1 10 2 https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/1add50475d5207c09d8791b3b6141b6f.pdf?Expires=1779926400&Signature=a5ajyueyWwCHQYg4og3wGchjnSR0rFn8mVTYHAbrgWZ%7ErOo1qRU9CEIdjUQFY1420AXpP8LlBMUz-jRvLZZzYzfxt3tcR54AqMjlnt498xHmOsnKNL0tl2NPUxUFX%7Ep9rWwI6NaMWE-PHag6U6yLdXiiocALLSiU8EOgzdxkGI429tST64xDD8prNGbbdUcDcePcnDzxNuaZrcltPeINsVnAgtjxsI6B04O13fvzJIJP1OkLLhGukdeNHUg5AMOwyAFpqQKVhy3NrPiQgU1PcoKRhEL%7EWF9WGHT7GP0sK7F4PQAM-lwIO5iy8vAG--3nqufkueEtfX1S-L1XpGhJAg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 2b6289062a8ec99277f058f88d4146e8 PDF Text Text GOD’S COMMANDMENTS ACCORDING TO MOSES, ACCORDING TO CUBIST, AND ACCORDING TO OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE. A SKETCH SUGGESTIVE OF A NEW WESTMINSTER CONFESSION OF FAITH FOR THE LAITY OF THE 19th CENTURY. ADDRESSED TO ALL WHO DEEM IT THEIR HIGHEST DUTY AS WELL AS RIGHT TO “THINK FOR THEMSELVES.” “HAPPY IS THE MAN THAT FINDETH WISDOM, AND THE MAN THAT GETTETH UNDERSTANDING." PROV. III. 13. LONDON : N. TRÜBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1867. PRICE SIXPENCE. �From an Essay entitled, ‘ Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind,’ under the nom de plume of Philip Beauchamp (printed 1822, and reprinted by Saville and Edwards, Chandos Street, Covent Garden, 1866), the following extract is made as bearing to some extent on the present work. The evils which flow from the belief, not founded on experience, of the inter­ ference of an unseen agent infringing at pleasure the laws of nature, are thus described:— 1 As this persuasion utterly disqualifies mankind for the task of filtering truth from falsehood, so the multitude of fictitious tales for which it has obtained credence and currency in the world, exceeds all computation. To him who believes in the intervention of incomprehensible and unlimited Beings, no story can appear incredible. The most astonishing narratives are exempted from cross-examination, and readily digested under the title of miracles or prodigies. Of these miracles every nation on the face of the earth has on record and believes thousands. And as each nation disbelieves all except its own, each, tho’ it believes a great many, yet disbelieves more. The most enthusiastic believers in miracles, therefore, cannot deny that an enormous excess of false ones have obtained credence amongst the larger portion of mankind.’ AV e heartily concur in the following observations on this Essay borrowed from the Westminster Review for April, 1866. ‘ If it is rightly attributed to a distinguished historian, we think it greatly to be regretted that he has not given us in a separate essay his ripest thoughts on the subject.’ . . . . ‘ If Philip Beauchamp would write something on these subjects, not grudging to lend the well-earned authority of a known name, and in a manner going di­ rectly to his object, he would meet with a more fitting circle of readers than he could have done five-and-forty years ago.’ We also extract the following passage from an Address of the Rev. Dr Robert Lee, delivered at the opening of the Theological Class in the University of Edinburgh (Published by Williams and Norgate) :— ‘ In these days no class of men can possibly have, or should have at any time, any real weight and authority in guiding opinion, unless it occupy a somewhat independent position. Prisons and fetters are for the lawless and disobedient, for thieves and murderers, and all those abandoned classes who exist and thrive by injuring their neighbours and disturbing society. Christian teachers, we hope, do not deserve or need to be so guarded, confined, and pinioned; they are not so set upon perverting the truth, corrupting re­ ligion, seducing the people, as that they should be required by law to swear, at the beginning of their professional life, that they hold not only the great Articles of the Christian Faith, which are both very simple and very few, but a positive and categorical opinion regarding many hundreds of proposi­ tions which they have not had time to weigh and study ; much less that they should be required to swear that they will so think on all those points . which they are now required to profess ‘ during all the days of their life.’ ’ JulIN CHILES AND SON, PRINTERS. �GOD’S COMMANDMENTS. