, will be found in this valuable work. T. RICHARDS, 37, GREAT QUEEN STEEET. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. 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Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On the negro's place in nature Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hunt, James Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: viii, 60 p. ; 21 cm. Notes: From the library of Moncure Conway. Pencilled inscription on title page: 'Handed over to me by T.H.H. M.D.C.' In ink on title page: 'T.H. Huxley Esq. With the best respect of the author.' Marginal annotations in ink, some partially cut from page. Read before the Anthropological Society of London, Nov. 17th, 1863. "His paper on 'The Negro's Place in Nature', first read at the British Association meeting at Newcastle,1863, attracted much attention, as it defended the subjection and even slavery of the negro, and supported belief in the plurality of human species". [Extracted from DND entry]. Includes bibliographical references. Printed by T. Richards, 37 Great Queen Street. Please note that this pamphlet contains language and ideas that may be upsetting to readers. These reflect the time in which the pamphlet was written and the ideologies of the author. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Trubner and Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1863 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5195 Subject The topic of the resource Ethnology Slavery Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (On the negro's place in nature), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English African Peoples Anthropology Ethnology Race Racism Slavery https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/04c7b3f201c1db7234cd6202e0975649.pdf?Expires=1780531200&Signature=vWkMGUCPQyr9%7ENJpo4ojLfMI%7EG9uVwMp42u33Xj592Q0AlCH8EdpRE-4qGAy1bM-7yx4A23Mrp6DQcFTt19Z0kT2BGRPchZCqXcKIowuyJWpmGNp675BTG8Qwo3vG69QTnxp4-jgz3LnUCqpCoH76T0isexgf4GvLHX-W69ExlcOLtjW-Q20eCDQwpTaDvmrr5SHPMeUedk8gfD26WLgaCcpEW8KKqqR2sExBJKQI9Oiu8A2FImHU%7E-a0Zoopd4oQinnlHBih6KPJkyPoL5UZIj2Tl92dFPEiSEnA8iDB59xT3kHUdy9k1bGXXzOV68%7EB8%7E9Gkw13h4SMvCe0RHqcg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM a65619fea772857f83ed4e97994bb73c PDF Text Text KHITA AND KHITA-PERUVIAN. �II I 1 �THE Khita Khita-Peruvian Epoch: and KHITA, HAMATH, HITTITE, CANAANITE, ETRUSCAN, PERUVIAN, MEXICAN, Etc. BY HYDE CLARKE, F.R.Hist.Soc. ; Vice-President of the Anthropological Institute ; Honorary Member of the Anthropological Institute, New York; Corresponding Membir of Ethnographic Society of Paris, American Oriental Society, Societe des Americanistes ; Member of the German Oriental Society ; Honorary Member of the Byzantine Philological Society, Constantinople ; Fellow of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen ; Fellow of Statistical Society ; Corresponding Member of the Society of Engineers of Vienna ; Vice-President of the Society of Arts, etc. LONDON: N. TRUBNER & CO, 57 and 59 LUDGATE HILL, E.C. �EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY M‘EARLANE AND ERSKINE, ST JAMES SQUARE. �PREFACE. The following pages consist chiefly of a memoir read before the Royal Historical Society, for the purpose of giving a brief sketch of the work carried on by myself and others, for the investigation of a great epoch of culture, which preceded the Assyrian, the Semitic, and the Greek, and which, accord­ ing to my views, extended to America, and closed the period of ancient intercourse between the Old World and the New. This essay will be found very imperfect and fragmentary, for it cannot deal with the whole of a subject so wide, and it cannot give exact information on new and obscure epochs, of which little is known, to which investigation is newly directed, and where the results present but a small relation to what remains to be discovered. Indeed, my chief object is to direct the attention of scholars as much as of the public, to these fields of research. It will be noticed that all kinds of names have been used, shifted, and changed, and this must necessarily be the case for what is new and undeterminate. Akkad and Sumerian are as yet conflicting terms, and some most distinguished Semitic scholars deny that there is any Akkad language of a Turan­ ian class. Shifting my ground as circumstances suggest and permit, I have adopted the term Khita, from Dr Birch, but I give it a much wider application. Indeed, the topics of these pages constitute the battle-fields of scholars, Akkad, Etruscan, Hamath, etc. I have extended the ground of controversy by bringing America into connection with the classic regions. If, however, so much controversy and so much difference of opinion exist, nevertheless the solid results are great. The discovery and determination of Akkad constitute an era in scholarship. The explorations of Dr Schliemann in the Troad and Mycenae yield us material proofs. The newest researches of Dr Deecke of Strasburg, as to the derivation of the Cypriote and Phoenician characters from the Assyrian cuneiform, give us facts of importance, and, as in all such cases, new means for further inquiries. It is such progress which encourages us to persevere in the de­ cipherment of Etruscan, Hamath, and Maya. �vi PREFACE. My own part in these labours, although a busy one, has been humble; it has been the task of an explorer, laying open ground for others. Although I have laboured hard on many points, yet if I had limited myself to the complete elucidation of any one, there would have been no one to carry out my work of a general exploration. In this course there is ample encouragement to persevere, because the detailed labours of others, as those of Dr Schliemann and Dr Deecke, have con­ firmed my preliminary investigations. Thus encouragement is given me to persevere in those portions of the inquiry, the more particularly the American, in which the sanction of scholars has not yet been accorded to me. Much of what is here given has, of course, been printed by me before, because the subject is progressive, and because it is only in this way information can be accumulated. There is, nevertheless, even in the books and papers, portions of which are here repeated, much useful to inquirers, for tracing the development of the study, and the names are given of some few of my memoirs on the subject: Ephesus. (Smyrna, 1863.) Assyro-Pseudo-Sesostris. (Bengal Asiatic Society, 1865.) Inhabitants of Asia Minor. (Ethnological Society’s Journal, 7th March 1865.) Proto-Ethnic Condition of Asia Minor, etc. (Ethnological Society’s Journal, November 1865.) On the Prehistoric and Proto-historic Relations of the Populations of Asia and Europe. (1871.) Note on the Hamath Inscriptions. (Palestine Exploration Jour­ nal, 1871). Relations of Canaanite Exploration. (Palestine Exploration Journal.) Pre-Israelite Populations of Palestine. (Palestine Exploration Jour­ nal, 1870.) On the name Britannia. (Society of Antiquaries, 1871.) Researches in Palestine, and Proto-historic Comparative Philology, Mythology, and Archaeology. (Trubner, 1875.) Prehistoric Names of Weapons. (Trubner, 1876.) Siva and Serpent-Worship in Asia, Africa, and America, and the Bribri Language. (Trubner, 1877.) HYDE CLARKE. 32 St George Square, London, S.W. June 1877. �CONTENTS. PAGE Origin of Canaan, Ham, Havilah, Cush,.............................................................. I History of Hittites, ........... Hamath or Khita Inscriptions, ......... 2 3 Comparison with Himyaritic, 8; Cypriote, 9; Warka, Albanian, 10; Etruscan, 11 ; Libyan, 12; Hebrew, 14, ...... 8 Origin of the Alphabet and Syllabary—Square—■ Magic — Prehistoric Symbols, 16,................................................................................................. 13 Canaanite Population—Epoch and Migration of—Peru, ■ . . . .17 Akkad Language—Sumerian—Georgian, 20, 23, . . . . .18 Etruscan—-Tables of Etruscan, Georgian, Peruvian, ..... 20 Georgian, Relations of—Quichua, 24, . . . . . . . .23 Negative Series—Red, Eve, 26, . . . . . . . . .25 Khita-Peruvian Migration—Indo-China—Cambodia—India, . . .27 Affinities of American Grammar—Aymara—Quichua—Othomi, 32—Mexico, 29 Monuments and Culture in Old and New World—Calendar, 35, . .' . 33 Topographical Nomenclature—Examination of T^ble of Town Names of Canaan, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Spain, . . . . .37 Town Names in America—Migration, 67 ; Traditions of Ancient Connection with America, 69, .... ...... Appendix I.— 66 River Names of India, Italy, New Granada, Peru, . . . -73 Lake Names, ........... 73 Mountain Names, . . . . . . . . . *74 Town Names, ........... 74 Appendix II.— Table of Sumerian Words, Akkad, Circassian, Georgian, Etruscan, Mon, Peruvian, Mexican, etc., . . . . . . .81 Note on Dr Deecke’s Identification of Cypriote, Semitic, and Cuneiform, . 85 Index,................................................................................................................... 87 ��ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, KHITA, HAMATH, CANAANITE, LYDIAN, ETRUSCAN, PERUVIAN, MEXICAN, ETC. The Book of Generations, in chap. x. of Genesis, states that Canaan was a son of Ham, and consequently brother of Cush, of Mizraim, and of Phut. This is given again in the First Book of Chronicles, chap, i., ver. 8. Cush (Gen. x. io) held Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. The verse says : “ And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel and Erech,” etc. Again, verse 11 says : “ Out of that land went forth Asshur and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah and Resen, between Nineveh and Calah; the same is a great city.” Asshur (verse 22) was a son of Shem. Cush, therefore, was considered to be a dweller in Baby­ lonia, and not in Africa. This is consistent with Havilah, son of Cush, being Havilah, chap, ii., ver. 11. Of the rivers of Eden, “ the name of the first is Pison, that is it which encompasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold.” Khavilah has been well conjectured to be Kholkis or Colchis, and the river the Pshani, which, as I have pointed out in the Georgian languages, still means a river. The interpretation with regard to Cush is, that he was one of the occupants of the great central kingdom, which included Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, and which was afterwards occupied by Asshur, who issued forth from thence to make his �2 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. campaigns in the west. Gen. x. 15, goes on to say: “And Canaan begat Sidon, his firstborn, and Heth [the Hittite], and the Jebusite, and the Amorite, and the Girgasite, and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the Sinite, and the Arvadite, and the Zemarite, and the Hamathite; and afterward were the families of the Canaanites spread abroad.” The Horite was a Canaanite (Gen. xxxvi. 2). These people were closely related, politically, and probably ethnologically and linguistically, and as one or other took the leadership, so would its name be adopted to signify the whole league, as Hittite, Hamathite, Horite, in the same way as among the Germani, English, Saxons, Germans, Warings, etc. These Canaanites were politically connected with the other members of the family of Ham, who are recognised as holding Western Asia. The Hittites, adopting the compendious ac­ count of Dr W. Smith, are the descendants of Heth or Cheth, the second son of Canaan. The notices in the Bible give us but scanty notion of their power, but the Egyptian annals tell us of a very powerful confederacy of the Hittites on the Orontes, with whom Sether I., or Sethos, fought about B.C. 1340, and whose capital, Ketesh, near Emesa, he captured. In the Egyptian annals the name of Heth is said to stand for Palestine. . Mr George Smith gave, in the Journal of the Palestine Exploration Fund, for October 1872, an account of notices of Palestine in the cuneiform inscriptions. After referring to the invasions of Sargon in the sixteenth century B.C., he found no records until the time of Tiglath Pileser I., about B.C. 1120. He reigned about the time of Eli, judge of Israel. He defeated some tribes of the Hittites, and captured the city of Carchemish, which has so lately been explored by Mr Smith, and the remains of which are justly regarded as of so much importance. About B.C. 870 Assur-nazir-pal marched into Syria, crossed the Euphrates near Carchemish, and Sagara, king of Carche­ mish, paid him tribute. After five years of war, Shalmaneser, �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 3 B.C. 854, advanced into Hamath, destroying the country and ravaging the towns. His advance was resisted by a league of kings of Syria and Palestine, under Benhadad of Damascus, whose armies included 14,000 men under Irhulena of Hamath. The battle took place on the banks of the Orontes, and it checked the march of Shalmaneser. This was followed, how­ ever, by other inroads down to B.C. 846. In B.C. 842 Shal­ maneser was more fortunate, and compelled King Jehu and the kings of Tyre, Zidon, and others, to give him tribute. The successors of Shalmaneser carried on frequent wars in Syria. -Tiglath Pileser, B.C. 743, imposed a tribute on the king of Hamath. In 740 he attacked the city of Hamath. The people obtained the assistance of Azariah, king of Judah, but were defeated, and a large part of their country was an­ nexed to Assyria. Hamath is a city on the river Orontes, in Syria, on the northern border of the Promised Land. It is mentioned at the time of the Exodus as one of the kingdoms, and was an original seat of the Canaanites (Gen. x. 18). Its king, Toi, yielded allegiance to King David (2 Sam. viii. 9). Solomon built stone cities in Hamath (2 Chron. viii. 4). Palmyra was one of those cities, it is said. By the prophet Amos it was called “ great,” and in 2 Kings xvii. 34, it is spoken of by an Assyrian king as one of the chief of his con­ quests. It still has a population of 30,000. The Hamath inscriptions appear to have been first noticed as early as 1812 by Burckhardt (“Travels in Syria,” p. 145, quoted by Burton, “Unexplored Syria,” pp. 138, 333). He says of them : “ In the corner of a house, in the bazar, is a stone with a number of small figures and signs, which appear to be a kind of hieroglyphical writing, though it does not re­ semble that of Egypt.” So, too, it turns out that a Hamath inscription had been previously seen in the south-eastern region of Asia Minor. It was in the same bazar of Hamath that, in 1870, Mr J. Augustus Johnson, the U.S. ConsulGeneral, and the Rev. S. Jessup, of the Syrian Mission, came upon a stone in the corner of a house, which contained an inscription in unknown characters, as Burckhardt had done. �4 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. They did not succeed in getting squeeze impressions, for fanatical Moslems crowded upon them when they began to work upon the stone, and they were obliged to be content with such copies of this and other inscriptions subsequently found on stones over and near the city gate, and in the ancient bridge which spans the Orontes, as could be obtained by the aid of a native painter. Mr Jessup endeavoured to purchase a blue stone, containing two lines of these strange characters, but failed to obtain it because of the tradition connected with, and the income derived from it. Deformed persons were willing to pay for the privilege of lying upon it, in the hope of a speedy cure, and it was believed to be effi­ cacious in spinal diseases. Such was the discovery of these remarkable inscriptions, and in such imperfect form did they come before the scholars of Europe and America. Mr Johnson, like many others, was of opinion the characters were allied to the hieroglyphic. Professor E. H. Palmer saw the copies in the possession of Mr Johnson at Beyrout, and he was so persuaded of their archaeological importance that he induced the committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund to send Mr Tyrwhitt Drake to Syria in 1870 to obtain squeeze impressions and photo­ graphs of the inscriptions. Professor Palmer, concurrently with myself, engaged in their decipherment, but without suc­ cess, as he informed me. Between 28th February and 5th March 1871, Captain R. F. Burton visited Hamah or Hamath (“Unexplored Syria,” p. 333), and at the request of Mr Walter Besant, secretary of the Palestine Exploration Fund, proceeded to inspect the inscriptions. Herr Petermann published some details concerning the inscriptions in the Athenceum (No. 2267) of April 8, 1871 (Burton). In 1871 Mr Tyrwhitt Drake succeeded in getting good squeezes and photographs. The latter I found of little use. Mr Tyrwhitt Drake found an inscription in Aleppo. The material of the Hamath stones is compact black basalt (Burton), polished as if by hard rubbing. The characters are �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 5 in cameo, raised from two to four lines, separated by hori­ zontal framings, also in relief. They are sharply and well cut. Mr R. Biddulph Martin confirmed this from inspection in the Museum of the Seraglio at Constantinople, when removed. “The first thing,” says Captain Burton, “which strikes the observer is, that they must date from the metal ages, and that they are the work of a civilised race.” Minute descriptions of the first found stones are given in “ Unexplored Syria.” Captain Burton thought that the Wusum or marks of the Bedawi clans might lead to the decipherment. Although I think it quite possible that some of the signs may be found among the Bedawi, it is not to be expected that such would afford any key to the meaning. The range of the Hamath characters includes not only the kingdom of the Khita, Khita or Khatti at Hamath and Helbon (Aleppo), but the inscrip­ tions referred to at Ibreez in Lycaonia, and many relics in Babylonia, as the marks identified by me in the plates of Loftus, and the five seals discovered by Mr Layard in the record chamber of the palace of Sennacherib. With regard to the statues at Nimphae and the Ephesus road, Herodotus, as we now know, erroneously attributed them to Sesostris, and affirmed that they bore inscriptions in hiero­ glyphics, which they did not. It appears to me not impos­ sible that these inscriptions were in Hamath or Khita char­ acter. This character has been already traced in Lycaonia; and it bears an actual resemblance to hieroglyphics in its features and dispositions, so much so that on the rediscovery of the Hamath inscriptions, Dunbar Heath and others were led to class them as Egyptian. There is generally some foundation even for a mistake of Herodotus. It may be remarked that the statue in situ is of such friable materials, being cut in the rock, that I have declared, after careful examination, that it never bore an inscription. With regard to the other mutilated statue, rediscovered by Mr Spiegelthal in 1866, it is on a slab cast down, and it must be of very different material from the others. Therefore, it �6 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. occurs to me that one statue may have borne an inscription in Hamathite. This is of interest in reference to the exten­ sion of Khita and the relations. I long since stated it to have relations with Cypriote, Libyan, Himyaritic, and Hebrew. The test first applied by me roughly, as stated, was the simple statistical or numerical method of counting the signs ; and this, having obtained the transcripts from Captain Burton, I repeated more carefully after a better knowledge of the inscriptions from study. The number of signs in the five inscriptions is about 300, and these are thus decomposed, allowing for the best classification our present imperfect know­ ledge allows, and using the most convenient type-symbols : 0, 27; 26; O and C, 24; £5, 21; L, 18; £ 15; I, II; II, 11; V (crossed), n; O, 9; IL, 8; V, 7; knife form, 7 ; S (exclusive of double letters), 7; 3,5; 3, 4- Then there are many which cannot be represented by symbols. These may be subdivided into Single characters, frequently used, . 33 Double letters, etc., .... 5 Characters used once, each,. . -15 The question then presented itself, What is the character of these signs so distributed ? and undoubtedly they answered to the general nature of an alphabet or syllabarium, although we can be by no means assured. The other solutions that were proposed were that the signs are ideographic records or lists of the cattle marks and brands of Arab tribes (Captain Burton). Although some of the marks are used as brands, yet the whole composition does not answer to either descrip­ tion. On any liberal interpretation of them as ideographs, the types are not sufficient to afford any record of war and peace. If we allow them to include a register of cattle brands, then we want signs to indicate the names of the proprietary tribes or individuals, which, after all, would bring us again to some kind of record of words, and thereby to the solution that they are written signs. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 7 Accepting the hypothesis of characters representing sounds as that most probable, and as deserving of further investiga­ tion, the next point is whether they belong to a limited alphabet of letters or to a system of syllabic characters. The number of about fifty types would admit of a syllabic system. The general nature of the inscriptions on inspection is this : we have a variety of single signs, many of which are recurrent; we have some apparent ideographs ; and we have a number of flourishes. These flourishes, however, are not made with a brush or pen casually, but cut in hard stone designedly. It is permissible to consider that some of these flourishes may consist of several characters joined together. One group can be recognised so tied together, and also in its separate members. In the similar or seemingly allied alphabets, liga­ tures, monograms, and double letters are known to have existed, or to exist. The elements are consequently to be distributed as Characters, Ligatures, and Ideographs (real or supposed). This is the gross result at which we must arrive from in­ spection under the numerical method, an approved process for scientific investigation. The next mode of examination is by comparison with alphabets. The Phoenician or Cadmean used in the Hamath district does not correspond. The Himyaritic used in the same region does offer some similitude, so does the Cypriote. The cuneiform also shows correspondence. The Himyaritic or Sabaean character is chiefly known from the inscriptions found near our town of Aden in Arabiaj and from the inscrip­ tions at Axum in Abyssinia. Himyaritic inscriptions have also been found in Mesopotamia or Babyloniaand there are characters on gems from Babylonia, supposed to be Himyaritic. The characters on these gems, and on the bricks from Warka, have a resemblance to the Hamath. The Himyaritic cha­ �8 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. racter was represented in Ethiopia or Abyssinia by the Ethiopic, and is still represented by the Amharic or Abys­ sinian alphabet. A Sabaean grammar is given by Captain Prideaux {Trans. Biblio. Arch. Soc., vol. v.). Many Himyaritic inscriptions are in the British Museum, and a large collection has been published by the authorities of that institution under the direction of Dr Samuel Birch and Mr A. W. Franks. These have been deciphered by the late Dr M. A. Levy of Breslau in the Transactions of the German Oriental Society. These inscriptions are generally in lines or divided by bands like the Hamath inscriptions, but the lines are of single characters, whereas in the Hamath there are rows of characters unsymmetrically set out. The Himyaritic characters are read from right to left. In one inscription there is a monogram (B. Mus., plate i., No. i), undeciphered by Osiander and Dr Levy. In two inscrip­ tions there are hands. We find hands in No. 5 Hamath inscription, the hands being in each case displayed ; but in the case of the Himyaritic inscription, the hands are outside the inscription, and in pairs. These Himyaritic inscriptions (B. Mus., plate vii., No. 11, and plate vii., No. 8) are dedicated to Almakah and Baal. Almakah I regard as equivalent to Moloch. They form the same sign as the blessing of the Cohenim among the Jews. The main characters which correspond in Hamath and Himyaritic are: Characters symbolised. I • • o ■ • Power in Himyaritic or Amharic. Stop. y 1 u n z “i D . • • ■ • • n- to \ O V b SH L M Besides these there are equivalents of H, *, 2, to, H, and n. 1 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 9 The comparison with Cypriote suggests many more points of comparison, because in Cypriote there are arrowheaded or dart-headed characters, as in Hamath. Again we find i, I, O, «S, A, L, S, etc. Of the influence of Hamath on Cypriote, as pointed out by me, no doubt at present exists, and every observer has confirmed it. As we have the syllabic sounds for some of the Cypriote signs, this ought to give us some help towards the sounds in Hamath, but as yet it does not. There is every appearance that in Hamath and in Cypriote the signs had a different value, as they had in Hebrew. Aleph, Yod, Caph, Ayin, and Wau can never have been the original values for the letters, the variant forms of which, no less than other circumstances, throw light on their real meaning. The Cypriote that we have at present is an Aryan adapta­ tion, but we may yet find Cypriote characters with a language allied to Khita. Cypriote shows no less than Libyan and other Western languages that an alphabet passed out first from a Khita source to the west, and that it was afterwards largely modified by Phoenician variants. The words in Cypriote are divided by stops. Many of the characters appear to be double letters, as in Hamath. Some of the inscriptions are read from right to left, but some appear to suggest a former arrangement from top to bottom. Bricks were brought home by Mr Loftus from Warka, in. Babylonia (“Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana,” London, 1859, p. 169), which bear peculiar characters. These have been supposed to be the rude and earliest form of cuneiform, and have accordingly been converted into cunei­ form inscriptions, or accompanied by cuneiform renderings, and translations have been published. The Warka characters or hieratic, however, bear a resemblance to the Hamath and the Cypriote, more particularly to the former. The Warka inscription, if compared with Hamath No. 2, middle line, has this remarkable peculiarity. It also begins with A, and has in its neighbourhood, next to it, A with a staff, again very near it is = also. The same are found in No. 3 Hamath �10 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. second line. Characters nearly similar are found in the be­ ginning or lowest line of No. 5 Hamath. This formula is found under a variant in each Hamath inscription. In the Warka we find a square reticulated or covered with cross lines ; in Hamath A with the staff so treated in Nos. 2 and 5. An inscription at Abydos, in Egypt Journal de la Society Asiatique, series vi., vol. ii., 1868, No. 14), apparently bilin­ gual, is for one portion allied in character to Warka and Cypriote. With Lycian there is a great conformity, the num­ ber of characters showing a correspondence with Hamath being nearly a score. They include : V, A, 1 or T, I, O, V or A, 3, 1AI, Z, 8, Q, 3, n. There are two remarkable alphabets in use in Albania, and which are to be found in Dr Von Hahn’s “ Albanesische Studien” (Jena, 1854). At p. 280 is the long alphabet, and at p. 297 is a short alphabet. These are modern Albanian or. Skipetar alphabets. Dr Von Hahn has devoted much atten­ tion to the larger alphabet, considering that many of the ele­ ments of it are ancient. Of its fifty-two characters many, however, are evidently modern adaptations, but from inde­ pendent investigation I concur with my friend Dr Von Hahn, that many are independent representations of ancient char­ acters. The Albanians are, in a general sense, an unlettered people, but there is no more difficulty in believing that they have pre­ served ancient letters than there is in accrediting, what admits of no doubt, the preservation, in a modified form, of the Lib­ yan alphabet by the Berber tribes, which, like those of the Albanians, are unlettered. The Berber alphabet has under­ gone similar modifications to the Albanian, and particularly in the application of double letters and special sounds. The peculiarities of the Albanian alphabets are so striking that a German savant in the “Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandische Gesellschaft,” published an essay on an attempt to decipher the Lycian inscriptions by means of the Albanian alphabet and languages. This does not appear to �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 11 be successful any more than that of interpreting Lycian, Etruscan, etc., by means of Armenian. The first point with regard to Lycian is to, ascertain what the language is, for even supposing’the transliterations we have to be serviceable, it does not follow that the Lycian language is an Indo-European language, notwithstanding the supposed genitives, because those genitives may be Caucasian. It does not follow be­ cause the modern Albanian alphabet has a resemblance to the Lycian that the powers of the modern Albanian alphabet are the same as those of the ancient Albanian. Still less does it follow, because there is a resemblance between some of the letters, that the Albanian language has any connection with the Lycian. It may be noted that the Albanian grammar shows many traces of resemblance to Caucasian. The reason that we have already found so many points of resemblances in these alphabets is, that one race ruled and one political language was at one time employed in the several regions anterior to the Indo-European, and for this reason the supposed Phoenician or Cadmean influence is not sufficient to account for the phenomena. With regard to Hamath and Albanian the resemblances are few. They include: V or A, l> o, <h or C or □, 8 or 8- There are several points worthy of study in the Celtiberian characters, but I have not been able to collate the materials. The Etruscan also presents points of resemblance to Ha­ math, where it diverges from the Phoenician. The words, numerals, and case-endings of Etruscan, which have been preserved, are susceptible of explanations from the KhitaPeruvian group. The Himyaritic characters having been referred to, and their employment in Ethiopia or Abyssinia, it is to be ob­ served that Professor F. W. Newman, in his Berber studies long since, and Dr Judas of Paris, in his special studies of Libyan, made known points of resemblance between the gram­ mars and alphabets of the respective districts. �1% ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. The chief monument we have in Libyan is the Thugga Stone in the British Museum, a remarkable bilingual monu­ ment, from Thugga, near Tunis, in Phoenician and Libyan, but which has never been published by the Museum authori­ ties. It has, however, appeared several times in print, as in Gesenius, the best copy being that published by Dr A. C. Judas, from a squeeze supplied to him by Dr Samuel Birch. There are also many Libyan inscriptions from Algeria, some with a Latin text published by the Academy of Constantine, or in the Revzie Africaine, and commented upon by Dr Judas, Dr Reboud, etc. There is great diversity of opinion as to the value of the letters and the meaning of the inscriptions, the latest doctrines of the French school being that Libyan is to be interpreted by the Berber alphabets. This is a very natural proposition, as the Berber alphabets, well exemplified in the Tamashek, in the grammar of that language by Colonel Hanoteau, show evidence of descent from the Libyan. It does not follow that the Thugga inscription admits of interpretation by Berber, although it is possible some of the inscriptions of the Roman period are of Berber affinity. In the Thugga inscription we find two languages, one of the conquering Phoenicians or Carthaginians. The other lan­ guage may be that of the aborigines, the Berbers, but it may be that of a former dominant race. Semitic influence cer­ tainly prevailed in North Africa, for it is proved by the family of what are called the Subsemitic languages, showing an abiding influence, testified to by the Himyaritic, and con­ tinued by the extension of the Arabic language even to the shores of the Atlantic. There are, however, ancient geogra­ phical names to be found in North Africa, which conform to the general geographical nomenclature of the ancient world, and which are consequently not Phoenician, and many of the names assumed to be Phoenician very probably do not belong to that class. What the Libyan language was will much depend on the determination of the genitive in the genealogical portions of �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 13 the Hamath and Thugga inscriptions. Dr Judas takes this to be N in Thugga, and to be Berber. The Thugga inscription is in single lines, and reads from right to left from the top, but there is some reason to believe that this is a special arrangement, consequent on the attempt to translate line for line the Phoenician, which is so arranged. Dr Judas has proposed, with reason, to read the Algerine Libyan inscriptions from bottom to top in columns, beginning at the right. The Thugga and Libyan characters which show a resem­ blance to Hamath are nearly twenty, and include: v, i, o, # or 0, & □, 3, n, n, il, z. It is very questionable whether the letters of the Thugga inscription are in the right position. The Thugga inscription we know begins with a genealogy, and it was by means of this Gesenius discovered the symbol for son, which is “. This is the symbol we find in Hamath and in Warka, in a similar position, but in Hamath it is Illi. Each word is divided by a stop. The character II within another II, I consider to be a double letter. The Algerine inscriptions furnish us with some additional characters. Of the Kabyle or Tamashek modern alphabets we have three forms given by Colonel Hanoteau. These alphabets do not agree with each other, nor are they wholly Libyan. They consist partly of a system of dots. To show its peculiarities the following are examples : B or V is represented by 0 ,, X G D R T F S L M N T ,, 99 99 99 99 99 U, A O, D 3 ][ ® II 99 99 99 I + There are various double letters formed with + (T) final. The �14 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. only one that can be represented is for I + (Nt) for 11 + (Lt) we have H with a cross bar, for St a circle O with a cross + enclosed. The materials we may consider available for com­ parison with the Hamath inscriptions are : Himyaritic alphabet and inscriptions. Ethiopic ,, „ Amharic or Abyssinian alphabet and inscriptions. Warka inscriptions. Cypriote „ Lycian „ Albanian alphabet. Celtiberian inscriptions. Libyan „ Berber. Of these, we have satisfactory explanations of the Him­ yaritic inscriptions of Aden, which are in Sabaean, a language allied to the Hebrew. We have bilingual inscriptions of Cypriote, in Phoenician and also in Greek. Lycian, in Greek. Libyan, in Phoenician and also in Latin. It is worthy of consideration what relations exist between the Hamath and the square Hebrew alphabet. The chief forms recognisable are FT C, r, l> & but nothing like a considerable portion of the Hebrew alphabet. In the Ha­ math, however, and in the Hebrew, as in the Himyaritic and Libyan, square forms are to be found. If we look at some old alphabets, as Hebrew, Himyaritic, Libyan, Hamath, Etruscan, old Italic, old Greek, Lycian, Cypriote, Albanian, we find such forms as these: HI=JL-irnu:ZDAV><AVHFd3ElT + X HYWMZSSMK and in rounded forms we have such as : O-oe^ocnubCaD ) C s 8 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 15 Then we have letters with a staff or tail, as in Phoenician and in p (P), X, /z, </>. The shapes of the square letters suggest that they are parts of a square (perhaps of the square of Orion), thus J L 1 T are its four angles, n, U, i, E are the three sides of a square in succession. L is L, “I is "T (Daleth) and "1 (Resh), and T is the Greek Gamma. H is H (He), and H (Cheth, Kheth), in Hebrew, and II (Pi) in Greek. is Beth in Hebrew. D is Mem and Samech in Hebrew. The A of the Phoenician, (Beth) of the Himyaritic and Hebrew, r (Gamma) of the Greek, '1 (Daleth) of the Hebrew (A of the Greek), and H (He) of the Hebrew, are at the be­ ginning of the alphabet in close proximity, and suggest that they belonged to a square, and formed part of a square, thus : r n i a n- There is a square alphabet in modern use known as a secret alphabet. It is formed by two lines (=), crossed by two lines (II), and which, forming a double square, gives nine compart­ ments. Each of these being separated forms a letter. This alphabet may be found in some books on secret writing and cipher, and is a masonic secret alphabet in England, France, etc. It may be founded on the Tau and Orion. The alphabet is worked from left to right at top : J is A, U is B, L is C, J is D, EJ is E, E is F, “] is G, n is H, g is I. The characters are then dotted inside or otherwise. J. is J, i-J. K, etc. A third series is obtained by marking the char­ acters with three dots (.’.). Rabbis and other Jews likewise use this mystic cross as a secret alphabet, but they begin from right to left at top : I is LJ is i, J is 0, E is T 0 is i"T, J is 1. The second series is also obtained by a dot (.), and the third by .’