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. The complaint against those, who have dared to think for themselves, and to throw aside the authority of all or some of what are called the or­ thodox Dogmas of Religion,—for instance, the plenary inspiration of the Bible, original sin, the eternity of hell torments,—that they leave the unhappy man, woman, or child, whom they may succeed in enticing from the pleasant paths of Orthodoxy, without a guide for their future conduct in life, is not altogether an unjust complaint. The effort of almost all free thought, no doubt, has hitherto been more on the negative side,—the pulling down of the old, rather than the constructing a new Faith, or putting the New Faith into such simple terms as to be at once understood by all classes. Now this New Faith, no longer confined to a few isolated thinkers but spreading quietly in every quarter, on the one hand denies that God has only revealed himself to man at a particular time or up to a particular date in his history, and has since left him without any further revelation beyond what he can obtain by groping about for the meanings of a number of old books, written in various dead lan­ guages, of uncertain dates and authorship, and of which, whilst the origin­ als are certainly lost, it is impossible to know whether the oldest extant copies, or supposed copies, are accurate or are not interpolated or even forgeries. On the other hand, this New Faith expressly declares that God is and ever has been revealing himself to man in the works of his Creation, and that He has never revealed himself in any other way. This Faith, it will be seen, interferes not with our freest speculations, nor with our highest aspirations. Thus on the question of a life hereafter, while some may maintain that one ground of their hope is, that only by a future life can the misery in this be compensated; others will be free to hold and will hold, that, while permitted to look forward to a future existence as being within the scope of the Divine will, still, God’s governance of this world is perfect and docs not absolutely require to be supplemented by the life hereafter, to make up for the imagined short-comings, impcrfec- �•1 tions, and injustice, in the arrangements for our life on earth ; and, more­ over, that our obedience to God’s Laws ought to be quite independent of, and not consequent on, the expectation of a future existence. Now although there are many learned treatises setting forth the grounds for this Faith, there is no hand-book for the unlearned to refer to; there is no standard book or ‘ Catechism ’ of which the free-thinking father or mother may say, ‘ This little book contains what I believe to be a true exposition of God’s laws, and out of this I desire my child to be taught his duty, his religious principles.’ We here use the word ‘re­ ligious ’ advisedly and as the proper term, although the multitude may think that it can be used only by the believers in miracles, in a devil, and in the monstrous doctrine of the eternity of punishment, and of the end­ less woe of those whom it shall not please God arbitrarily to call to ever­ lasting happiness. The present pamphlet is put forth as a partial attempt to supply this want and to put into plain language what many men, while allowing their children to learn by rote ten Commandments (possibly compiled for the Hebrews, long after the time of Moses), and likewise the curious denuncia­ tion of themselves contained in the Church-Catechism, as ‘ children of wrath!’ really do teach them in the practical lessons of every-day life. Its object is also to bring home to many men the dishonesty of not declaring more openly what they believe on religious subjects, and at the same time to give them aid in expressing their convictions, where from want of time or inclination they have never exactly formularized what they do believe, though feeling great repugnance to the dogmas sought to be imposed upon them by the clergyman, who gives priestly consolation to their wives and daughters. We have none of us, probably, very far to look without finding among our friends or acquaintances some in this state; men who are not masters in their own household, who may command the affections, but have not the least influence over the theological or spiritual lives of the members of their own family. In many cases utter worldliness or amiable weakness is pleaded as an excuse for that dishonesty to which we have taken exception. Take, for example, a husband and wife—the latter, perhaps, not very well grounded in her orthodox views : ‘ It will never do to bring up our children otherwise than according to Church principles. How can we expect they will get on ? ’ The wife will say, ‘ don’t give these new no­ tions to the girls; even for the boys it will be far safer not to be marked as unsound Churchmen. Think of their being called Infidels, Theists, Atheists, and all those other shocking names. Why not leave well alone ? The world got on very well, before that horrible Bishop of Natal was heard of.’ And then, perhaps, the thought of a rich old uncle will arise, and the wife will add the conclusive argument,f If he were to get the idea �into his head that we were not bringing up our children in the strictest Church principles, you know he would disinherit us and leave all his pro­ perty to charities ; pray be careful? Again, the following is not altogether an isolated or imaginary picture, the result of an appeal from one free-thinker to another to come forward with his name, on a subscription, say, for the Essays and Reviews Fund, or still later for the Colenso Testimonial. ‘ I will give you willingly my £20 ; but pray keep my name a secret. I would not have my wife suspect me of thinking as I do on any account. If she were to imagine that I do not believe exactly as she does, that I have doubts about Bible inspiration, whatever that may mean, that I do not feel quite steady in my adherence to the doctrines laid down with such peculiar clearness and force in the Athanasian Creed, or to any other of the so-called fundamental dogmas, she would be quite miserable. Pray never give her a hint of such a thing. We have lived so peaceably together for years. It would be quite cruel on my part to give her an idea of my holding different views from her own, and what would be the use of it ? It would only unsettle her mind,— if not her faith, in which she is so wrapped up and contented !’ Thus two beings, with reasoning faculties, living together nominally as one, profess­ ing to have no secrets from each other, are yet perfectly estranged on the most important of subjects, have no real interchange of thoughts; and the man, on his side, acts a lifelong lie on the plea at best of good and amiable motives. We will not here undertake to judge our friend. Doubtless it may be said with truth that any attempt on his ’part to f convert1 his wife would at their time of life be useless ; but this we will say, many a man imagines the difficulty far greater than it is. How often, if a husband were quietly to explain to his wife his opinions and the grounds for them, would he meet with a ready listener; and even should he fail to convince, he would still have placed himself in the right position towards the woman he has chosen for his life companion. If his own views have only gradually opened to a wider sphere of thought, still is he not to be at liberty to speak his thoughts ? Is free speaking to be the peculiar privilege of the orthodox ? Are the clergy for ever to have their own way, and is a husband in his own house to be the only person not al­ lowed to express an honest opinion ? Ought not every sensible wife, in­ stead of being shocked, to be gratified by the confidence shown in her better judgment ? Her true complaint should be, of that confidence having been so long delayed. One cause for men not discussing these subjects with their wives may not unfrequently be, that they have not worked out for themselves their own faith ; they have perhaps discarded the traditional theory of religion, they may disbelieve in miracles, but have never completely argued out the �6 why and the wherefore with themselves ; they may not feel the force of the dogmatic assertions that every thing is true that is in the Bible, and that all our knowledge must be cut and shaped so as to,suit and fit into the narrow compass of that book; but they have never seized the true argu­ ment in reply; they have no clear and definite notion as to God’s governance of the world. Consequently they feel uneasy when reproach­ fully asked, ‘And where is your substitute for God’s Bible ?’ And they think it far pleasanter to smother up their difficulties and let their wives, who have no doubt on any one subject, and scorn, in the plenitude of their blind faith, to notice the few little intricate difficulties in the dogmas of the Church (difficulties which by-the-way eighteen centuries of learned controversy have not solved), take the lead and give true orthodox religious principles to their children. And be assured these fortun­ ate children will never be allowed to suppose that any but very wicked people, who are sure to go to hell, can hold any other views on the Catho­ lic Faith. To some of our male friends who find themselves thus situated, the perusal of these pages may suggest a little self-examination, and the act­ ing out their lives, according to the straight-forward promptings of their reason. The f Commandments ’ which will be found at the end of this work are drawn up as a suggestion for a Code by which the principles of duty may be taught to our children, in preference to the Ten Commandments of the Jewish law, or to any selection of precepts, in the words which tradition gives us as uttered by Christ. Apart from questions of dogma, many of these Commandments will be accepted by the ‘orthodox.’ They necessarily illustrate the unfitness of the New Testament as a school­ book, by the direct contrast which becomes evident between many of its precepts, in their literal if not in their actual sense, and the real teaching which we all ought to give to our children for their conduct in life, —in one word, to make them truly ‘ righteous.’ We need however scarcely observe that the quotations from the sayings of Christ are not given as an attempt to decry his teaching; nor, in framing Command­ ments for children who have never been crammed with the (to them) con­ fusing lessons of the Old and New Testaments, would the apparently an­ tagonistic reference to the sayings or precepts attributed to Christ here introduced be at all necessary. They are, as will be seen, introduced to counteract what is often the effect of teaching children from a collection of books unsuited to their capacities. We may be told that some passages, such as ‘ take no thought for to­ morrow,’ and others, are not properly rendered in the authorized version of the Bible. Our answer is, perhaps not; but if so, you, the ‘ orthodox,’ should not be so opposed as you admittedly are to an amended version, �and until it is amended, you cannot blame us for objecting to the use of words in a book you acknowledge to be faulty. There are nevertheless other passages, about which no doubt as to the correctness of the transla­ tion exists, and which still do not give us the proper teaching we require. Let us, however, emphatically repeat that nothing written below is in­ tended to cast contempt on the sayings of Christ here referred to. Wo cannot be sure of the sense in which his hearers were intended to under­ stand him, even if we have his very words. The language in which his discourses have been handed down to us is the figurative, and often beau­ tifully poetic, language of the East; but it is not the language in which we want to teach our own children—still less the little plough-boys and the girls of our country villages—their plain lessons of moral duty. Go into any Sunday-school throughout the land, and calmly listen to the blunder­ ing attempts of the well-meaning volunteer teachers, and hear what a mess they make, what utter confusion they introduce to the children’s minds, in stumbling overpassages which, if they explain properly, they have frequent­ ly to declare mean exactly the reverse of what the words say; while, to keep up a consistency between these words and their teaching, they have to repeat to the children at every breath ‘ the words are figurative, are allegorical, are spiritual/ We ask, ought this to be? Without much presumption we may express a hope, that what is here written may give some of these teachers a clearer view of the way in which they should, in the words of the Church Catechism, teach a child to ‘keep God’s holy will and commandments and walk in the same all the days of his life.’ It will be said that the language of these Commandments is not wholly suited for children. That may be true, although the greatest care has been taken to make the language as simple as possible. These Com­ mandments are sketched out to assist parents and others in teach­ ing their children—not by merely cramming by heart, but by patient explanation and training ; and at any rate, there is nothing contradictory in the language used, as in the passages to which we have taken excep­ tion. According to the age and development of the child, so ought the teaching to be. It would be difficult to say how early thought does not guide some of an infant’s acts. The infant takes food at first without knowing the result; but before long, because it remembers the pleasure experienced on former occasions. The child must then have formed an idea, must have begun to think; and from that moment his education has commenced. How ever little the parents and nurses may notice the fact, the child, before he can speak or understand a word that is spoken, may learn something of God’s Commandments. Through the language of frowns and caresses, he learns the duty of obedience,—blind obedi- �8 cnee at first, necessitated by his ignorance. Before the child can speak, much more read, he will, in any well-regulated house, have learned much. Even when he does begin to speak and read, how few are the words he can understand. The difficulty of teachers is and always must be, to adapt their language to the capacity of a child, and it is almost impossi­ ble to put Commandments into words that shall be absolutely suitable to children of all ages, and also to grown-up persons. Here let us say a few words on obedience of children. Many parents fear to lose their authority, if they encourage their children to think for themselves, too early as they would say. They inculcate blind obedience, just as the parson tries to inculcate it upon all his parishioners, whom he would like to keep as children, in the bondage of authority, all their lives. Why should this be so ? Is it not that the parents, through indolence and want of proper education, have never attained to a thorough knowledge of the reasons and principles which ought to govern their own and their children’s conduct ? They have no faith of their own, of which they can give a rational account. They are, moreover, afraid of tell­ ing their children that they, their parents, are and must be ignorant of many things; and, they take, as they suppose, the proper course of teaching—by dogmatically telling the child he must do what he is bid, without a reason; when, by a little pains, the child would obey with his understanding, instead of on mere authority. Instead of repressing a young child’s eager searching for a reason, we ought to be gently leading him on with a kindly ‘ think for yourself on all occasions, and on all subjects.’ IIow few parents dare to do this ! On the contrary, both parents and priests do just the reverse, saying, ‘ Think as I think ’—adding, when religion is the subject—‘ under pain of loss of your eternal happiness ; ’ and thus they crush out that early instinct implanted in all of us; for the child will think for himself if only encour­ aged, instead of being snubbed. We are almost inclined to say, that nearly the only independent thoughts of many men have been those of their in­ fancy. We trust, in conclusion, that nothing in this pamphlet will be taken as intentionally offensive to the clergy. We number among them many as our truest friends, and gratefully acknowledge the zeal of the whole body in good works ; nevertheless, we look forward to the time when, set free from the trammels of dogmatic authority, and no longer feeling bound to expend their energies in ‘ reconciling ’ old books and fables with the facts of modern science, they will join still more heartily with the laity in aiding the intellectual and moral development of the human race. �9 THE COMMANDMENTS, ACCORDING TO MOSES AND TO CHRIST. If the question be asked how many Commandments has God given to us, the almost invariable answer, in the stereotyped words of the catechism, will be, ‘ Ten/ Few of those making such an answer will have ever troubled them­ selves with a thought on the subject. Satisfied with what they learnt like parrots, when children, ‘ on their mothers’ laps,’ they have taken for granted that what is said in the Prayer Book is the correct, the only possible answer to the question. Now let us ask, Has God given us ten, and only ten, or as many as ten Commandments ? Many in reply will refer to the Decalogue as conclu­ sive ; but let us hope that this answer will not continue to satisfy us and our children. It is true that Moses is said to have received Ten ; but on the face of the Pentateuch itself it is impossible to say exactly what the Ten were, for, as we shall see below, there are at least two * differing versions even of these Ten. And, moreover, the Pentateuch contains many more Com­ mandments said to have been given by God himself to Moses. The * Besides the versions of the Decalogue in the xx. chap, of Exodus and in the v. chap, of Deuteronomy, we find in the xxxiv. chap, of Exodus a third version. This version is declared to have been delivered, quite as authoritatively as the other two, by God to Moses. Here we will merely notice that it gives Sab­ batical Commandments which, if any such are binding on Christians, must be equally so with the 4th in the xx. chap, of Exodus. v. 18. The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep. Seven days thou shalt eat» unleavened bread. v. 21. Six days thou slialt work, but on the seventh day thou shalt rest : in earing time and in harvest thou shalt rest. v. 22. And thou shalt observe the feast of weeks, of the first-fruits of wheat harvest and the feast of ingathering at the year’s end. 2 ' �10 question remains, ought a Christian to be satisfied with merely looking for God's Commandments in the Old Testament ? Should he not give a preference to what he may find in the New Testament as uttered by Christ, the founder of his religion ? Let us compare the Decalogues given in Exodus and Deuteronomy with the Commandments given in the New Testament. The Commandments recorded as The Commandments recorded in the given to Moses—written by God Gospels—as declared by Christ. HIMSELF IN TWO TABLETS OF STONE. From Exodus xx. 2—16. From Mark xii. 28. And one of the Scribes asked him, which is the first Com­ mandment of all ? (or, as quoted in Matt. xxii. 36, which is the great Command­ ment in the Law ?) And Jesus answered him, The first of all the Commandments is: 1. I am the Lord thy God, which have 1. f Hear, 0 Israel, the Lord our brought thee out of the land of God is one Lord, and thou shalt Egypt, out of the house of bond­ love the Lord thy God with all thy age. Thou shalt have no other heart and with all thy soul and gods before me. with all thy mind and with all thy strength.' This is the first (and 2. Thou shalt not make unto thee ‘ great' in Matt.) Commandment. any graven image, or any likeness [This command is taken by of any thing that is in heaven Christ from Deut. vi. 5. above, or that is in the earth be­ Omitting all reference to the neath, or that is in the water land of Egypt, it is of uni­ under the earth. Thou shalt not versal application alike to bow down thyself to them, nor Jew and Gentile; while, to serve them : for I the Lord thy quote the words of the author God am a jealous God, visiting of the ‘ Sabbath,' ‘ it far more * the iniquity of the fathers upon distinctly proclaims the unity the children, unto the third and of God, and it enjoins what fourth generation of them that the Commandment in the hate me, and shewing mercy unto Decalogue does not, — the thousands of them that love me, Christian duty of Love to and keep my commandments. God.'] 