. This carries out the whole Hebrew alphabet, including the final letters, and consequently provides the whole Hebrew numerals. Instead of dotting the first series of nine to make a second �16 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. series, there is, however, another modification of the mystic alphabet, which provides for taking the second series from another double cross formed by crossing the two lines trans­ versely. This gives V A, etc. These geometrical alphabets are carried back to a more ancient date in the works on white magic, and thence still further back to the most ancient epochs of magic and the Cabbula. They may be termed the Cabalistic geometrical alphabet. The Arab and medi­ aeval literature of magic, white and black, is a continuation of the ancient schools of magic, and preserves their traditions. Some of these are still practised in Moslem cities, from Morocco to the far East; and occasionally characters derived from the cuneiform are employed by a Maghrebi magician in charms to cure a sick child, or to lure back the lover of an Arab or Osmanli girl. It is the teaching of the Accad and Assyrian schools of Babylon and Chaldsea, which is made orthodox for the Jew by the great names of God, for the Christian by the invoca­ tion of the Blessed Virgin, for the Moslem in strict conformity with the potent and ineffable power which the votaries of Islam believe to reside in the form and sound of divine words, and which coerce genii, good and bad. The means to beatitude of one powerful sect of dervishes is the compression in sound of Allah Hoo. The characters are the attributes of divinity, and command the spirit world. Several of the magic alphabets exhibit forms adapting not merely the geometrical characters, but others found in the alphabets we have been discussing. Some of these are now casual, but they may be survivals. We find the * of the Cypriote and Warka, but then a character much like it exists in cuneiform. The great Gelghether magic alphabet presents I A, — B, V 1 □, the little Gelghether LI + “ I The Sabaean magic is most like a true alphabet, for its B is LI, its M is M, its S is MM, F is □ crossed, R is V, Th is +. The great and little enchant­ ment give the forms in LU UU, which we find in Hamath and Warka. Thus there appears to have been a continuity of the appli­ �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 17 cation of these Cabalistic forms of a square or double cross (based on the Pleiades or Tau), which was in itself mystical, as it consisted of triads; and there being further three triads, there was, besides the mystic number of three, the great mystic number of nine. If we take a double cross, and then a transverse double cross, and begin according to the ancient method of Warka, Libyan, and Hamath, we begin at the right, but we begin at the bottom, and not at the top, as the Jews now do. The question may arise whether, having begun at I", we should not, according to the Hamath and later Libyan method, work upwards in columns, proceeding to C and L. The Thugga inscription suggests progress horizontally from right to left; and we may return boustrophedon or bull-ploughing in furrows, or as a serpent would wind, as we find on a Him­ yaritic altar inscription in the British Museum series. So, too, in the Hamath inscriptions. In the attribution of sounds and powers to the characters at a most early date, nature-worship exercised a great influence. Thus in cuneiform a star figures as the determinative for a deity. In Chinese, Eye, Sun, Moon, Mouth are allied in char­ acter, as we find them philologically in the prehistoric period. In Hebrew we have Aleph, Waw, Yod, Caph, Ayin, Thau. In our own alphabets we have I, 0, $. In the African lan­ guages the hand and foot are male, and the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, female. In mythology we know that the hand is an emblem for man. In Hebrew the alphabet begins with the equivalent of the star, and closes with the Thau, the emblem of the Pleiades. Upon the grand question of the population of Canaan, Professor Campbell gives us invaluable materials for forming a judgment, in his various and learned papers in the Canadian Journal. This population most probably extended into Egypt, where Brugsch Bey has found four hundred parallel names, and in which I look for the “ Turanian ” element, for Thebes, and the other old names by which Egypt was known to the Greeks, are Sumerian. The intercourse with Caria, too, B �18 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. long continued. The union of Sumerians with Semites ex­ plains the ethnological peculiarities of the Jews, who are evidently a mixed race with two elements. With the absolute chronology of these successions I do not propose to deal. Three thousand years ago the Sumerian race had come in contact with the Semitic, to which it had to succumb. Seven hundred years later is perhaps to be taken as the epoch of conflict with the Aryan race. This, however, gives us no real instrument of measure. We do not suffi­ ciently know how far the members of the Hamitic classes are to be regarded as synchronous. Although the Sumerians were assailed by the Semites three thousand years ago, they were only overcome by the Spaniards four hundred years since ; and in Indo-China they still flourish. The question, therefore, is not the duration of culture in the form of language, but what are the spaces required for its development ? If the Sumerian settlement in Babylonia took place four thousand years ago (see Ernest de Bunsen, “ Chronology of the Bible”), then the settlement in India would be of the same date, if the migration was from a common centre in High Asia, as the division of West and East Sumerian in pronouns, and other details, seems to indicate. The settlements in Indo-China would shortly follow, and afterwards the occupation of Java and the islands. It is quite within compass that Peru was reached three thousand years ago, or even four or five thousand. It is to be observed that the Malay occupation of Australasia must have cut off the Sumerian intercourse with America. Then it is to be taken into consideration that if the intercourse had been kept up at a time when large ships were used by the Phoenicians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, or Arabs, we should have witnessed different conditions. Cattle and horses would have been carried across the Pacific. Had the intercourse from Indo-China to South America been fresh in the memory, the Arab navigators would have heard of it. The Akkad, Accad, or Sumerian must be looked upon as �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 19 a main stock of the class with which we are now dealing. Of the cuneiform inscriptions, the Assyrian and the later Per­ sian had been deciphered, while an early type, named after the kings of Accad, remained obscure. M. Oppert supported a non-Semitic and non-Aryan interpretation, and by the labours of Mons. F. Lenormant many of the characters have now been read, and the language is disclosed to the world. What that language may be has been hitherto a matter oi dispute. The learned M. Halevy has made himself ridiculous by asserting it is no language at all. The chief authorities upon it have shown many alleged relations with VascoKolarian and Ugrian, which, however, are not Ugrian, but prehistoric, while I have confirmed my own forecast {Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1871, pp. 53, 58), that it would be found to have Georgian affinities, and to belong to a Palaeo-Asiatic class. I am now, however, able more dis­ tinctly to assign its position by showing that whatever its affinities may be, it is closely connected in language with the former monument and city building races of the old and new world. In the tenth chapter of Genesis, already referred to, Accad is brought into the scheme of classification under the family of Ham. The early kings of Chaldea entitled themselves rulers of Sumiri and Accad. Dr Hincks, on the strength of inscriptions belonging to Accad, had proposed for the lan­ guage the name of Accad, but M. Oppert directed attention to the fact that the people called themselves Sumir or Sumer, and urged the adoption of the term Sumerian. This appears worthy of support from the nature of allied forms. Samaria, a holy city and country, Semirus in Armenia, and Seumara in Iberia, are perhaps forms of Sumer. Raamah and Rama would be conformable. Armenia belongs to the same stock and epoch. Smyrna (Smurna) and Samorna of Ephesus may also be assigned, as may be Asmurna of Hyrkania and Zimura of Aria. Ephesus and Smyrna must have been great seats of Sumerians. There we have Mount Sipylus (Sipula), with �20 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. the Suburu or statue (Akkad) of Niobe. There is, however, strangely enough, another possible explanation I can suggest in the relation of Sipylus to Sibu, Siva or Seba, and of Niobe to Nebo. The ancients were by no means agreed as to the attribution of the legend of Niobe. It is possible that both of these explanations may have been applied in succession, which is a common phenomenon in mythology. Near is another Lydo-Sumerian sculpture, the Pseudo-Sesostris of Nymphse. Near Ephesus is Pygela or Pugela (Pucala, Pucara, the castle), the R changing to L in this district. Using the term of Sumerian as a general term, we have Accad for Babylonia, and Dr Birch’s term of Khita for Hamath, while we may use Sumero - Peruvian or KhitaPeruvian to cover the whole of the unclassified phenomena of race, language, culture, and mythology. The Georgian languages afford an interpretation of some of the terms of the pre-Hellenic topographical nomenclature of the old world. These languages now include the Karthueli or Georgian, the Swan, the Lazian of Asia Minor, the Min­ grelian, etc. One ancient representative appears to me to have been the Canaanite. While the names of rivers and places are uniform in Asia Minor, the few remains of the language and inscriptions, except the Lycian, which is most likely Lesghian, appear to conform to a Canaanite or Georgian standard. To this, in compliance with ancient tradition, the Etruscan is by me annexed, as it was in 1870 and 1871 {Journal of the Anthro­ pological Institute, pp. 56, 58), although it must be stated that my materials of interpretation have as yet been scanty. The Rev. Isaac Taylor, who has published a book on a Ugrian hypothesis of Etruscan, at the Congress of Orientalists produced a further paper as to the connection of Etruscan with Accad, which is based upon and confirms my views. In illustration of the general connection, and of the interesting question of Etruscan, Tables I. and II. may be referred to. Mr George Smith, in the last moments of his life and dis­ coveries, appears to have confirmed at Carchemish this con­ formity of Etruscan and Khita. �21 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. TABLE I. ♦ America. Georgian. Others. chvalay (Circas­ sian), akun (Mexican). maris, puii ? shwili (akhali, young), krma, bichi, butsi (Othomi). Goat, Ape, Eagle, kapra, arimus, antar, tkhavi, [iremu, stag], arthsiri, bosheth (Canaan­ ite), khapa (Mon), Hawk, aracus, Beetle, Swan, Crane, burrus, tusna, ginis, kori (vulture), archagi (peli­ can), buzi (fly), sawat, ikvi (duck), Heaven, falandum, Apollo (Sun), usil, Diana (Moon), Ghost, shadow, Helmet, Black, tala, hinthial, cassis, thapir, Brown, Strong, kiarthialisa, kahathial, I, me, And, me, cei, Cupid, agfisur, Vulcan, sethlans, gwar, love; shur, desire, tsetskhli, fire, Make, work, kana, qana, Aurora, thesan, Boy, son, Etruscan. agalletor, paka (Peruvian). kondori (Quichua, Peruvian). vonafay (Circas­ sian), zal (Accad). la (Burman), (nitheli, dark), chachkani, shoonseh (Circas­ shavi, sian), kardzi, atta (Circassian), high, mu (Akkad), mi, ancana (Quichua ; eagle, Peruvian). andvui (Misteca). sillo (Aymara; star, Peruvian). citlali (Aztek). llantu (Peruvian). ga (Quichua, Peru­ vian). tletli, fire (Mexi­ can). kana, cut (Aymara, Peruvian). tuna (Akkad), dawn, TABLE II. Etruscan. Georgian. thu, zal, huth, ki, kiem, sas, be[m]ph, alchl? etc. Circassian. essa, oh, shee, htsan, as, shoa, sau, Canaan. moe, 1. makh, 2. 34. 5. 6. 7. 10. Camb., Akkad. sami, othkhi, khuthi, ekusi, shwidi, sam, Peruvian. mai. yscay. kimsa. ttahua. sojta. pakalko. kalko. �22 •ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. In the following illustrations the same characteristics as in Etruscan are to be found : Asia Minor. Earth, gissa (Lydian), Water, Rock, Garden, vedu (Phrygian), taba (Carian), ganos (Phrygian), Village, town, Fat, oil, deba (Thracian), pikerion (Phrygian), Sheep, ma (Phrygian), Horse, ala (Carian), King, gala (Carian), W. and E. Asia. America. yatta (Circas.); khsach labtayeh (Huastec) ; (Cambodian), tepe (Aztek). pseh(Circas.); pi (Mon), tepe (Aztek). kana (Georgian); gana (Accad), daba (Georgian), deba (Guarani). pshey (Circas.); pa? raccu (Quichua). (Accad), maylley (Circas.); me, llama (Peruvian). goat (Cambodian), ♦ la, animal syllable (Accad), ungal (Accad), One source of Etruscan, as of some other extinct languages, is to be traced to the same process of “survival” as in all anthropological departments. Latin will, when duly worked by analysis, form a rich mine. Survivals of Etruscan in Latin. Goat, . Spring, Sieve, Old, Straw, Seat, . . pipe, . . Crime,. Brush, . capra, . scaturigo, scatebra, etc., cribrum, vetus, . stipula,. scabellum, . scamnus, scelus, . scopetus, tkhavi (Georgian), tsqori. tsqaroni. tskhrili. azvili. thskepli. tsodva. tsetskhi. While Canaanite and Hamath come within the Hamitic scheme of Genesis, and are so far allied to Sumerian, which their character of culture supports (Journal of the Anthropo­ logical Institute, 1871, p. 58), yet there are divergences of language and of culture so great that I cannot but regard the Canaanitic, Lydian, and Etruscan, as constituting a distinct �23 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. branch, at present to be assigned to Sumerian, but perhaps afterwards to be subdivided. It will most likely be found that Accad and Khita, being separate stocks, others are to be assigned to each of them. Hamath, Carchemish, or some such local metropolis, most likely afforded the centre of a distinct development of civilisa­ tion, with tribal forms of language and mythology, and pro­ ducing syllabic and alphabetic characters, afterwards attributed to the Phoenicians. Georgian and Akkad have double plurals, the remains of a prehistoric characteristic, and there are re­ semblances in the verbs and numerals, but there are dissimi­ larities. The Georgian double plurals -ni and -bi figure as third personal pronouns in Akkad. These particles are not without resemblance to negatives. At an early period of the examination of Georgian, I was much struck with the propensity for sticking in or inserting consonants, as in Mexican and other languages. The imme­ diate explanation of the tl in Mexican is, however, to be sought in Circassian. In Georgian it is perhaps th. The exact affinities of Georgian are not shown by the ex­ isting members of the Sumero-Peruvian or Khita-Peruvian class. Some are found in Ka, a language allied to the IndoChinese group, and some in Cambodian, yet Georgian is evi­ dently related to Etruscan. Thus : Georgian, Head, Mouth, River, Rock, Mountain, Stone, thawi, piri, . mdinare, Cambodian. tuwi (Ka). soar, daktani (Ka); tanle. tamoe, „ The elements of Georgian are found in the numerals: I, arthi, G. (trao, Ka) ; 2, ori (bur); 3, sami (tarn); 4, othki (chin); 5, khouthi (Ka); 8, rwa (peh) ; 9, tskhra (tsar, Khong). Ka is found for 5 on the left hand in Mon. The Georgian nume­ rals equal the left-hand Mon and Ka numerals. �24 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Comparison of Akkad and Georgian Grammar. Akkad. = Nouns more than one plural, = Emphatic form ending in a vowel, . = Negative series, ..... = Formation of persons of verbs, = Formation of participle, = Formation of negative verbs by the prefix Nu, = Resemblance of numbers, = Insertion in verb Of pronouns governed, = Use of post positions, .... —■ Use of Ni, Bi, .... . = Use of M, S,................................ Georgian. The following table shows the comparison of Akkad : Comparison of Akkad and Quichua Grammar. Akkad. Quichua. Noun, emphatic state, a None. Dual = 2 (kas) . J? Dual regarded = 2 (pura) pronouns postpositional 99 several plurals . 99 pl. -ene 99 = -cuna, -ntin. -mes 99 plural by duplication . 99 locative -ta. 99 = -ta, through. ablative -na 99 = -nae, wanting. opportune -gal . 99 = ? -ccepi (after, behind), Verbs governed, . persons not the same. pronouns incorporated plural -une, -ne . 99 = -un ? -mus, -s . 99 -chic. gan, to be, exist. 99 = can, to be. [plural, Noun, numeral used without Adjective after noun, before noun. Pronouns S. 1 ? 2 ? 3, two forms, Pl. 3, • • „ Demonstrative some resemble = Conjunction Cama, with, and = cama, according as, Numerals, many . = all. ordinals -kam =nequen. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 25 It is in what I term the negative series that one of the leading laws of prehistoric philology and mythology is to be found. Under this the negative No or Not is the equivalent of Night or Black (Niger). It is also the equivalent of woman, as the negative, man being treated as the positive. So all female names become negative, as wife, Eve, ewe, hound ( = bitch), she-goat, cow, mare, etc. Death, kill, executioner, * have negative relations. So have egg and nit, and secondarily pea, bean, and nut (as resembling an egg). Ear and head appear to be negative. Nephele, in mythology, is one of the forms of Khaveh or Eve. Shadow is a negative, and in some cases equivalent to soul and night. In Guarani there is an ingenious distinction between the soul of the living and the dead; and so of a head, bone, skin. The soul of the dead man is supposed in many countries to lodge in birds. This may be one ground why the bird is negative, as bearing the soul of the dead. Blood is a negative apparently as related to death. Hence red is a negative, and some curious mytho­ logical and archaeological conditions arise, for red is likewise the equivalent of the number two. Dr Zerffi informs me that red was the second colour in various positions, as on dice and on temple terraces, but this requires closer investigation. Mr Park Harrison and Mr J. Jeremiah have observed the use of red as a colour widely pre­ valent in the regions now under consideration, for the purposes of this investigation. The red hand figures equally in Syria and in America. The virtue of red as a preservative against the evil eye is referred to in Walter K. Kelly’s “ Curiosities of Indo-Euro­ pean Traditions and Folk Lore,” p. 147. In Buchan, Aber­ deenshire, the housewives tie a piece of red worsted round their cows’ tails before turning them out to grass for the first time in the spring. It is, however, better shown in Germany (p. 229), where herdsmen lay a woman’s red apron, or a broad axe covered with a woman’s red stocking, before the threshold * In another relation woman becomes the equivalent of the Yona and mouth, and by her periodicity, resembling that of the moon, the equivalent of that body. �26 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. of the cow-house, and make the animals step over it. The bringing together of woman, cow, and red, is noteworthy. The lady-bird seems to hold its place in folk lore as being red (p. 95). It is held unlucky to kill a lady-bird in Germany, as the sun would not shine the next day. It is possible that the robin redbreast owes his mythical place to the same characteristic, and it is also unlucky to kill him. The wood­ pecker has a red head or mutch (p. 86), and a black body. Bad is negative, as is naked. Sleep and dream are negative, as belonging to the night series. Salt is negative. Water, in some senses, is a negative, and appears to be connected with woman. Night was the negative of day, or the closing of the eye, and it had its own world of darkness, with its night sun, its sleep, and its dreams. It was the domain of shadows and the ultimate refuge of the soul. Its mythological relations in this respect will best be studied in the treatment of animism by Mr Tylor. There are few prehistoric, protohistoric, or historic languages which do not display the negative series. Among such may be named : Wolof, Agaw, Vasco - Kolarian (very marked), Ugrian, Egyptian, Sumerian (very marked), Dravidian, Semi­ tic (not strongly marked), Aryan (very marked). For Aryan, a popular illustration is afforded by not, night, nut, nit, naked, nest, snow, Eve, ewe, egg, wife, cow, nox, nix, nex, nux, nec, non, nudus, nidus, nodus, niger, nubes, ovis, ovum, avis, uva, caput, auris. The way in which the negative roots are distributed among the various branches of a class is peculiar, and affords a dis­ tinction. Thus Latin uses N largely, and O (KR) sparingly; Greek, M, O, largely, and KR or KL sparingly. Thus Aymara uses P, K, H ; Mon uses P (sparingly), K, H (sparingly), and T. In reality, the dissyllables are chiefly the same, for the O (ovum, oon) is nothing but the K, B, and KB of the VascoKolarian and Sumerian Kaba, Paka, and the KR (Karua, Auris, etc.) that of the Sumerian Raka. The words for woman, as Khaveh, Eve, Agave, Hebe, Ne- �27 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. phele, Wife, have descended through ages as the formula for verbal mythology, and hence figure so largely in the earliest records of Genesis, in the traditions of the Eastern Mediter­ ranean, and among the Aryans. A sufficient example will be afforded by the following : Negative Series. Mon of Pegu. Aymara. Moon, Red, Two, Ear, Head, Night, River, No, Not, Salt, Bad, Bitter, Black, ab, ab, a, ab, ab, be, c, c, c, C, b? paksi, pako, papaya, (paoki,) phekai. haipu, hahuire, hani, hazu, •.. haru, chamaka ? b, ab, a, b, b, b, a, c, a, be, b, b, khatu. hpakit. pa. khato. katan. khatan. pi. ha. po. hakha. katan. katsan. The dissyllable is largely developed with the negative. It should be mentioned that a negative is not necessarily a prefix or suffix, but in prehistoric grammar may be intercal­ ated, as in Gondi (Khond), Vasco-Kolarian, and Sumerian Akkad or Khita-Peruvian. A middle negative may depend on the same principle. The question may be incidentally considered, whether the Sumerian population of Indo-China was supplied from Baby­ lonia, or from a common centre in High Asia. In my view, it was from the common centre, because although there are great affinities between the Sumerian or Akkad and the eastern analogues, yet there are greater affinities between these latter among themselves, and there are common points of dissimi­ larity from Sumerian. There were most probably two migra­ tions in succession to the Agaw. One embraced the Akkad, Mon, Cambodian, Aymara, and Maya (and Toltek?). The other, the Georgian, Etruscan, Siamese, Quichua, and Aztek. The earliest may, however, have been the Circassian Otomi. �28 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Proceeding onwards, Indo-China, or the southern districts of the further peninsula beyond India, may be treated as one linguistic area. They include Pegu in the west, Siam in the middle, and Cambodia in the east. This region was known to the ancients as being held by populations in a state of advancement. Pegu is the country at the mouth of the Irrawaddy, and was formerly independent, but fell under the dominibn of the Burmese empire. In 1852 the province, with the towns of Pegu, Prome, and Ran­ goon, was taken by the English. The people call themselves Mon, but are called Talain by the Burmese. The language is a most valuable member of the Sumerian for illustration. There are large ruins. Siam lies in the middle of India, beyond the Ganges, and is the seat of a great and settled empire. The Siamese people and language are, however, of less importance to us in this inquiry, at this period, than are the others. Kambodia, or Camboja (Kan-phu-cha, Chinese), is the western part of Annam or Cochin-China, on the Saigon and Cambodia rivers, bordering on eastern Siam. Of late years it has been attacked by the French, who have taken and hold Saigon. The great marble ruins of the ancient capital of the Thinae, near Saigon, have long been known. The Cambodians were remarked by the early Arab voyagers as manufacturers of very fine linen. The natives call themselves Kammer or Khmer (=Aymara). Kitaya too, or Indo-China, may be only another form of Khita, equivalent to Kissii or Cissii, and to Quichua. It is to be observed that the explored monuments of Cambodia are not ancient like those of Baby­ lonia, but rather modern and synchronous with those of Peru and Mexico, but it is probable earlier remains will be found. Cambodia has been studied by M. Mouhot, by M. Garnier in his large and valuable work, and lately by Mr Kennedy in his paper read before the Indian Section of the Society of Arts (Journal, 1873-74), when I presided, and had the oppor­ �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 29 tunity of giving some early explanations of the linguistic relations as recorded in the journal of the Society. The ancient kingdom of Camboja, in India, which gave name to the Gulf of Camboja, or Cambay, has engaged the attention of Indian archaeologists, but not to the degree its importance merits. In the later history of this kingdom it was still considerable, but it was the representative of an ancient and perhaps the earliest civilisation of India, belong­ ing to that epoch, which was universal, of which General Cunningham has found the examples. The river names of India are repeated in New Granada, on the one hand, and in Etruria and Italy on the other. In conformity, as I stated in a note sent to the International Congress of Orientalists in 1874 (N. Triibner), the town names obey the same law. It was from India, and not from Babylonia, that we may, as said, assume that the stream of civilisation passed towards the Pacific, and in India will yet be found the origin and remains of early letters, the influence of which to this day will still be recognised. The two names of the hundred-streamed feeder of the Indus, /z^sudrus (100, Georgian), and ZWudrus (100, Sanscrit), are worthy of note ; as also athasi (1000, Georgian), and athasi (88, Hindustani). The affinities of grammar between the new world and the old, though dealt with by various writers, as in the “ Mithri­ dates,” were only scientifically treated by a few, as by Hum­ boldt, the Rev. Richard Garnett, and Dr Daniel Wilson (“Prehistoric Man,” p. 594). Characters common to the Polynesian had been recognised, but Mr Garnett pointed out that besides these, others were to be found common to the languages of the Dekkan in India. On the other hand, Dr Oscar Peschel, in his “Volkerkunde,” 1874, p. 472, still maintains that the culture of Peru and Mexico was indigenous. Mr Tylor also (“Early History of Mankind,” p. 209) says: “No certain proof of connection or intercourse between Mexico and Peru seems as yet to have been made out.” This ex­ presses the state of prevalent opinion, and although the �30 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. materials for linguistic investigation are abundantly displayed in Dr Latham’s valuable “ Elements of Comparative Philo­ logy/’ such opinion has been little contested. In fact, although the languages are allied, yet that alliance has to be demon­ strated from the outside, and until the disinterment and de­ cipherment of the Sumerian or Akkad inscriptions, it was almost impossible to be proved. The Aymara and Quichua languages of Peru, the Aztek of Mexico, and the Maya of Yucatan, are all allied with the Indo-Chinese, and thereby with the Akkad as Sumerian. Even to the negative series and numerals the points of resem­ blance are remarkable. Some of these resemblances between Akkad and Quichua had, on the perusal of M. Lenormant’s works, struck Senor de la Rosa, a distinguished Peruvian scholar, and, on the reading of my paper at the Anthropolo­ gical Institute, he referred to several examples lying on the surface. He also referred to resemblances between Quichua and Semitic and Aryan. These I treated as resulting from the influence of Sumerian and the older languages on Semitic and Sanskrit. The Rev. Professor Campbell of Montreal has furnished me with a large number of analogies between the Peruvian words cited by me and Celtic. In Peru and Bolivia the chief languages now are the Quichua, or Inca, and the Aymara. Of the Aymara, a copious and valuable memoir was on the 21st June 1870, communicated to the Ethnological Society (parent of the Anthropological Institute) by the late David Forbes, F.R.S., and this constitutes a text-book. The language of the Aymaras is spoken in southern Peru and northern Bolivia. They were conquered by the Incas. The Quichua is spoken in northern Peru and southern Bolivia. The Aymaras claim to have been a great people before the Inca conquest (1100), perhaps beyond any South American people. Ruins of grand palaces and temples are found at Tiahuanaca, on the south of Lake Titicaca (Forbes), the capital of the Aymara land. The conquest of it was completed- in 1289, but was followed by serious revolts. Forbes says, too �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 31 (p. 4), that, according to Indian traditions from Aymara as well as Quichua sources, the Aymaras, even before the time of the first Inca, Manco-Capac (1021-1062), possessed a de­ gree of civilisation higher than that of the Incas themselves. Consul Hutchinson maintained before the Anthropological Institute a like doctrine as to the Chimoos. The Aymara area has been supposed to be limited to that now occupied by them, but it is to be observed that the names found in the neighbourhood of Lake Titicaca are much better developed in New Granada. It is therefore evident that the Aymara, or perhaps pre-Aymara, occupation must have extended so far north. Mr Clements Markham con­ siders that the Inca empire never reached so far northward, and Mr Forbes was not aware of such an extension of the Aymara as must now be allowed for. Aymara is possibly the equivalent of Kerner or Khmer, the name of the Cambodians, and of the Sumer, the name of the people connected with Accad. Quichua, in Peru, and Quiche, in Mexico, may re­ present the Kissii or Cissii, or Khita ; and these again may be connected with Cush or Akush. Of the Quichua or Inca lan­ guage and people it is not necessary to say so much, as they are more familiarly known, and have been and will be inci­ dentally referred to. To the Quichua language Mr Clements Markham has de­ voted himself, and produced a grammar and dictionary which have been of very great service in these investigations. I have also employed the “ Arte of Torres Rubio,” on which his grammar is founded. This work of Mr Markham’s is likely to be of more importance even than he anticipated, now that Quichua and Aymara must be studied for the comparative grammar of Akkad. Senor de la Rosa and Senor Pacheco are engaged on new Quichua grammars. The Aztek culture of Mexico, as Humboldt-well saw, was derived from the old wrorld, as was its language, which is to be classed with Sumerian, but intermediate between Aymara and Otomi. The Otomi, Cora, and Tarahumara, with perhaps the Huas- �32 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. teca, constitute a class under Sumerian influence, but allied with the Adighe or Circassian, which likewise exhibits Sume­ rian influence, and has a remarkable but distant resemblance with Etruscan. In the Caucasian languages, I had long since traced what are called North American characteristics, and others I found in the Georgian, but the cause was unknown to me till of late. A considerable influence must have been exerted by the Agaw and Otomi migrations on the Indian languages of North America. The presence of the Circassian-Otomi has to be accounted for. The higher Sumerians are marked as a city-building people, but the Circassian in the Caucasus is what the Otomi is in Mexico. The Otomis must have preceded the Sumerians in South America, or been driven forward by them as the Agaw-Guarani were into Brazil. The Otomis may have had connections or dealings with the monument-building races of North America. At a later date, on the Sumerian kingdoms in Mexico becoming weaker, they returned and invaded Mexico. Dr Latham (“ Opuscula Essays,” i860, p. 395) gives “the result of a very hurried collation,” for the Otomi, “ said to be with languages akin to the Chinese en masse” (p. 397), and for the Maya (p. 398). The latter list is chiefly of Aztek words. He makes no remarks, but the tables show many affinities with Tonkin and Cochin-Chinese. Had Dr Latham followed this up, he might probably have obtained the clue to the relation of the Mexican languages, though he might have been baffled, as some of the affinities can only be illustrated by bringing together the Quichua and Aymara as members of the group, and the Akkad then undeciphered. It is, in fact, now a part of the evidence that Humboldt, Garnett, Latham, etc., are found to have contributed material for the true solution. The history of Mexico is supplied from accessible sources. Its best known language is the Aztek. On the preceding Toltek, I can throw no light. The monuments and culture �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE; ETC. 33 of Mexico may, after the reference already made to them, be passed over. Sufficient to say, that the monuments are of great dimensions and highly decorated. Yucatan possesses similar remains, described by J. L. Stephens. The Maya, a language formerly cultivated, comes distinctly within the Sumerian class. In “ Incidents of Travel, by J. L. Stephens, in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan,” vol. ii., are hieroglyphics, which are arranged in rows, and appear to present some of the principles of the cuneiform or hieratic, as III U HI HU □ II. The same is to be observed at Palenque (ii. 342, 424). These latter present even more resemblance to the Hamath inscriptions, as ® ©, also the extended arm (see also Hissarlik and Easter Island) is worth further examination. The square hieroglyphics, or rather squares of hieroglyphics, found in Central America, are most probably only a modifica­ tion of the row or column of hieroglyphics in the Yucatan and- Hamath, and which has a representative in hieratic cuneiform. The carvings on the rocks at the Yonan Pass, in Peru, engraved by Consul T. J. Hutchinson (“ Peru,” ii. 174, 176), are deserving of study. Some of the characters are idiographs, but some likewise present a resemblance to Hamath and other characters ; and Easter Island inscrip­ tions, on which Mr Park Harrison has laboured, deserve attention. In Polynesia the remains of massive stone build­ ings have been found in Tongatabu, Easter Island, Rota, Tinian, Valan, and elsewhere (Wilson’s “ Prehistoric Man,” p. 109). To these may be added Java, Pegu, Cambodia, Peru, Mexico, and Yucatan. Among the facts adduced by Mr Park Harrison for the migration from east to west, through Australasia, he refers to colossal heads in the east, and in Easter Island. Colossal heads will be found in Stephens’ “ Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan,” vol i., pp. 139, 143, 150, 152, 153, and 328. They have been identified in Babylonia, Cambodia, Easter Island, and Peru. M. Perrot, under the name of Lydo-Phrygian, and myself, c �34 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. under the name of Lydo-Assyrian, and which I would now call Lydo-Sumerian, have pointed out the westerly extension of the monuments in Asia Minor, including the Niobe, near Magnesia ad Mseandrum, and the Pseudo - Sesostris, near Nymphae, in the Smyrna district. To this may be added the colossal head from the outskirts of Smyrna, found by Mr F. Spiegelthal in 1865, and identified by me, and brought to the British Museum by Mr G. Dennis. The name of LydoAkkadian is perhaps still better for these monuments. The use of enormous blocks of admirably squared stone, without cement, is a feature common to both continents, and deserving of investigation, as well as the mode in which such blocks were quarried and transported. In South America there were no beasts of burthen available. The employment of bricks and cement, and generally the adoption of the build­ ing arts, are also worthy of careful examination. Stephens, in his “Yucatan,” vol. i., p. 134, gives a very remarkable engraving of a capital of a column at Uxmal, of old world character. At Uxmal there are buildings con­ structed on terraces and mounds, as there were at Babylon (i. 135)- This is worth observing for further comment. Burial towers are to be recognised in Syria, Persia, India, Siam, and Peru. The knowledge of bronze, goldsmiths’ work, silver work, and other metallurgy, has not passed unobserved by writers. Gold dentistry has been recognised in Peru and Egypt (Tylor, “Early History of Mankind,” p. 175). The employment of bronze in America presents no difficulty under the acceptation of a Sumerian settlement. If the Agaws did not become acquainted with the large tin supplies of Malacca, the East Sumerians did, as they were acquainted also with the working of gold and silver; hence they readily in­ troduced these arts into America, or rather improved them, because the mound builders were acquainted with copper and bronze working. Although the Sumerians, as the topographical nomenclature shows, were acquainted with tin in Britain before the Phoenicians, it is probable Malacca, and not Britain, was the great seat of the early supply of tin. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 35 Consul Hutchinson (“Peru,” ii. 266) institutes a justifiable comparison between the masonry and pottery of ancient Peru observed by himself, and the prehistoric discoveries of Dr Schliemann in the Troad. In fact, if my views are correct of the Lydians, Phrygians, and Carians of Asia Minor, with the Etruscans and Sumerians, then there would be a positive identification of epoch and class between the Troad and Peru. In Peru, drinking cups and other articles were buried with the dead, as in Etruria, Greece, etc. The Peruvian cups were supposed to be used for drinking at the funerals (Forbes, 49). The woven fabrics are also to be noted in connection with Peru and the country of the Thinse or Cambodia. The quipu or knotted cord, as a record, is found in Peru, Mexico, Hawaii, Polynesia, the eastern archipelago, and China (Prichard, iv. 466; Tylor, “Early History of Man­ kind,” pp. 156, 160). The scape llama referred to by David Forbes (p. 45), may be compared with the scapegoat of the East. Sacrifices of men to the gods were used by the earlier races, as the Dahomans, but it is to be noted that they were a prac­ tice also of the worship of Baal, and in Peru and in Mexico (Wilson, “Prehistoric Man,” pp. 81, 91, 290), as well as in the East. Von Humboldt long since noticed the connection of the Mexican calendar with the Asiatic, and deduced therefrom the Asiatic origin of the civilisation (see also E. B. Tylor, “Anahuac,” 241). The Yucatan calendar is allied to the Mexican. The subject of the calendars and inscriptions, to­ gether with the Peruvian and Central American languages, for a long time occupied the late Chevalier Bollaert, the author of the “ Peruvian Antiquities,” and of many memoirs, particularly on the Maya alphabet. The half month in the early Maya or Yucatan calendar consisted of thirteen days (Stephens’ “Yucatan,” i. 439). The Siamese, likewise, use as an essential part of a date a half month. This now consists of fourteen days. �36 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. The dates in Siamese are arranged on a cross (+). In Yucatan, part of the cycle was placed on a wheel divided into four, practically, N., E., W., and S. The two systems show a resemblance, and the cross may represent the spokes of a wheel. The Yucatan calendar, which was the same as the Mexican, has lucky and unlucky days, still a common system in the East. The calendar and the alphabet are closely connected to­ gether by a symbology illustrated by Mr Narrien and Mr R. G. Halliburton. * In the middle of November we have in a line : i star, . . . . * Sirius. 3 stars, inthe belt of . * * * Orion. q stars, . . . . * * % Bull. 7 stars, cross or Tau, . . Pleiades. The Pleiades, or Seven Dancers, are to this day in many countries, as of old, said to be the paradise of the souls of men. This day of the conjunction of the Pleiades is, according to seasons, the beginning of the sacred or of the agricultural year, and the festival of the dead. This great and awful day has, too, in many ages and in many lands, been celebrated by human sacrifices. Here is the natural basis of that symbology, which has played such a part in all times, and which supplies at natural intervals I, 3, 5, and 7. It is also, to all appearance, a basis of natural worship, and of syllabic or symbolic characters. At the beginning of the alphabet we have the star (, or ) * its equivalent; at the end, the cross or Tau of the Pleiades (P- V)The straight line ( —) of three stars in Orion, and the angle (<) of the five in the Pleiades, have afforded models for characters, as the Tau has done. * See my “Prehistoric Comparative Philology and Mythology,” appendix; W. F. Blake’s “Astronomical Myths,” p. Ill, and the work of Ernest de Bunsen, now in the press. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 37 As these furnished the straight and male elements, Sirius itself being probably an emblem of the sun at night, so did the moon afford the round and female elements for the com­ binations of the syllabacy. In the Hebrew square alphabet, which bears evidence of preserving the prehistoric traditions, and which is probably older than the Phoenician and not newer, we have Aleph, Yod, Caph, Ayin, Pe, Tau ; Aleph and Tau being beginning and end, and Yod and Caph being together in the middle of the alphabet. These two distinctly represent prehistorically male and female, and being described in Hebrew as the hand and the hollow or palm of the hand, as before stated (p. 17). The cross has been found by Dr Schliemann in the Troad. The cross is derived from the Pleiades. The square cross is common among the Aymaras (D. Forbes, 39), and was ob­ served by Stephens in Central America. The red hand seen in the monuments of Yucatan (Stephens), Bollaert says he has seen as far as Arica in Peru (“Anthro­ pology of the New World,” p. 114). It is common in Syria and Morocco (Dr A. Leared’s “Travels in Morocco Rehlf’s “ Morocco ”). The Honourable Mr Clay points out that the umbrella was a mark of dignity among the Peruvians, as it was in Babylonia, and is still in the Indo-Chinese countries. Mr W. Chappell, P'.S.A., states that an ancient Peruvian flute gives a scale, showing that the Peruvians used a scale illustrative of that used by the ancient nations of the old world, and giving evidence of a common origin. The disposition of seven pyramids or mounds by four and three in Egypt and America is probably due to the four outside stars and three inside stars in Orion, but may refer to the Pleiades. The traces of use of Kawa in Brazil, Chili, and Polynesia most likely belongs to the preceding migrations of the Agaw or Guarani race. It is with a view of strengthening the chain of evidence that attention is now directed to the town names of Palestine. �38 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. These, down to the end of Chronicles, are about four hundred in number. It is possible that some Hebrew names may be embraced in the list, but exact identification is not yet pos­ sible, and a casual error is of no immediate importance. The first step is to arrange these names, as far as may be, according to their roots, and it will be seen that they thus fall into a smaller number of classes than might be supposed, and into distinct classes. The classification by roots may appear fanciful to some, the more particularly as the consonants are sometimes trans­ posed. This is itself an important phenomenon of the pre­ historic epoch, and which has been already referred to as used for the purpose of differentiation. It is possibly in reference to this that transposition is to be found in local names. The last part of Dr Carl Abel’s great work, “ Keptische Studien,” largely deals with transposition or metathesis of the roots ; and the fourth part, the “ Comparative Philology of Hiero­ glyphic and Coptic,” is greatly dependent on metathesis for many of its results. It has been already stated that the Rev. Professor John Campbell of Montreal has for a long period assiduously devoted himself to the study of the personal, tribal, and local names of Scripture, with a view to determine the eponyms. Besides his papers in the Canadian Journal, and the separate publication of them, his researches will be now better known by means of the paper contributed by him this year to the Biblical Archaeological Society. In this he deals much with names in the Babylonian district, and shows great pro­ bability of their survival even to the present day. It is to be observed that the possession of a tribal name, or of a lan­ guage, is no positive evidence of descent. Celts speak Eng­ lish. The Achaian Greeks apparently represented tribes of older and other Agaw race ; and if Cymry be continuous with Cimbri or Cimmerii, as Rawlinson and other scholars have taught, it may also be continuous with older forms, like Khmer, as proposed by Professor Campbell, but by no means of the same descent. The Emperor of Germany was King of the �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 39 Romans, as Agamemnon was King of the Achivi, and Mal­ colm of the Picts and Scots ; but this did not involve descent, unless by an heiress. For the purpose of comparison with the archaeological regions referred to, the corresponding names are classified in four groups: ist. Asia Minor, including Armenia, and with Caucasia, Crete, Cyprus, and the Asiatic islands. 2d. Greece, with the northern regions, including Thrace and Illyria, and with the Greek islands. 3d. Italy, with Istria, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. 4th. Spain, with the Balearic Isles. The names here given do not constitute the full list, but they are given copiously, because the cases of identity are numerous and striking, and, if a few only were given, they might be suspected to be merely casual coincidences or freaks of language, such as may be picked out from the most dis­ cordant languages. Here it is not so, and careful examina­ tion will show that the results must be true, and what they ought to be. �40 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. g Comparison of Canaanite Town Names. co ‘S o H o 175 CO H % g H cn a < £ cd C) <D <U cfl {fl o o Jig X : ££ 2 g • 8 <5 g CO co Ph § : _ • 8 ’cn <U cd N cd M : cd 8 of Ph a • .h o l.g cd cd s § <V cd Xi XI co co N co : 8 g g ■ •£ 8 g ’ .rt cd ,td pstfg Q P4 S : • • : »-« •: • cd • : 8 ; cd H : 8 g t3 g • cd S cd l : S g rd • r-i cd : S c • cd o = o wh<K HO •5 Q s £ Q �MDN ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 41 �42 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. o o ci g’ >5 *1 ■ s' .H 'S S ci Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. <Z) g 5 Ph o a o S N >-) £ § C/2 55 W £ W C/2 § C/2 m pi �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC, 43 �44 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. i g' Ph Town Names—Continued. C/2 Comparison of Canaanite I W g cn M Ph �45 BRK Rabbah ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. & ffl <z> Pi PA tn pa tn PA Q tn PA �46 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. tn 'in G Ph C/2 ; *5 3 • G h-J * .2 in' o .&1 2 : gJ • • 2 •H o : • : S • h-3 = * • : ~G 52 o* G 2 Ph "g Cu o Tj Lg PL( < ffl o G <u G O : g . 5m • 5m • g H gT r2 o Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. ,S .2 "H <L> g .2 'G .2 *2 in J> x " ‘55 ci S :|8 Lusitania g « g « 8 £> ci *35 5m g ci h-4 H m G O o I *1 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 47 �Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. 48 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. D 49 �50 Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. cd ,g ’o 5-, r >33 is M is § &coio CO ~ S3 ~ ~ 3 A A cT.S ^cs ,S '5 S ’3 "s^A 3s * r~r cd rr Ka -4 ’ —» * <u ~ Cd IT1 »—< 3c-J o os M g H <z> M >-) _ __ K qj r~ rti CL CL £ mScWdW Q £ M GJ r<D r± Gi 00U0S �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC, 51 �52 1J ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 53 �Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. 54 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. g o H ' * J* HH <1 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. i-l cn cn CO 55 �OMPARISON OF Canaanite Town Names—Continued. 56 ■ ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 57 The identification of these names does not depend on simple general resemblance. They will be found to afford details of relationship, which again become of great importance to pre­ historic investigation. The prefixes are—M, T (D), S, B (P), K, L, Y, O, etc, being the ancient series and extending beyond the Semitic. The words in the Hebrew transliteration are generally in a crude form without a final vowel. They commonly consist of three consonants, with or without a prefix. Many are dis­ syllables, which in Greek and Latin transliterations are trisyllables. This latter seems to be the Caucasian form for town names, but in Asia Minor there are tetrasyllables. The tetrasyllables in Italy are mostly caused by the addition of a Latin termination. The vowels conform to a great degree in the Hebrew and the other transliterations, though not always in the same order. Thus, to take a few cases from the earliest in the list: Mozera, Masora. Shamir, Zimara, Ismara. Maarath, Marathus, Maratha, Marathon. Amad, . Amathia, Amathus. Temani, Timena. Dumoh, Tumia, Dumo. Rimmon, Armone, Orminium. Zalmoneh, Salmone. Rumah, Roma. Paruah, Pharugai, Verrugo. Boskath, Phuska, Buxeta. Chozeba, Cassope. Bashan, Passandae, Pasinum. Betonim, Bitoana, Puthion. Aphinit, Apidna, Phintias, Pintia. Abila, . Piala. Punon, . Bononia, Panion. Anaharoth, Anaguros. Charashim, Carasena. Haamonai, Haimoniai. Kinah, Kinna, Kinniani, Kaekina. �58 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Kanah, Sharuen, Zaananim, Sansannah, Idala, . Dilean, Adadah, Hadattah, Kana, Ganos, Cannae. . Saruena. . Saniana. Saniseni. . Idalaea. . Delion. . Adada. . Adatthai. Where vowels are interchanged in transliterations they are commonly the middle vowels (I, E), and the female vowels (O, U). The male vowels are usually represented by A. The representation of the double vowels is another marked point. Baala, . Piala, Pialia. Taanach, Thiana. Gaash, . Ceos. Naarath, . Nariandus. Haamonai, . Haimoniai. Taanath, Teanum. Irpeel, . . Harpleia. Techoa, . Tegea, Attegua. Zoar, Issoria. Zanoah, . Soana. Goath, . . Guthion. Sharuen, . Sarruena, Serrion. Birei, . Bireia, Barium, Pherse. Dilean, . Delion, Dolionis, Tullonium. Ariath, . . Reate. Of the terminations, one of the first to be noticed is that in H. This, as lengthening the syllable, is represented in sixty-six cases by an additional vowel. A few examples are given: Mithcah, . Medokia, Modikia. Nimrah, . Anemurium, Anemoria. Mizpah, . Messapia, Messapium, Mopsion. Berachah, . Ambrakia, Bergium. Bozrah, . Perusia, Bruzcia, Bursao. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Shebah, Balah, . Shiloh, Suzah, . Doroa, . Hachilah, Canah, Hadashah, 59 Siphseum, Zobia. Piala, Velleia. Saloe, Selia. Suissa, Suessa, Suassa. Thurium, Tiora. Akilium, Aquileia. . Chunise, Genua. Dasea, Tisia. . . . . . It is possible that H represents the vowel in the ordinary form, as in Greek and Latin it is I, the vowel now used in Georgian. H changes to N, as Ummah (Homana), Mozah (Amuzon), Socoh (Succeianum), Dimonah (Timonion), Hormah (Her­ mione, Hurmine), Gomorrah (Camarinum), Arumah (Ariminium), and about twenty cases. H changes also to S, as Bozrah (Bruzus), Tirzah (Tarsus), Rabbah (Rhupes), and in about twelve cases. H as a final changes to K, but it is then a radical, as in Sirah (Sirika). As an intermediate letter and radical it also changes to K, as Haresheth (Keressos, Kharissa), Sihor (Sakora), Anaharoth (Anaguros), Hazar (Chasira), Bilhah (Balkeia), and in about twenty-five cases. H as a final is represented, as other finals are, by a plural. This takes place in sixteen cases, as Hosah (Husiai), Zartanah (Zortanae), Hadattah (Adatthai),Berachah (Pharugai), Hachilah (Aigilae). The termination th follows the same general laws as that in H. It represents a lengthening vowel but in a few cases, as Moresheth (Merusium), Baalith (Paesula). Th also changes to N, as in Timnath (Temenion), Mephaath (Mevania), and in six cases. Th changes to S more freely in about twenty-three cases, as Chisloth (Acalissos), Mechirath (Macrasa), Boskath (Abaskus, Phuskus). Th preserves its form as a final and as a radical in many �60 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. cases, as Amatha (Amathus), Kenath (Kunaitha), Maarath (Maratha), but is represented also by D, DD, and T. It is possible that the D in Greek transliteration was sometimes a Dhelta (as in Romaic), and not a Delta. Th as a final is represented also by a plural in twenty cases, as Gibbeath (Kaphuai), Avith (Veii), Moseroth (Mazuri), Gelloth (Khallidai). N is a terminal. Its peculiarity is that in about twenty examples it is represented also by N, as Shihon (Sicyon), Sharon (Serrion), Kartan (Kroton), Kitron (Khutrion), Pelon (Peleon, Belon). In most cases, however, it is represented with a vowel added. Occasionally the N is mute, as in Shimron (Simara), Punon (Pionia), Pirathon (Paratheis). It is also represented by a plural form, as Dilean (Tellense), Rakkon (Eregense). It is to be noted that N is a terminal in other translitera­ tions, as Galeed (Calydon), Helkath (Elkethion), Maroth (Marathon). M is a terminal. M as a plural is not always represented as a plural in other transliterations. The best examples are Akrabim (Akraiphai, Kekropai), Betonim (Bithenae, Potniai), Zaanim (Azani), Gebim (Gabiae), Bochim (Bagae). The plural forms of the ancient town names of the several regions is perhaps to be thus accounted for. A Caucasian capital would consist of three parts, representing the middle, male, and female. The middle town was the citadel, with the residence of the king and soldiery, with the fire-temple on the hill; the male town contained the residence of the governor and the priests, of the artisans and tradesmen, with the temples and groves of worship; and the female town was the seaport or river suburb, with its population of persons devoted to the water, fishermen, boatmen, sailors, aliens, slaves, etc. In case of a summer town and a winter town, the winter town would be the middle town on the hills, and the summer town the town on the river and plain. To ex­ press all the towns the plural of one form, the middle town, �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 61 for instance, might be used; and this practice begun in Caucasia, would be adopted by Hebrews, Hellenes, Latins, Iberians. Looking to the terminations in N, P or V, S, Th, it is most likely they represent the two Caucasian plurals, and the locative and dative cases. Sh as a radical and terminal is represented by S and Z. It is found as Z in Shebah (Zobia), Bashan (Bizana), Eshean (Azenia), etc. As Sh has no character in Hellenic and Latin, it appears to have been specially represented in Greek and Latin by Ss, or S with a vowel, in about twenty-five cases, as Kadesh (Kudissos), Hadashah (Hudissa, Edessa), Bashan (Abassos), Haresh (Keressos), Lachish (Leugasia), Gaash (Kissa), Mashal (Massilia), Shaarim (Siarum), Ashen (Osiana). It is conceiv­ able that Si would be convertible into Sh, but the Ss must have had a like property in some Hellenic dialects. Another noticeable transliteration is the representation of Sh by Sk, Ks, of which we have about twenty examples, such as Ashnah (Sakoena, Skhoineus, Aixone), Mareshah (Morosgi), Shalom (Askolum), Ashan (Oxynia), Shebarim (Skarpha). Z is transliterated by Z in several examples, as Zela (Zela), Azem (Zama), Gizon (Gazene). In all the forms of transliteration the full vowel is occa­ sionally transposed and made the initial letter, as in Eshtaol (Astale), Ishtob (Astapa), Suzah (Assessos), Aznoth (Sunnada), Nimrah (Anemurium). A peculiarity in Canaanite town names, that of alliteration, is to be found in the other transliterations. Thus Madmenah and Sansannah, neighbouring and assonant names, are paral­ lelled by Methymna, Saniseni, Sanisera, Nazianzene, Susonnia. So Hazazon, Hukkok, Gudgodah, Zaanim, Halhul, Elealah, are parallelled by Assissium, Suessula, Sisaraka, Akkatuki, Perperina, Pompelon, Alala. (See also the American names.) It is worth while to regard some of the names, which are common to Palestine and the other regions, and some of Which are familiar enough. �62 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. In Greece we see : Athens. Thebes. Argos. Mycenae. Corinth. Megara. Sparta. Lacedemon. Messene. Elis. Pisa. Sicyon. Phocis. Marathon. Methone. Mantineia. Salamis. Tegea. Platea. Pallene. Cheronaea. FEgina. Chaicis. Eleusis. Messapia. Pharsalus. Leuctra. Cyllene. Dodona. Calydon. Nemea. Tanagra. Ambracia. /Emathia. Ithome. Pharsalus. Pydna. Pelle. Idomene. Rhamnus. Perga. Cyparissa. Abdera. Hermione. Tralles. Ancyra. Ikonium. Priene. Abydos. Lebedus. Colophon. Amasia. Temnos. Methymna. Rithymna. Cnidos. Cyzicus. Gortyna. Comana. Idalaea. Amida. Chimaera. Cebrene. Patara. Mygdala. Azani. Adana. Amathus. Tusculum. Telamo. Caere. Aquileia. Lavinium. Genua. Ariminium. Bergomum. Fidenae. Nomentum. Amiternum. Stabiae. Camerinum. Croton. Misenum. Arretia. Cannae. Regillum. Caudium. Eugube. Reate. Clusium. Marnia. Puteoli. In