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain : for the Lord will not hold him guiltless * See a reference to this work in the that taketh his name in vain. note to page 13. �11 4. Remember the Sabbath-day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work. But the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates : For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day : wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it. And the second is like it: name­ ly, this—■ 2. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. [This command is taken by Christ from Lev. xix. 18.] There is none other greater than these (Mark xii. 28—31). On these two Commandments hang all the law and the Prophets (Matt. xxii. 36—40). A new Commandment give I unto you, that ye love one another (Jno. xiii. 34). In all the four Gospels not one word can be found, as uttered by Christ, in favour of keeping one day holy above the others, or against doing work on the Jewish Sabbath, nor for change of the Sabbath from the seventh to the first day of the week, nor for hon­ ouring him or God by the observ­ ance of days. On the contrary, Christ is reported as having on some occasions worked or com­ manded unnecessary work to be done on the Sabbath day. Christ * evidently held different views from * Plucking corn, Matt. xii. 1 ; Mark ii. 23; Luke vi. 1. Christ did not deny that this was a breach of the Sabbath; but defended his disciples by quoting David’s act as a precedent. Healing on the Sabbath day a woman who had been ill for 18 years, and who could well have waited one day longer. Luke xiii. 12, 13. The impotent man takes up his bed, and thus deliberately, by Christ’s orders, did unnecessary work (John v. 8). It could not even have been necessary for him to do so to show that he was cured. The cure must have been evident without his carrying a burden,—contrary to God’s injunction in Jeremiah xvii. 21. 1 Jesus spat on the ground, and made clay of the spittle, and he anointed the eyes of the blind man with the clay’ (John ix. 6). Clearly, however trifling, this was unnecessary work for one who is believed to have been God omnipotent. Christ, again, joined a large feast on the Sabbath. Luke xiv. 1, 7—12. �12 those of our modern English and But in the version given in Scotch Sabbatarian. Christ’s great Deut. v. 14, the reason stated apostle Paul also distinctly tells for this Commandment is his Christian converts that they quite different. need not observe days. * ‘ That thy manservant and thy It is possibly on this ground, that maidservant may rest as well as in the Catechism no reference is thou. And remember that thou made, either in the summary of our wast a servant in the land of duty to God or to our neighbour, Egypt, and that the Lord thy God to any obligation to observe one brought tliec out thence through day above another. a mighty hand and by a stretched out arm : therefore the Lord thy And from Mark x. 17 ; And one asked him, Good God commanded thee to keep the Master, what shall I do that I Sabbath day? may inherit eternal life ? And Jesus said unto him—Why callest thou me good ; there is none good but one, that is God. Thou knowest the Comman dm ent s.f 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 3. Do not commit adultery. 4. Do not kill. 6. Thou shalt not kill. 5. Do not steal. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness 6. Do not bear false witness. 7. Defraud not. against thy neighbour. The 10th Commandment of the 10. Thou shalt not covet thy neigh­ bour’s house, thou shalt not covet Decalogue is not referred to by thy neighbour’s wife, nor his man­ Christ. He may have considered servant, nor his maidservant, that his far more universal Com­ nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any mandment of ‘Love your neighbour’ thing that is thy neighbour’s. was sufficient. * ‘ Let no man, therefore, judge you in respect of an holyday, or of the New Moon, or of the Sabbath days.’ Colos. ii. 1G. ‘O foolish Galatians (iii. 1), how turn ye again to the weak and beggarly ele­ ments whereunto ye desire again to be in bondage? Ye observe days and months and times and years. I am afraid of you, lest I have bestowed upon you labour in vain.’ Gal. iv. t What an opportunity was here lost by Jesus of enforcing the keeping of the Sabbath if he had intended to enforce it,—an opportunity that our modern Divines would only too gladly avail themselves of. �13 5. Honour thy father and thy 8. Honour thy father and mother. mother that thy days may be long [It is surely better to teach upon the land which the Lord this Commandment as given thy God giveth thee. by Christ than with the ad­ In the version given in Deu­ dition of such a weak or in­ teronomy the ground sug­ complete ground as we find gested for keeping this Com­ in Exodus.] * mandment varies from that in Exodus, and is more explicit. 