Asia we find : Sardis. Ephesus. Smyrna. Miletus. Phocea. Mytilene. Rhodes. Tarsos. We recognise in Italy : Rome. Pisa. Sena. Parma. Verona. Syracusa. Capua. Mantua. Mutina. Bononia. Massa. Luna. Gabii. Veii. Tarquinii. Catan a. Mazara. Ancona. Nuceria. Cremona. Assissium. Patavium. Cortona. Sybaris. �63 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. In Spain we may select: Gades. Mentesa. Hispalis. Barcine. Hippo. Carbula. Bsetulo. Salmantika. Carthago. Laminium. Sarteia. Astapa. Tarraga. Toletum. Mago. Myrtilis. Castulo. Basilippo. Gerunda. Nardinium. Equabona. Telobis. Egelasta. Ossonoba. Collippo. Talamina. Turbula. Roboretum. Scalabis. Vergilium. Subur. Araceli. Olcades. Gebala. Salacia. Spartavia. Onoba. Bedunia. Thus the most ancient seats of civilisation, and many great cities of this day, are included in our list. If the Canaanite serves as a test for the other regions, and enables us to ascertain what are radicals and what terminals, and to decide in the essential characteristics, it follows in the concrete that the other transliterations give the like aid for Canaanite. Thus the names of Etruria, Armenia, or Hellas become criteria for Palestine, to decide what is Caucasian and Canaanite, and what is Hebrew. If the names of Etruria or Attica are taken, the Canaanite canon will assist in their decipherment, as they in return throw light on the names of Canaan. The proofs above given are purely philological, but they point to material results. If, for instance, there was at one time a population in Canaan, a population in Kholkis, one in Lydia, another in Bceotia, one in Etruria, and a population in Lusi­ tania, using the same language in the same way for naming their towns, then there must in all these regions have been populations using not only the same language, but the same mythology and the same arts. Their rude stone monuments, their castles, their citadels, their town-walls, gates, foundations, sewers, tombs, arms, utensils, would present points of resem­ blance and comparisons as assured as those to be found in the community of words. Thus the exploration of Palestine under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, if pushed far enough, and deep �64 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. enough, and if adequately supported by contributions, must throw the greatest light on the archaeology of Asia and Europe. The Bible tells us that the Israelites invaded a settled popula­ tion holding walled cities, and, as it is here proved, those cities were built by the same ruling race as that which raised the walled cities of Caria, Attica, and Latium, so will the explora­ tion of Palestine be effectually a classic exploration, as well as sacred, and as much as if conducted in situ in Caria, Arcadia, Apulia, or Hispania Tarraconensis. In the case of Hellenic exploration, we are confused as to what is Cyclopean, Pelasgian, or Hellenic; in Etruria, we hardly know what is indigenous and what is posterior; in megalithic monuments we look for the Druidic, but in Palestine we are free from these sources of confusion. There we shall not be disturbed by Leleges, Pelasgi, Hellenes, Sabini, Iberi, Celtiberi, or Druids. We have one danger, that of distinguishing between what is Phoenician of the Caucasian period, and what is Phoenician of the Semitic period ; but altogether we have less confusing elements. With regard to Spain, it is already evident that the conclu­ sions of Wm. Von Humboldt with regard to the Iberians must be materially modified. The important discovery of that philosopher of the relation between ancient local names in Spain and modern Basque gave us a Turanian population as an element in ancient Europe, but the value of that element was exaggerated by himself and by others, and, among these, by myself in my paper on the Iberians in Asia Minor. It appeared to follow from Von Humboldt’s discovery that all which was not apparently Celtic or presumedly Phoenician or Carthaginian in Spain must be Iberian. One serious conse­ quence of this assumption was that names in Italy, Hellas, etc., resembling those in Spain, were held to be Iberian and evidence of an Iberian population in those countries. It also followed that the ancient civilisation was considered to be Iberian. From the Canaanite test it appears that terms in Spain having Basque affinities are not Iberian in this sense, and many others supposed to be Iberian are not so. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 65 Astura, a name found in Spain and Italy, is one of the strong points of the system of Von Humboldt (see his “ Re­ searches on the Primitive Inhabitants of Spain ”), and yet his derivation of Astura from asta, rock, and ura, water, as signi­ fying “ Rockwater,” is most suspicious. Astura is, however, by all linguistic evidence, the analogue of Ashteroth and Beeshterah in Palestine, and consequently not only of Astura in Latium, of Astura in Mysia, but of a dozen names of allied form scattered over the ancient world. Astura, too, as a river name, is not dependent on the Basque ura, water, but is formed from a radical DRS, as the town names are. Asta, another key of his system, is not formed from asta, a rock, but is a recognisable Caucasian town name. It is Palestine which affords the touchstone in these cases. We may pause as to Astura and Asta in the European peninsulas, but we have no Basque influence to disturb our opinions in Palestine. It follows as a remote consequence, even with regard to the population of Britain, that besides the Iberian element which has been recognised in the Silures and in Western Ireland, there must have been an anterior population of the same alli­ ance as the Canaanite. At the same time there must have been river, and possibly town, names Vasco-Kolarian and Agaw. It is thus the connection of archaeological science, as of physical science, and of all science, extends to the remotest consequences, and the displacement of one atom will imme­ diately and ultimately affect others. Indeed, so far as con­ cerns ourselves, it is within the limits of probability that the present expeditions to Palestine and explorations in the Medi­ terranean lands may throw a light on the megalithic monu­ ments of Britain, and on the gold ornaments of Hibernia. Earlier inscriptions, in characters as yet unrecognised, may yet reward the explorer, and consolidate and harmonise the relics of ancient history. The Accad cities mentioned in the Bible, in Genesis x. io, ii, 12, besides Babel, Accad, and Rehoboth, are: E �66 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. America. Erech, . Calneh, Ninue or Nineveh, Calah, . Resen, . compare „ „ „ „ Arica, Peru. Calanoche (Peru), Oculan. Unanue, Peru. Colacote, „ Charasani, „ Many cities in Palestine are closely represented in America. A circumstance worthy of remark, and which may indicate Sumerian influence in Brazil, if not that the Sumerians had settlements there, is that the Guarani word for town is Taba, that is Tabae, Thebes, etc., of geography, the Daba of the present Georgians. If the Sumerians had at any time a settlement on the great river-mouths, the passage of the Atlantic would be credible, and the knowledge of the At­ lantic Ocean by the geographers of Pergamos and Babylonia accounted for. Under this head of topographical nomenclature, as just stated, a course of investigation is being pursued by the Rev. Professor John Campbell, which can be consulted with great advantage. In the Canadian Journal, and under the titles of the “ Horites,” and of “ The Shepherd Kings of Egypt,” Professor Campbell has adopted as his basis the genealogies of the Books of Genesis, Kings, and Chronicles. With the help of the Egyptian and classic data, he has brought to bear a flood of light upon the Sumerian epoch of civilisation with regard to the genesis and migration of nations, and the mythology of the period. All tends to illustrate the importance of the protohistoric era. Much of his work is necessarily tentative, and although there are few illustrations with regard to America, these memoirs can be profitably consulted by the investigator, in common with those of Lenormant and the Egyptologists. Of course in Bryant, and some of the old mythologists, many of the collateral facts may be found, but treated in a manner incompatible with our present knowledge. As to the ancient extent of the Sumerian region in America, �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 67 it cannot yet be determined, for it must have been wider than at the Spanish Conquest; but with regard to the names here given for the new world and the old, it must be borne in mind that some are Agaw, and extend into Brazil. The con­ sideration of the Brazilian river names gives us a test in relation to those of Europe, and they confirm the opinion I have given of an Agaw influence in Canaan, in Asia, and in Europe, anterior to the Sumerian, and which will have to be taken into account by the craniologist. He has to provide for the Vasco-Kolarian, the Agaw, and the Sumerian migra­ tions. The whole of the phenomena of man in America represent an arrested development of civilisation, cut short as compared with Europe and Asia, not by climate as in Africa, and yet quite sufficient to include the two epochs of great stone monu­ ments, and of palatial works with inscriptions—epochs which embraced the first spiritualised religion, that of the worship of light; a time of thousands of years so remote, that, in the old world, it has now only its scanty votaries among the Parsees of Bombay; time, too, so remote, that the great religions of the globe—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—had, with Buddhism, got time to expand and to cover the eastern hemisphere, while, until the Spanish Conquest, the Americans had, in the flux of centuries, never heard their revelations. Few things so strongly portray the deep, dark gulf of sepa­ ration as this, when associations which had been commonly shared from the beginning of mankind, were snapped in the time of their deepest interest and moment, and it was hazard, rather than the design of man, placed the Indians that perished and the Indians who have survived under the teach­ ing of the missionaries of Spain and Portugal, and which all have not yet known. The evidence of language comes in support of this arrest of development, for there are no languages in America of the later and higher forms. When the early Akkad stopped there, all stopped. This it is which gives the false impression of there being a peculiar and .special American grammar. This �68 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. has been so specially studied and treated, whereas, the languages in America, which cannot be rightly called Ameri­ can languages, are under the same conditions of prehistoric grammar as the eastern languages of the old world. The grammar of Omagua may be as truly called Caucasian as American, and, if we choose, that of Abkhas might be as rightly named American as Caucasian. As there was in the furthest or prehistoric days a stream of emigration continuously from the old world to the new, the question arises whether this set back again, and whether a knowledge of the new world was carried to the old. The first set of population appears to have been over Behr­ ing s Straits, or across the narrow seas, and migrations which could cover the eastern world, even with Akkas and Bushmen, from Lapland to South Africa, would be able to fill America from the snowy pole to Tierra del Fuego, as there is witness enough to show, in blood, in speech, and in folk-lore. It is very questionable whether at any time there was regu­ lar intercourse over the Atlantic, for that would have needed ships ; and a trade once set up, other animals besides dogs, and other plants than those now found, would have followed man. In what we know of the historical period under the Greeks and the Romans a lively knowledge of America was lost. The Greeks could not reach it from the west, and the Romans, when they settled on the shores of the Atlantic, had other cares than to risk the wide, dark sea. A dead knowledge lingered, not only of the geography of the Americas, but of Australasia, which is of no less interest with regard to the latter region, because that exhibits, philologically, evidence of early migrations of the Mincopie or Pygmean in Borneo, of the Sandeh or Niam-Niam of the Nile in Tasmania, and of the Agaw in Galela, and in the other languages recorded by Wallace. There was indeed a system of geography long prevalent among the ancients, and in the dark ages, which is referred to in the Timwus of Plato, and was notably maintained by �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 69 Crates of Pergamos, 160 B.C. (Reinaud, Joicrnal Asiatique, vol. i., new series, 1863, p. 140), and also referred to by Virgil in the AEneid. Four inhabited worlds were treated of, and there appears to have been, in traditions, an imperial title of Monarch of the Four Worlds. This I connect with the state­ ment of Mr George Smith, that Agu, an ancient King of Babylonia, called himself King of the Four Races. Again, with Prescott, who, in the “ Conquest of Peru,” book i., ch. ii., says : “ It is certain that the natives had no other epithet by which to designate the large collection of tribes and nations who were assembled under the empire of the Incas than that of Tavintinsuzu, or Four Quarters of the World.” He quotes Ondegarde, “ Rel. Prim. MSS.,” and Garcilasse, “ Comentarie Real,” ii. 11. This title was perhaps a prerogative of the middle king, or monarch of the middle kingdom of the great civilised empire of the world. The Chinese preserve the tra­ dition of the middle kingdom, the trinary having followed the quaternary system. Thus in Genesis there are three sons of Noah. The Vedas refer to three worlds. The nomenclature of Ptolemy and the other geographers is of the Akkad epoch, and that of the early Biblical books Akkad or Babylonian. The school of Pergamos taught that the world, which must have been treated as a sphere, contained four worlds. Ours was one of these ; and as is true in Asia that it does not cross the line, so it was supposed that Africa does not cross the line, and the Babylonian geographers were well acquainted with Southern Asia but not with Southern Africa. This northern world was balanced by an austral world, and this is so, depicting thereby the Australasian Islands, the scene of Sumerian migrations, and Australia, which was known to them. Australia was, by the Sumerians, as by far later geo­ graphers, supposed to extend from opposite Asia, as a terra incognita of the maps, to opposite Africa. A not less remarkable affirmation was, that the northern world and that of Australia were balanced on the other side of the globe also by a northern world and continent, and �70 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. by a southern world, and this is so in North and South America. It was said, being nigh the truth, that these four worlds were cut off by belts of ocean, one running from north to south, and by another running round the middle of the world from east to west. Such ocean we know shuts off Asia from Australia ; and those ancients might be forgiven who drew a sea over the narrow necks between North and South America, which must then as now have been passed by canoes at por­ tages on the Atrato and on other rivers. These four worlds were alleged to have their men, as we know they had and have ; but to account, amid so much truth, for intercourse not taking place between them in their days, a fable was got up that the seas were made impassable. The philosophers, however, forgot to tell us how the knowledge of these other worlds and the men in them was gained. Gained too, it was, and lost by the cessation of intercourse, after the Sumerians, with the Americas. This was perhaps owing to the rise of a great power in China, which disturbed the road from India, and the seats of kingdom in Southern Asia. How that dream of a true globe and its continents and people reached the Greeks and Romans, and how it suggested to the flatterers of Augustus a title of monarch of those four worlds, is here accounted for. It must be traced beyond Pergamos to those older schools of learning, known to us under such a name as Chaldean, but which had flourished in protohistoric epochs from the dawn of civilisation. There must at one time have been in the olden world men who could bring back this knowledge of the Americas from their Nineveh to its Nineveh and Babel, where the empire of the four worlds got centred, and where one language was spoken and written for the government of the earth. How truly was it then said of Babel, “And the whole earth was of one language and one speech” (Gen. xi. i). The fall of that power was indeed confusion of nations and of tongues. After a time the tradition alone of these other worlds lingered as a theory of cosmography. �71 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Attached to an ancient map of the world accompanying the Commentary of Bicetus on the Apocalypse, and which may date from the eighth century or an earlier period, is a note. This note, inserted in the south of the map, observes that, independently of the three points of the known world, there is beyond the ocean a fourth part, which is unknown to us, on account of the heat of the sun, and on the confines of which, it is fabled, adds the author, that there are antipodes. * The tradition lingered, to be condemned by the Christian Church as a thing that men of learning ought not to learn, but reproduced in our own language by Sir John Mandeville. He insisted that the world was a globe and could be circum­ navigated, and he tells a tale of a man from Norway, who had gone so long by land and sea that he had environed all the earth, that he was come about to his own marches. The intercourse in times of yore between the new world and the old, now again brought to light, rests upon no slight evidence, although the whole of it cannot be included here. It comes in confirmation of the labours of those who have gone before me, and of my own, carried on step by step for some time.f APPENDIX I. The river names, as already stated, are most probably not Sumerian, but possibly Agaw or Vasco-Kolarian. It is, however, useful to examine them, as showing the identity of precedent migrations and languages in the two hemispheres. The following shows the river names of New Granada in com­ parison with India and Italy (Etruria): New Granada. Cane, . Guayabera, Guape, . . . . India, etc. . Cainas, ..... . Chaberis, .... . Kophos,. . . . . Italy, etc. ....... ....... ....... , * Article of my friend Mons. E. Cortambert, quoted in Nature, Jan. ii 1877, P- 235+ See various papers of mine in the Journals of the Ethnological Society, of the Anthropological Institute, of the Palestine Exploration Fund, etc. �72 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. New Granada. Cusiana, . Catarumbo, Cibao, Garigoa, . Cauca, . Ite, Humedea, Lengupa, Ariguani, Meta, Margua, . Nachi, . Nare, Napipi, , Neusa, India, etc. Acesines, Catabeda, Gabellas. Gouraios, Cacathis, Caicus, A. Minor. Utis. Namadas, [Rhogomanus, Persia], Andomatis, [Margus, Margiana], Upia, Paute, Spauto (lake),. Togui, . Tamar, . Tachira, . Tiguanaqui, Tumila, . Onzaga, . Zulia, Suta, Sarare, . Suarez, . Italy, etc. Casuentus. Tokosanna, Tamarus, [Tamyrus, Syria], . . Longinus. Rigonum. Medoakus. Nikia, Nato. Nar, Nure. Anapus. [Enipeus, Macedonia]. Anassos. [Nessos, Macedonia]. [Abus, Britain]. Padus. [Boetis, Spain]. Togisonus. Tamarus. [Tamaros, Britain]. Ticarios. Digentia. Temala, . Sekies. Silis, Silarus. Sadus, . Serus, Sarabis, . Sisigua, . Semindoco, Sumapia, Sichiaca, Sube, Suasius, . Tokosanna, Sinu, Sonus, Sittokakis, Sobanus, Sapara, . Sarius. Siris. ZEsurus. Sossius. Sumathus, Sicily. Sekies. Sabis. [Asopus, Greece]. Sinnus. Asinarus, Sicily. [Sonus, Hibernia]. Other river names are : America. India and East. Caca, Bolivia, Cachy, Peru, . Cacathis, I., Chira, Peru, . Curaray, Peru, Aguan, C. America, Ulua, C. America,. Guapai, Bolivia, Montagua, C. America, West. Kainas, I., . Mira, Ecuador, Marona, Ecuador, . Kophos, I., . Caicus, A. Minor. Caicinus, Italy. Csecina, Italy. Akiris, Italy. Ollius, Italy. Gabellus, Italy. Mitua, Macedonia. Modoacus, Italy. Merula, Italy. Himera, Sicily. �ON THE EPOCH OP' HITTITE, ETC. America. Nasas, Mexico, Nape, Ecuador, West. India and East. Mayo (river name), Peru, Mexico, . . . Mantaro, Peru, . . Mapiri, Bolivia, . . Lempa, C. America, . Lacantum, C. America, . . . . . Mais, I., . Manda, I., . Mophis, I., . Lombare, I., ....... . . . . ....... ....... Pita, Ecuador, . . Catabeda, I., extra, Piti, Mexico, . . . ...... Putu (mayo), Ecuador, . Spauto (lake), . Panuco, Mexico, . . ....... Babo, Ecuador, . . ....... Babispe, Mexico, . . ....... Paso (mayo), Peru, . Hyphasis, India, . Phasis, Colchis, . Yapura, Ecuador, . . ....... Rimae, Peru,. . . ....... Arispe, Mexico, . . Zariaspis, Bactriano, Sirama, C. America, . Serus, India, . Ohosura, Mexico, . . ....... Samala, C. America, . Sabalaessa, India, Sintalapa, C. America, . Sandabalus, India, Usumasinta, Mexico, . ....... Sumbay, Peru, . . Sambus, I., . . Zacatula, Mexico, . . ....... Tepitapa, C. America, . Tabasquillo, Mexico, . Tambo, Peru, . . Tula,. Mexico, . . Dauli, Ecuador, . . Tamoin, Mexico, . . Yavari, Peru,. . . Tea, Peru, . . . Huasa, Peru, . . . 73 Attabas, I., . . Tava, I., . ....... ....... ....... Temala, I., extra, Chaberis, India, . ....... ....... . ....... . Munda,Spain. . ...... . Lambrus, Italy. Alukus, Italy. Helicon, Italy. Anassus, Italy. Anapus, Sicily. Enipeus, Macedonia. . Padus, Italy. Boetis, Spain. . Pitanus, Corsica. [Benacus (lake), Italy N.J. Btebe (lake), Greece. Fevos, Italy. . Pcesus, A. Minor. . ....... Hipparis, Italy. Rubiko, Italy. . ....... . Siris, Italy. ^Esurus, Italy. . ....... . Sontinus, Italy. Ossa, Italy. . ....... Sekies, Italy. Tolenus, Italy. . Tobios, Britain. . Tavis, Italy. Timavus, Italy. Tolenus, Italy. Tilurus, Illyria. . Tamion, Britain. . ....... Axios, Macedonia. ZEsis, Italy. With regard to lake names, they appear to be related to river names: America—Lakes. Old World—(R.) River. Parras, Mexico,...................................... Prasias, Thessaly; Prasiane, India W. Patzcuaro, Mexico, .... Gouraios (R.), India. Chapala, Mexico, .... Copais, Bceotia. Fuquene, Mexico, .... Fucinus, Italy, Sabine. Peten, Central America, . . . Pitanus (R.), Corsica. Amatitan, Central America, . . Andomatis (R.), India. Tamiagua, Mexico, .... Tamion (R.), Britain. Titicaca, Pera,..................................... Caicus (R.), A. Minor; Cacathis (R.), India. Chinchaycocha, Peru, . . . Cainas (R.), India. The identifications of Fuquene and Peten are striking. In the reduction of mountain names very little fortune has ever �74 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. attended me. The cause appears to be that few are Sumerian, that some are Agaw, and that some are most likely older. Old World. America. Cotopaxi, Ecuador, . Cotocha, .... Sangay, Ecuador, Tancitaro, Mexico, Orizava, Mexico, Apanecas, Central America, Assuay, Ecuador, Pulla, Ecuador,. Ambato, Ecuador, Atitlan, Central America, . Alausi, Ecuador, Pasto, Ecuador, Perote, Mexico, Merendon, Central America, Cadlud, Ecuador, Cottia, Alpes. Pactyas. Syngaras, Mesopotamia. Cithaeron, Greece. Oropeda, Spain. Pangaeus, Macedonia. Ossa, Greece. Pelion, Greece. Idubeda, Spain. Bcetios, Drangiana. CEta, Athos, Greece. Ida, Asia Minor, etc. Alesion, Greece; Olgassys, Asia Minor. Phoestus, Greece. Pierius, Greece. Maro, Sicily. Cadmus. Some of these must be identical, but many are doubtful. The town names are, however, those which are of most value for our purposes, as many of these are evidently Sumerian ( marks * resemblance): Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Arica, *Recuay, . Urcum, . >> >> ■ 99 * 99 Arequipa, 99 99 * 99 *Arapa, . 99 * 99 * Yura, Huaura, . *Oruro, . 99 " Astobamba, *Huasta, . >5 Ariare (R.), Central America, Arispe (R.), Central America, Iztapalapan, Mexico, * 99 Yoro, Central America, . * 99 *Trapuata, Mexico, Rabin, Central America, * Ambato (M.), *Acoramba, Illampe (M.), Cosapa, . Casma, Ambalema, New Granada, *Cosuma, Yucatan,.- Old World. *Arakha, Susiana. Arakhosia, Persia. Arikaka, Arakhosia. Araxa, Lycia. *Erech, Accad (Bible). *Rechah (Bible). Aricada, Drangiana. Aragorasa, Armenia. Archabios, Colchis. Arukanda, Lycia. Argos, Greece. *Arubath (Bible). Arabissus, Cappadocia. Arbaka, Arakhosia. Ora, India E. *Oruras, A. Minor. Zariaspes (R.), Bactriana. *Hasta, Liguria. Asta, Liguria, and Lusitania. Ashdod (Bible). Astasanna, Aria. Asthagura, India E. Astakapra, India E. *Corombo (R.), Carmania. Cosamba, India S. *Cosamba, India S. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Cuzmo, . *Chosica,. * Cuzco, Quisco, Congata, . Canchari,. Chancay, . Conongo, . Acafi, Quinoa, . *Cacary, . Caquiaviria, Chiclayo, . *Chepen, . >> • m Mexico and Central America. • 99 * 99 • * *Chipaya,. • 99 Cochilha, New Granada, *Copan, Central America, *Coban, Guatemala, Caparrapi, New Granada, *Chipata, New Granada,. *Kabah, Yucatan, . Chepo, New Granada, . 99 99 • 99 • 99 99 • 99 • *Chapala, Mexico, . *Chapul, Mexico, . Acapulco, Mexico, . A * characha, Caria. Gaggra, Paphlagonia. Gagasmira, India E. . Cocala, India S.1 . * abena, Media. C . * apena, Etruria. C *Cabbon, Palestine. Cepiana, Lusitania. . Caberasa, Media. . Capution, Sicily. *Gibbeath, Palestine. . Cuba, India S. . * apua, Italy. C *Gaba, Palestine. Gabii, Italy. . * apula, Venetia. C . Cubilia, Lycia. Talcanta, . Cundinamarca, New Granada, . Quillo, *Akil, Yucatan, Chollolan, Mexico,. >> 99 . • 99 99 99 Chilca, Quellca, . Colca, 99 • *Chumu, . *Caime, . *Cambe, . Combapata, Chicamo, . *Camana,. *Guamani, *Chalco, Mexico, Chalcicomula, Mexico, *Colosa, New Granada, Chalisco, Mexico, . Comayagua, Honduras, *Cuame, New Granada, Chima, New Granada, *Guaman, Mexico, . Guaymas, 99 99 *Chimeroo, *Catari, . . . . *Cucumba, New Granada, 99 99 . . *Chatura, New Granada, C * uzikos, A. Minor. G * auzaka, Paropamisada. Choastra, Media. Concana, Spain. Iconium, A. Minor. Xoana, India. Gain, Palestine. Aquinium, Italy. . • • 99 . . Concanu, Yucatan, . . Conagua, New Granada,. . Conchagua, Central America, . • 99 Old World. *Cuisco, Mexico, . Chuscal, New Granada, . Cacahuamilpa, Mexico, . Chiquisa, New Granada,. 75 *Cabale, Media. Cabul, Palestine. Conta, India E. Aricanda, A. Minor. A * quileia, Italy. Kaloe, Lydia. Keilah, Palestine. Agylla, Etruria. Akela, Media. *Chalcis, Boeotia. Gilgal, Palestine. *Colossai, Phrygia. Akalissos, Pontus. *Cume, Mysia. *Cumae, Italy. Choma, Pisidia. *Cambe, Gedrosia. *Cocambo, Gedrosia. *Comania, Caria. *Comana, Pontus, and Capp. Cominium, Samnium. Chemosh (Bible). Gimza (Bible). Camisa, Cappadocia. *Kimara, India E. *Cytorus, Armenia. �76 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Catari, . . * adereita, Mexico, C . . ,, . . Catarumbo (R.), New Granada, ,, . . ....... Quito, . . * uaita, New Granada, . C . *Coati, . . Oicata, New Granada, . . ,, . . ....... *Chatuna,. . ....... *Costaparaca, . ....... Costabamba, . ....... Curaray, (R.), . * arere (R.), New Granada, . C *Ocaruro,. . ....... ,, . . Charala, New Granada, . . *Charasani, . ....... Charcani,. . Chiriguana, New Granada, . *Chuana, . . Chanaco, Mexico, . . . ,, . . Canipauna, New Granada, . ,, . . Cunacua, New Granada,. . ,, . . ....... *Caracona, . ....... ,, . ....... Ocona, . . Ocansip, Yucatan, . . . *Ascona, . . ....... ,, . . ....... *Acora, . . ....... *Acari, . . ....... Acoramba, . ....... Corocuero, . ....... * Ancon, . . ....... Hancane, . ...... *Colan, . . Calan, Yucatan, . . . ,, . . ....... Calanacoche, . ....... *Calasnique, . ....... ,, . * culan, Mexico, . O . . ,, . ....... Cailloma,. . Caluma, Ecuador, . . . Calupe, . . Jalapa, Mexico and C. Amer., Challapa, . Jutigalpac, America, Ocharan, . . ....... ,, . . * arupa, New Granada, G . Caropango, . * abna, Yucatan, . L ' . Llapo, .. * abhakhabpha, Yucatan, L . ,, . . ....... Lambayeque, . Lampa, Salvador, . . . Illampo (M.), . Liborina, New Granada, . ,, . ....... Larecaja, . . ....... Mantaro, . . Huamantla, Mexico, . . *Manani, . . Mani, Yucatan, . . . Mani, . . ....... Mirinavis, . Merindon, Honduras, . . Marona, . . ....... Machurana, . Macaranita, New Granada, . ,, . Mogorontoque, New Granada, ,, . ....... *Macari, . . ....... ,, . . Mozca, Mexico, . . . Old World. ‘"Coddura, India S. Cottiara, India S. Cotuora, Pontus. Kattah, Palestine. C * uta, Colchis. C * audium, Sabine. C * atana, Sicily. C * otobara, India S. C * ottobara, Gedrosia. C * areura, Caria, and India. ....... Curula, India S. C * aresena, Mysia. Corcobana, Ceylon. Kanah, Palestine. Kana, Mysia. Keene, Cappadocia. C * anagara, India S. A * ganagara, India extra. Khoana, Parthia. Aganagara, India extra. O * skana, Gedrosia. A * ssecona, Spain. A * carra, Susiana. A * chor, Palestine. C * ora, Lalutus. Agiria, Spain. * Ancona, Italy. ....... Calneh, Accad (Bible). G * elan, Palestine. Calindoca, India S. Calinaxa, India S. Okelum, Lusitania. Akelanum, Sabine. Gallim, Palestine. Calpe (M). Haran (Bible). Acharna, Attica. G * ariphus, India. L * abbana, Mesopotamia. L * abaca, India S. Alambatesa, Comaria. Lampsacus, A. Minor. Lombare, India. Lariaga, India E. Mendola, India S. M * animna, India E. Amana, Media. Morunda, Media. ....... Magaris, India S. Mogarus, Pontus. Makrasa, Lycia. M * egara, Gr., Sicily. Maxere, Hyrcania. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Macari, . . ,, . . *Malla, . . ,, . . Amiloe, . . Mantaro, . . *Marcara, . *Marcomarcani, ,, ,, ,, ,, *Masin, . . ,, . . *Mapiri (R.), . *Napo, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Nasca, . . Nanasca, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Unanue, . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . (Pucara, Castle), *Pucara, . . *Pucala, . . ,, . . Azangari, . ,, . . Patapa, . . Patavilca, . Pataz, . . *Paita, . . Ayapata, . . *Pita, . . Putu, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Putina, . . ,, . . ,, . . Piura, . . Yapura, . . ,, . . *Pitura, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Paria, . . ,, . . Mescala, Mexico, . . . M * ogote, New Granada, . ....... ....... ....... ' ....... ....... Cundinamarca, . . . ....... M * argua (R.), New Granada, . M * asaya, Yucatan, . . ....... ....... ....... ....... N * eyba, New Granada, . . ....... ....... ....... N * unkini, Yucatan, . . Nicaragua, C. America, . . ....... Nimaima, New Granada, . Nare, ,, . ....... ....... ....... Oiba, New Granada, . . Upia, ,, .' ....... B * ucaramanga, New Granada, ....... ....... ....... ....... [Patawi, Siam], . . . ....... ....... Pauta, New Granada, . . P * itu, Mexico, . . . Peto, Yucatan, . . . U * bate, New Granada, . . ....... ....... P * eten, Yucatan, . . . Potonchan, Yucatan, . . ....... Perote, Mexico, . . . ....... ....... P * aturia, New Granada, . . Necopetara, Mexico, . . ....... Z * upetara, C. America, . . Sopetran, New Granada, . P * ara, ,, . . Paracheque, ,, . . Old World. ....... Maguda, Mesopotamia. M * ala, Pontus. Millo, Palestine. Amilos, Arcadia. Manda, India. M * argara, India E. M * argana, Ceylon. Maricada, Bactriana. M * argus (R.), Margiane. M * assah, Palestine. A * masia, Pontus. M * essana, Sicily. Messene, Greece. M * apura (R.), India. N * ebo (Bible). Nebah (Bible). N * epea, Phrygia. N * asica, India S. N * anaguna, India S. Nuceria (?), Italy. Anaguros, Greece. Nommana, Carmania. Nar, Italy. Anara, India S. N * inue, Nineveh. (Accad) Bible. Ophia, Sabine. Aphia, Phrygia. [cara, castle, Akkad]. B * egorra, Macedonia. P * ygela, Ionia. Pegella, Lycaonia. Agara, Susiana. ,, India S. Patavium, Bithynia. ,, Italy. ....... B * ata, India S. Beda, Mesopotamia. P * ida, Pontus. E * boda, Palestine. Pitueia, Mysia. Phauda, Pontus. P * itane, Mysia. P * adua, Palestine. Bitoana, Caria. Pieria, Greece. ,, Syria. Phiarasa, Pontus. P * atara, Lycia. Badara, Carnithia. Sobatra, Lycaonia. O * petura, India. ....... P * arium. Pyrrha, Caria. 77 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 78 Ibarra, Ecuador, *Parac, Cotaparaco, Pariache, . Pariacote, Paruchay, Puno, *Punyon, Panos, Pando, *Papai, . Babo, *Pusi, Puzuzi, *Pasa (mayo) Pisagua, . (Pirca, Quichua wall, enclo sure), . . Birei, Palestine. Podoperura, India extra. Parras, Mexico, *Barichara, New Granada Parachoque, ,, . . . Parisara, India extra. B * arakura, India extra. B * erachah, Palestine. Pharugia, Doris. Verrugo, Latium. Barkine, Spain. *Punon, Palestine. Panion, Thessaly. *Paipa, New Granada, . 99 99 *Pomalca, *Paime, New Granada, . Pichigua, . Puquien, . Pacas (mayo), Palalayuca, n Bogota, „ Pachuco, Mexico, . 99 *Pasco, *Posco, *Pisco, Piscahacha, Pacsi, *Pista, Arambolu, Bolonchan, Yucatan, Tobasco, Yucatan, . *Piste, Yucatan, *Arama, New Granada, . 99 ?9 *Racanya, Tacaraca, 99 * 99 * 99 * 99 • 99 * 99 * 99 ’ 99 * Aposungo, Sangay, . *Charasani, 99 Old World. Mexico and Central America. Peru. *Paria, Parara, Pararin, . • Antisana,» *Ariguani, New Granada, Raquira, New Granada, . Sinu, ,, Sanalarga, New Granada, *Sinoloa, Mexico, Sonora, ,, Okosingo, Yucatan, Texancingo, Mexico, Pandassa, India extra. *Papha, Pisidia. *Paphos, Cyprus. *Pisse (3). *Paseah, Palestine. *Ephesus, A. Minor. *Phoizoi, Arcadia. Pergamos. Perga, Pamphylia. Pyrgse, Etruria. *Bamala, India S. *Apamea, Parthia. Phecis, Greece. Phokaia, Lydia. Pauka, Italy.. Palalke, Pontus. Bolon, Spain. Pelon, Palestine. *Boskath, Palestine. Bezek, Palestine. *Phuska, Macedonia. *Physkus, Caria. Paxos (I.). *Poestum, Italy. *Aruma (Bible). *Aroma, Caria. Ariminium, Italy. *Rakkon (Bible). *Oricana, Media. Arucanda, Lycia. Aragorasa, Armenia. Sena, Etruria, and Umbria. Zaananim (Bible). Sannala, India E. Posinara, India E. Asinarus, Sicily. Sangada, India E. Sangala, India E. Alosanga, India extra. Caresena, Mysia. Astasanna, Aria. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Sanagoran, *Sonsonate, S. Salvador, *Tzintzontzon, Mexico, . 99 99 99 *Sonson, New Granada, . Site, „ Suta, ,, *Susa, ,, 99 99 99 99 99 Susagua, New Granada, . 99 99 99 *Susacon, New Granada, 99 Soroche, . Surco, 99 • 99 • Sorata, 99 99 • *Sikuani, 99 Surata, New Granada, *Sarare, ,, *Sura, ,, • 99 • M * *Succha, . Sachaca, . Sacayacu,. Sikasika, . >> • Sachica, New Granada, Soacha ,, Sacota, ,, Seganioso, ,, Fusugasuga, ,, Zaccacal, Yucatan, Sogon, Sechura, . • 99 * Sullillica,. 99 • 99 • 99 *Salli, Yucatan, *Zelaya, Mexico, Zulia, New Granada, *SaIamo, Guatemala, Salmaguela, New Granada, • Suyana, . 99 *Senote, Yucatan, . • • 99 99 • 99 • 99 Zerna, New Granada, *Zema, ,, Zimapan, Mexico, . • Sam an, *Sumbay (R.), *Supe, Monsifu, . 99 Semindoco, New Granada, *Samala, C. America, *Saboya, New Granada, *Sube, Suba, ,, • 99 M * *Zepita, . Zapatoca, >> >> • Yzabal, C. America, *Zupetara, New Granada, Sopetran, ,, Old World. *Suanagora, India extra. "'Sansannah (Bible). *Susonnia, Venetia. *Nazianzene, Cappadocia. *Saniseni, Paphlagonia. Side, Pamphyl., Laconia. Sidas, Greece. *Suzah, Palestine. Susa, Susiana. Suissa, Cappadocia. Suessa (R.), Italy. Suassus, India. *Susicana, India E. Syracuse, Sicily. Saraka, Media. Sariga, Armenia. Saruge, A. Minor. Sarid, Palestine. *Sararra, Mesopotamia. *Saura, Susiana. Saganus, Carmania. *Saguana, Armenia. *Sakoena, Belicia. *Sikuon, Greece. *Saca, Arcadia. Adisaga, Media. Sakasena, Cappadocia. Zazaka, Media. Secacah, Palestine. Sikinos (I.). Shicron (Bible). *Sala, Armenia. *Sela, Palestine. *Solia, Spain. *Salamis (?). *Zalmoneh, Palestine. Salmantike. Aznoth, Palestine. *Sunnada, Phrygia. Sarnuka, Mesopotamia. *Shema (Bible). Ezem (Bible). *Zama, Capp., and Mesopo. Semina, Parthia. *Simyla, India S. *Sambus (R.), India. Sabius, Cappadocia. Zaba, India extra. *Zobia, Pisidia. Shebah (Bible). Sapolus, India extra. *Zephath, Palestine. Sibecla, Lycia. *Sabatra, Lycaonia. 79 �80 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Atacama, Tucuma, . *Tauca, . Old World. *Attacum, Spain. Tocaima, New Granada, *Togui, *Tugea, Spain. *Tukki, Spain. Athacli (Bible). *Techoa, Palestine. Tegea, Greece. *Thagora, India extra. *Tagara, India S. Taxila, India E. Attagus, Boeotia. Tarrago, Spain. *Telem (Bible). *Telamo. *Telamina, Spain, *Teleboas, A. Minor. Tholobona, India S. >> 99 99 99 99 Tacaraca, Tuquilipon, 99 *Tekoh, Yucatan, . Tacubaya, Mexico,. *Tachira, New Granada, Tacaloa, ,, Tekit, Tarapaca, *Tolima, New Granada, *Toloman, Guatemala, Tuloom, Yucatan, . 99 99 *Thalambo, Tulapan, Tolla, Mexica, Tolo, New Granada, Tula, Mexico, Tollan, Mexico, Deien, New Granada, 99 Dauli, 99 99 99 99 . Dolion, Bceotia. Dolionis, Mysia. Tullonium, Spain. Dilean, Palestine. Atarmes, Bactriana. Tarbakana, Paropanisada. *Taba, Phrygia, Caria. Thebae, Boeotia, Thessaly. Tebbath, Palestine. Tepuah, Palestine. Thebez, Palestine. *Tabiene, A. Minor. *Thebura, Assyria. . *Tobata, Paphlagonia. 99 99 Tar ma, 99 99 99 • Tabatingo, Tapacoche, 99 *Tipuani, . 99 99 • 99 • 99 9 99 • Tuman, . 99 *Tabi, Yucatan, Teabo, ,, . Tabeo, New Granada, Tabachula, Guatemala, Tabasquillo, Mexico, Tepan, Mexico, *Tibaria, New Granada, Tubar, Mexico, *Tapata, New Granada, Topia, Mexico, Tobasco, Yucatan, . Tamoin, Mexico, . . . • Tumbo, . Tambo, . 5> • 99 • 99 * 99 • 99 • 99 99 * 99 * 99 * 99 • 99 • *Tampico, Mexico, Temisco, • *Tamasinchali, Mexico, . *Tamalameque, New Granada, Tumila, ,, *Tamar, ,, Tanquichi, Mexico, Tenochtitlan, ,, . . *Tena, New Granada, Tizimin, Yucatan, . Tizafpan], Mexico, . Tausa, New Granada, Tuzfpan], . . . . Thapsacus, Syria. Dimonah (Bible). Temani (Bible). Tumnos, Caria. *Tamassis, India E. *Temala, India extra. *Tamarus, India. Taanach (Bible). *Toana, India extra. Tisia, Italy. Tisa, Carmania. Tiausa, India. Dosa, Assyria. �81 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. APPENDIX II. Table of Sumerian Words. The following is a brief list of words divided into three-regions, the American including two columns, and while in some cases a root may be traced throughout, it will be seen that more commonly the western and American roots or types cross in the Indo-Chinese region. This table may be much extended. Ak., Akkad. Cam.,Cambodian.Aym., Aymara. Mex., Aztek. Cir., Circassian. Mon, Peguan. Qui., Quichua. Oth., Othomi. Geo., Georgian. Bur., Burmese. Tara., TarahumAnn., Annam. ara. Huas., Huasteca. Poe., Poconchi. Western. Man, . Woman, etc. . Head, Hair, Face, Eye, Ear, Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. karu, Mon, kkari, Aym, Q., lu, Bur. [mairima, Bur., woman]. tie, Cir., . ....... gun, un, Ak., . hplun, Mon, runa, Qui., . khon, Siam., ....... kon, Shan, ...... ku, Ak., . paka, Mon, chacha, Aym., . nguoi, Ann., kosa, Qui., . . karra, Ak., mulu, Ak., kmari, Geo., sak, Ak., . . shooz, Cir., rak(a), Ak., mak, Ak., [su, man, Bur.], [kosa, Q., man], ....... rakka, Qui. . meingma, Bur., marmi, Aym., . mairima, Bur. , dam, Ak., phdey, Cam., . ....... ....... . ku, Ak., . kbal, Cam., ppekei, Aym. . su, Ak., . katau, Mon. shha, Cir., ko, Karen, ....... kamon, Ann., . uma, Qui., . alu, Kumi, ....... . . sik, Ak., . sac, Cam., suncca, Aym., . shhatsey, Cir., . swet, Ann., socco, Qui., . asham, Kumi. . . . ka, Ak., . akanu, Aym., . piri, Geo., ncca, Qui. . . . limta, Ak., ta, Ann., . [mata, forehead, twali, Geo., panek, Cam., . ....... [Q-J nee, Cir., . mitthah, Ann., . naira, Aym., . si, Ak., nagui, Qui., . . . pi, Ak., . pik, Ahom. tai, Ak., . khato, Mon, ...... F Mexican, etc. [ucari, Cora], tlacatl, uas. uinic, Mex. ninic, Maya. [akun, Poc.; boy]. nxihi, Oth. oquich, Mex. nsu, Othomi. soua, Mexico. ....... muki, Tara. [dame, Oth.] [tomol, Huas.] ....... ayxaca,Totonaca. hool, Mex. moola, Tara. xta, si, Oth. tzotz, Mex. axaya, Mex., .... [Maya. tahnaluich. ghual, Maya. nich, Mex. pusiki, Tara. gu, Othomi. �82 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. . Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. Mexican, etc. . quri, Geo., takumah, Cir., . Mouth, . ka, gu, Ak., dzheh, shey, Cir. Tooth, dzeh, Cir., Forehead, tik, Ak., . thkhemi, Geo. Tongue, . eme, Ak., ena, Geo., nakhu, Karen, . rincri, Qui., nacaz, Mex. tai, Ann.,. hinchu, Aym., . nechkala, Tara. amaka, Kami, . lakka, Aym., . kama, Huas. kha, Mon, simi, Qui., chi, Mex., Poc. zhua, Mon, kchaka, Aym., . tzi, Oth. mati, Qui. Heart, zeit, Bur., lao, Ann., chai, Siam. Ear, Blood, sa, Ak., . libis, Ak., guli, Geo., ghey, Cir. . us, Ak., . sishkhli, Geo., Hand, Foot, . . Horn, Skin, . . Sun, . Moon, Star, . . Day, . . Fire, . . Water, River, , soncco, Qui. chuimo, Aym. . qhane, Oth. tenilla, Tara. zimagat, Toto. htseihn, Mon, . swe, Bur., qui, Oth. estli, Huas. xihtz, Maya. sugab, Ak., su, Karen, maqui, Qui., cab, Mex. kheli, Geo., ka, Kumi, Ahom tachlli, Aym., . cubac, Maya. ta, oyg, Cir., . mo, Ann., maco, Totonaca. arik(i), Ak., kaw, Karen, kayu, Aym., gua, Oth. pekhi, perhi, G., shon, Siam., chaqui, Qui., . acan, Maya. tlake, Cir., akho, Kami, tala. Tara. shi, Ak., . sung, Ann., huakra, Aym., Q. ....... rka, Geo., khyo, Bur. shu, Ak., . sare, axa, Bur., ccara, Qui. kani, Geo., lepitchi, Aym. . shooway, Cir. . zal(a), Ak., inti, Aym., Qui. , hindi, Oth. [usil, Etrus.J, . tonatuih, Mex. mze, Geo., lupi, Aym. pushur, par, Ak. punchau, Qui. . •..... teigha, Cir., taika, Tara. dgeh, Cir., quih, Poc. aquicha, Huas. lid, Ak., . la, Bur., lah,Kar. ,quilla, Qui., citlali, Mex. [lala, Etr.J, hpyalit, Siam. . es, Ak., . paksi, Aym., maitsaka, Tara. maathe, Cir. ooshaghe, Cir., tsah, Karen, sillo, Aym., tze, Oth. citlali, Mex. dghe, Geo., thngay, Cam., . aquicha, Huas. [ur, Ak., light], ngay, Ann., uru, Aym., quih, Poc. tam, Ak., tangway, Mon, . [tonatuih, Mex., ne, Ak., . [ne,na,Bur..sun. ,nina, Qui., Aym. ....... [sun]. kum, Ak., kamo, Cam., naiki, Tara. [nefney, Cir., light]. . a, Ak., ya, Bur., . yaku, Q., Aym. ahti, Cora. o, Salt., . a, Mex.; ye, Tar. aan, Ak. [rain], nan, Siam., unu, Qui., ha, Maya. aria, Ak., [re, Bur., water], hahuiri, Aym. . mdinare, Geo.,. mrach, Bur. ada, Ak., . tak, Cam., atoya, Mex., Cor. ra, Ak., flow. . Sky, Hea­ ven, siku, sikaru, Ak., kor, Cam., kaan, Maya. �83 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. Indo-Chinese, Sky,H’ven.an, Ak., . tza, Geo., Mountain, kur, kar(a), Ak., Hill, . . taghez, Cir., . mtha, Geo., . Stone, Rock, Tree, . Leaf, , . taq(a), Ak., . kwa, Geo., . gu, iz, Ak., khe, Geo., . . . . potholi, Geo., . kani, Kumi, taka, Mon, khalon, Mon, . tu, Mon, . takun, Kami. patouk, Shan. . tamo, Cam., kamou, Mon, kai, Ann., kanoung, Mon, akun, Kami, slak, Cam., thela, lah, Karen, la, Ann. . sre, Cam. Peruvian. Mexican, etc. andvui, Mixteca. taxah, Poc. kkollo, Aym. pata, Qui., tepe, Mex. kak, Aym., Qui., te, Mex. ....... tete, Cora. khoka, Aym. quenua, Aym. kan, Maya. llakka, Aym. lappi, Aym. Field, . . sa, Ak., . . Garden, . gan(a), Ak., cancha, Qui., zaca, Mex. kana, Geo. House,etc.,uru, Ak., . reuan, Siam. ziku, Ak., ngu, Oth. duk(u), Ak., phoun, Cam., uta, ata, Aym., ata, Huas, sakhli, Geo., ban, Siam, puncu, Aym., Q., otoch, Maya. Name, mu, dara, Ak. 9 yamu, Mon, suti, Aym., Qui., sana, Mixteca. tsah, Cir., maing, Karen, amin, Bur. chu, Siam. . lu, Ak., . Sheep, llama, Qui. tzkwari, Geo., . ccaura, Aym. heene, Circ. Jamb, una, Ay., (lamb), Goat, . . gizdin, Ak., . mea, Cam., paca, Aym. thkhavi, Geo., . khapa, Mon. Bull, khar, la, Ak., . karau, Mon. Cow, hari, Geo., . khaboi, Kami. . dapara, Ak., . paren, Mon, bufpuri, Geo. . ....... [falo. Dog, . liku, Ak., . kala, Mon, anokara, Aym., cocochi, Tara. dzaghli, Geo., . khwe, Bur., calatu, Qui. khah, Cir. lion, . likmakh, Ak., . kala, Mon, ocelo, Mex. lomi, Geo., . kya, Bur., puma, Ak., Qui. ....... j,dara, Ak., Wild sheep, . afckhoei, Cam., taruca, Aym., Q. ....... Bird, . . khu, Ak., ....... quauh, Mex. khathami, Geo., khaton, Mon. kattey, Cir., . kava. Snake, . ti, sir, Ak., . tharun, n marun, Mon, katari, Aym. Fish, . . kha, khan, Ak., . ka, nuu., z l, Ann. kanu, Aym., . cay, Poc. bat(a), Ak., . para, Siam. Good,. . khiga, Ak., . chia, Cam., asque, Aym. kargi, Geo., . kha, Mon, qualli, Mex. gala, Tara, gha, Karen, khuta, Tara. Bitter, . hur(i), Ak., . khah, Karen, B., haru, Aym. Sour, . . mekave, Geo. i . khom, Siam. Black, . kug(i), Ak., . khuaun, Cam., akahha, Maya. mi, Ak., . mai, Bur., chamaka, Aym. Red, . . gusci, Ak., ' gau, Karen, pako, Aym., Q., cuz, Mqx. . hpakit, Mon, kokoz, Mex. Great, . enim, nun, Ak., thanot, Mon, hatun, Qui., . noh, Maya. �84 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. Great, Give, . Run, . . malch, Ak., anta, Ak., atto, Cir. . . she, Ak., . ■ ga? Ak., . mu, Ak., . . riati, Ak., Flow, . Go, . Speak, . rli, Georg., . ,. ka, Ak., . ja, Geo., . Eat, Drink, Die, . Kill, . . kaka, Ak., laparako, Geo., . ka, Ak., . nak, Ak., sua, Geo., . khan, khut, Ak. ,. be, ba, bat, Ak. sikua, Geo., . kud, khas, Ak., . re, Geo., . . tuq(a), Ak., Cut, . Break, Cry, . Weep, Place, Put, . . Rise, . . Raise, Many, All, . . ka, khash, Ak., ko, thsqo, Geo., ri, Ak., aka, Ak., . mes, Ak., ka, Ak., . koweli, Geo., . No, not, . nu, Ak., . Negative, nu, Geo., Peruvian. Indo-Chinese. miat, Bur., tau, Karen, . . ....... ....... Mexican, etc. nim, Poc. na, ndi, Oth. sho, Ann., . chu, Aym., . caa, Maya. ka, Mon, . . ku, Qui., . . kia, Tara. pekya, Bur., . ...... maka, Mex. garitaa [aara], huayra, Qui. . ....... Mon, pre, Bur., . [puri, Qui.] . ....... aara, Mon, . [humi,Aym.,Q.] huma, Tara, nikay, Cam., . ....... ynqui, Poc. hankai, Mon, . arusi, Aym. . ....... chho, Bur., . rima, Q. . . ....... hanmarai, Mon. ....... chhan, Cam., . mancana, Aym. .......[Tara, cha, Bur., . ....... qua, Cora, Mex., au, Ann., . , ....... hanal, Maya, kenn, Siam., . ....... hindi, Mixteca. thou, Mon, . ....... chia, Mex. sok, Bur. . . ....... mathi, Karen,. amaya, Aym., . muechit, Cora, kha, Siam., . ....... miquiz, Mex. ....... ....... mukiki, Tara. ....... cuta, Aym. . ....... rei, Cam., . rutu, Qui. . toui, Cam., . huaca. . . ....... khok, Ann. . ....... chura, Qui. cancha, Qui. mhrang, Bur., . hatari, Qui. heka, Karen, . hucaro, Qui. husamia, Bur., miec, Mex. ahmah, Karen, . [naka, Aym.] [kuna, Qui.] pnoom, Cam., . hani, Aym. ma, Bur., etc., . ma, Aym., Qui mao, Maya, na, Kumi, ma, Poc. The pronouns are of such varied type and distribution that only a few selections are offered. Western. I, me, Thou, He, , Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. . mu, idbi, Ak., . awai, Mon, . ....... mi. Geo. . . ..... nyo, Angka, . na, Aym., ...................nga, Bur., . noca, Qui., ----kha, Siam., etc. ....... . zu, Ak., . . tua, Siam., . -ta, Aym., shen, Geo., . tha, Karen, . ....... mun, men, Ak., ....... ....... weyroo, Cir., . bai, Mon, . ....... ....... ba, Angka, . ....... . .. ........ nah, Karen, . nqui, Qui., . ni, bi, Ak., . no, Ann., . hupa, Aym., [ni, bi, plur. Ge.],wa, . . . pay, Qui., igi, misi, Geo., ni, Khyeng, . ni, Aym. . Mexican, etc. ma, Oth. . nuga, Oth. . ne, Mex. ....... . tata, Huas. mi, Totonaca. timo, Mex. pe, Cora. pu, Tara. . nugui, Oth. . nunu, Oth. . bi, Oth. . ...... �85 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. He, We, . . ....... . . me, Ak., . Plurals, Indo-Chinese. pho, Angka, . ....... ....... . -aen, Siam., . -niht, Shan., . -nene, Ak., -no, Ak., . -ni, Geo. -bi, Geo., -th, Geo., . id, Ak., zee, Cir., . erthi, Geo., . . . . . . bi, Ak., . kas, Ak., . oh, Cir., . ori, Geo., . essa, Ak., sami, Geo., shee, Cir., . . . . . . . I, . . 2, . . 3, . . 4, . . . sana, Ak., . 5, . . 6, . . . sha, Ak., . para, Ak., tpey, Cir., . as, Ak., . shoo, Cir., ekusi, Geo. . . • . . Mexican, etc. Peruvian. . n, Qui. . ....... ....... . kuna, Qui., . naka, Aym. ....... ma, Oth. tame, Tara. . nana, Huas. . ....... . tau, Mon, . pay, Aym. . ....... dah, Karen, . ....... te, Cora. moe, Camb., . mai, Aym. . ....... mway, Mon, . hue, sue, Qui., . ce, Mex. mot., Ann., . ....... tam, Totonaca. tach, Bur. . ....... ....... ter, Karen. . ....... ....... bar, Cam., . pa,Aym., . poa, Cora. pa, Mon, . . yscay, Qui., . ome, Mex. ki, Karen, . ......... yoho, Oth. kai, Angka, . ......... os, Tara. sung, thou, Bur., kimsa, Aym.,Q., osh, Huas. sam, Siam., . ......... osh, Maya. htsan, Shan. . ....... ....... pah, Cam., . ....... ba, Tara. pe, Mon. . . ....... si, Siam., . . pusi, Aym. . ___ htse, Shan. . ....... tse, Angka. . ....... ....... pon, Mon. . ....... ....... buan, Cam., . ....... ha, Siam., Shan., ppiska, Aym., Q. ....... patson, Mon. . ....... Pangglla> Kami. ....... ....... sau, Ann., . socta, Aym., Q. ....... sauk, Khyeng. . ....... Professor John Campbell has found Celtic affinities for many of these Peruvian examples, and that for a good reason—that Aryan words of culture descend from the same prehistoric stock, and, in some cases, through Sumerian channels. NOTE ON DR DEECKE. Dr Deecke has just published “Der Ursprung der Kyprischen Sylbenschrift ” (Trubner, 1877), and an article in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen. Ges., vol. xxxi., part i., p. 162 (Trubner, 1877)—another article on the origin of the old Semitic alphabet. Both the latter and the Cypriote he traces to forms of the New Assyrian cuneiform. Dr Brandis �86 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. in 1873 had already shown the identity of pa in Cypriote and cuneiform. Many of these identifications are clear. With re­ gard to others, I am inclined to assign values different from those attributed by him. It will be seen that this is a capital discovery, as it gets rid of the difficulties consequent on the commonly accepted derivation of the Phoenician alphabet, and brings us nearer to unity in the development of syllabaries and alphabets, ultimately to bring us to that common relation of cuneiform, hieroglyphic, and Chinese, advocated by me, p. 33. The date of the introduction of the selected Assyrian syl­ labary into Cyprus, Dr Deecke considers cannot be earlier than 1330 B.C., and must be placed much later, perhaps as late as the names of Cyprian kings recorded in cuneiform, say 700 B.C., and in use down to a later date. The bearing of Dr Deecke’s discoveries on Hamath or Khita is likely to be immediate. I have long since pointed out (p. 6) the relations between Khita and Cypriote, and have advocated researches for the derivation of Khita from hieratic, which I think I have supported in the A characters. With regard to some of the hieratic characters, I regard them as showing a relation between the numerals and number of strokes, as in bi, pa, sa. NOTE ON M. OPPERT. M. Oppert writes me, in consequence of its being alleged that he had denied the existence of Turanian cuneiform, that he regards the Sumerian character as Turanian, and Akkad as Semitic, and distinguishes in epoch between them. NOTE ON THE CIRCASSIANS. The Circassians, Abkhas, etc., are now at war with Russia, asserting their time-honoured spirit of warlike independence. �INDEX. Abel, Dr Carl, 38. Abkhas, 68, 86—j Agaw. Abydos inscription, 10. Accad, Accadian—j Akkad. Achaian, 38—j. Agaw. Agaw, 26, 27, 32, 34, 37, 38, 65-67, 74—j. Guarani, Omagua. Akka, 68. Akkad, 16, 18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 65, 69, 81. Albanian, 10, II, 14. Aleppo, 4. Alliteration, 61. Alphabet or syllabary, 8, 9, 15, 36, 86—j Albanian, Cypriote, Chinese, Cuneiform, Hebrew, Himyaritic, Libyan, Lycian, Yucatan. America S., Brazil, Guarani, Mexico, Peru, intercourse with, 18, 29, 32, 66, 68 ; traditions of, 68 ; river names, 71; town names, 74; languages, 81— j. River, etc. Armenia, 19, 39, 63. Aryan, 18, 26, 27. Assyrian, 2, 16—J. Cuneiform. Asta, 65. Astura, 65. Australia, 68, 69. Aymara, 21, 26, 27, 30, 37, 81, 85. Aztek, 21, 22, 27, 30, 31, 81, 85—j Mexico. Babylonia, 18, 65—j Akkad, Assyria. Basque, 64, 65—j Vasco-Kolarian. Berber, 10-12. Birch, Dr, v, 12, 20. Black, 17. Brazil, 67—j. Guarani. Britain, vi, 34, 65, 73. Bronze, 34. Bull, 36 Bunsen, Ernest de, 18, 36. Burial towers, 34. Burton, Capt. R. F., 4-6. Bushmen, 68. Calendar, 35. Campbell, Rev. Prof.J., 17, 30,38,66,85. Cambodian, 21, 23, 27, 28, 35, 81, 85. Canaan, 1, 37. Canaanite, vi, 17, 20-22—j. Khita. Carchemish, 2, 20, 23. Caria, 17, 22, 35. Caucasian, 32,68—j. Circassian, Abkhas, Georgian. Celtiberian, 11. . . . . . . Celtic, 30, 85. Chaldea, 17—J. Babylonia. Character—s. Alphabet, Symbol. Chinese, 17, 32, 33. Cimbri, 38. Circassian, 21, 23, 27, 32, 81, 85, 86. Clarke, Hyde, vi, 6,19, 20, 22,28, 29,32. Cohenim, blessing of, 8. Colchis, 1, 63. Colossal heads, 33. Cora, 31, 81. Cross, 17, 36, 37—j Tau. Cross alphabet, 15, 17. Cuneiform, 16, 33, 86. Cush, 1, 31. Cypriote, v, 6, 9, 14, 39, 86. Deecke, Dr, v, vi, 85, 86. Dravidian, 26. Easter Island, 33. Egg, 17. Egypt, 17, .26, 66. Ephesus, vi, 19, 20. Etruscan, 11, 14, 20-22, 27, 29, 35, 39, 63, 82. Etruscan tables, 21. Eve, 25, 26. Eye, 17. Five, 36—j Hand. Foot, 17. Four worlds, 69. Forbes, David, 30, 35. Georgian, I, 19-24, 27, 29, 66, 81, 85. God, names of, 16, 26. Greece, 39, 62, 72. Greek, 26, 57. Guarani, 22, 25, 32, 37—s. Agaw. Halliburton, R. G., 36. Ham, 1, 2. Hamath, 2, 3—j. Khita. Hamath inscriptions, vi, 3, 5, 33. Hand, symbol of, 8, 17, 25, 37. Hand, male and female, 17, 37. Harrison, Park, 25, 35. Havilah, I. Heath, Dunbar, 5. Hebrew, 5, 9, 14, 17, 37, 38, 57. Herodotus, 5. Heth, 2—j. Khita. Himyaritic, 6, 7, 8, 14. Hittite—j Khita. Horite, 2, 66. Human sacrifice, 35. Hutchinson, Consul, 31, 35. . . . �INDEX. Iberian, 64, Ibreez, 5. India, 18, 29, 71. Indo-China, 18, 27, 28, 32, 73, 81, 85. Indus, 29. Ireland, 61, 72. Italy, 29, 39,' 62, 71. Java, 18, 33. Jeremiah, J., 25. Ka, 23. Karen, 81. Kawa, 37. Khita, v, 1, 2, 3, 20, 22, 28, 31, 33, 86— j Sumerian. Khita-Peruvian, 20. Kumi, Kami, 81. Lake names, 73. Latham, Dr, 30, 32. Latin, 22, 26, 57. Leared, Dr, 37. Lenormant, 19, 66. Lesghian, 20. Libyan, 6, 10-13. Lycian, 10, 11, 14, 20, 35. Lydian, 22, 33, 63. Magic alphabets, 16. Malay, 18. Markham, Clements, 31. Martin, R. Biddulph, 5. Masonic alphabet, 15. Maya, v, 27, 30, 33, 81, 85. Mexican, 21, 23, 31, 32, 73, 81, 86—j. Aztek. Mon—s. Cambodian. Monument building, 29, 32, 33. Moon, 17, 25, 37. Mountain names, 73, 74. Mouth, 17, 25. Mythology, vi, 17, 25, 27, 36, 66. Nature-worship, 17. Nebo, 20. Negative series, 25, 30. New Granada, 71. Newman, F. W., II. Night, 25, 26. Niobe, 20, 34. Not, 25. Numerals, 21, 23, 30, 86. Omagua, 68. Oppert, M., 19, 86. Orion, 17, 36. Othomi, 21, 27, 31, 32, 81, 85. Palestine—J. Canaan. Palmer, Professor, 4. Parsees, 67. Pegu, 28. Pergamos, 68, 69. Perrot, M., 33. Peru, 18, 33, 35, 37, 66, 69, 72. Peruvian, 21, 22—j. Aymara, Quichua. . Phoenician, v, 7, 11, 12, 18, 34, 64, 86. Phrygian, 22, 35. Pleiades, 17, 36, 37. Prideaux, Colonel, 8. Quichua, 21, 22, 24, 27,.30, 31, 81, 85. Quipu, 35. Rabbinic alphabet, 15. Red, 25, 37. River names, 12, 20, 29, 71. River names, table of, 71. Rosa; Senor de la, 30, 31. Sabsean, 16—j. Himyaritic. Samaria, 19, 40. Scape-goat, 35. Secret alphabet, 15. Semitic, 18, 26, 57, 86—j Phoenician. Serpent, vi, 17. Sesostris, vi, 5, 34. Seven, 36, 37. Siamese, 27, 28, 35, 81, 85. Sibu, vi, 20. Silures, 65. Sirius, 36. Siva, vi, 20. Smyrna, 19, 34. Soul, 25. Spain, 39, 63, 72. Square alphabet, 15. Sumerian, 12, 18, 22, 28, 31, 66, 86—s. Akkad. Sumerian words, table of, 81. Sumero-Peruvian, 20. Syllabary—j. Alphabet. Symbol 11, 13. , * Symbol 16, 17, 36. Symbology, 36. Tamashek, 12, 13, Tarahumara, 81, 85. Tau, 17, 36—j Pleiades. Taylor, Rev. Isaac, 20. Thebes, 17, 22, 46, 66. Thinae, 28. Thracian, 22. Three, 17, 36. Thugga, 12. Tin, 34. Toltek, 27, 32. Town names, 20, 37, 60. Triad, 17. Tylor, E. B., 26, 29. Ugrian, 19, 20, 26. Vasco-Kolarian, 19, 26, 27, 65, 67—J. Basque. Waring, 2. Warka, 7, 9, 13. Wilson, Dr Daniel, 29, 35. Wolof, 28. Woman, 17, 25, 26, 37. Yona, 25, 26, 37. Yucatan, 33, 35—J. Maya. . . � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. 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If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Khita and Khita-Peruvian epoch : Khita, Hamath, Hittite, Canaanite, Etruscan, Peruvian, Mexican, etc Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Clarke, Hyde Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: 88 p. ; 21 cm Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Includes index. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available N. Trubner & Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1877 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5694 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br />This work (The Khita and Khita-Peruvian epoch : Khita, Hamath, Hittite, Canaanite, Etruscan, Peruvian, Mexican, etc), identified by <span><a href="www.conwayhall.org.uk">Humanist Library and Archives</a></span>, is free of known copyright restrictions. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Subject The topic of the resource Anthropology Anthropology