5. Honour thy father and thy mother as the Lord thy God hath com­ manded thee, that thy days may And he answered and said, be prolonged, and that it may go Master, all these things have well with thee in the land which I observed from my youth. the Lord thy God giveth thee. Then Jesus beholding him, Deut. v. 16. loved him, and said unto him, One thing thou lackest. [If thou wilt be perfect, Matt, xix. 21.] 9. Go thy way; sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven. A Commandment set aside in our day, not only by the very rich, as this man is repre­ sented to have been, but by Christians in general. In addition to the nine Commandments here selected from Christ’s teaching, and which Christians may be recommended to use as being his substitute for the Decalogue, we find many more quite as solemnly laid down by Christ as of universal obligation. Let us refer to Matt. v. and vi., in which Christ in the Sermon on the Mount is represented as giving new Commandments. * If the reader of this pamphlet cares to look further into the parallel here drawn between what maybe called Christ’s substitute for the Decalogue, and to satisfy himself that the Decalogue was written for the Jews and not for Chris­ tians, he is referred to ‘ The Sabbath ’ (Chapman and Hall, 1855), vol. ii., in the first chap, of which, the Mosaic Sabbath is very fully considered. �14 10. Swear not at all—but let your communication be yea, yea, nay, nay. 11. Resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. 12. Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neigh­ bour and hate thine enemy : but I say unto you f Love your enemies? 13. When thou prayest enter into thy closet, and when thou hast shut thy door pray to thy Father which is in secret. 14. But when ye pray use not vain repetitions, as the heathen do. 15. Take no thought, saying, What shall we eat and what shall we drink, or wherewithal shall we be clothed ? Take no thought for the morrow. Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof. And from Luke vi. 80. 16. Give to every man that asketh of thee, and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again. Some of these are wisely ignored by Christians at the present day ; while two which might be obeyed, with no detriment—if with no positive good, namely, (1) praying in secret only and not parading- prayers in churches, and, (2) not using vain repetitions in praying—are universally disobeyed by the great body of professing Christians. Christ, therefore, at any rate did not confine himself to Ten; ac­ cording to the Catechism, he did not give the proper reply to the ques­ tion. He nevei’ repeated all the Commandments of the Decalogue. For anything that Christ is reported to have uttered, he need not even have been aware of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, or 10th Commandment of the Decalogue, as handed down to us ; or of the statement in Deuteronomy that the Ten Commandments were written by God himself in two tables of stone. Even in giving out those Commandments of the Law which he �15 did refer to, lie did not repeat them in the order in which they stand in the Decalogue; and on the subject of the 4th and the 5th Commandments, he certainly has not enlightened us as to which is the true version,—the true Commandments, written in the tables of stone. It is singular that Christians should not have sufficient faith in the words of their Saviour to adopt his express teaching on the subject of Commandments. For example, had they such faith, they would not now, running back to the ‘weak and beggarly elements ’ of the Jewish Scrip­ tures, repeat every Sunday they are at church such a Commandment as the 4th, never uttered by Christ, and which not one of them attempts to keep, in its strict letter and meaning,—that of absolute cessation from work and nothing else. * We may here remark that the Catechism errs not only in limiting the number of God’s Commandments, expressly contrary to the teaching of Christ; but it further makes the child declare that he learns from these Ten Commandments what no one ever could learn from them. What is laid down in the Catechism as the child’s duty is a very fair summary of moral law and duty as believed in and practised by many at the present day; but to say that the child or grown-up person ‘chiefly learns’ from the Ten Commandments all that is there put down is not true. Where do we find in the Ten a word about ‘ submitting ourselves to our spiritual pastors and masters ’ ? or ‘ ordering ourselves lowly and reverently to our betters’ ? or ‘keeping our bodies in temperance and soberness’'? * See on this point ‘ The Sabbath,’ vol. ii. p. 179. �16 THE COMMANDMENTS, WHICH BELIEVERS IN A GOD, WILLINGLY CALLING THEMSELVES CHRIS­ TIANS, MAY CONSIDER OBLIGATORY UPON THEM. Turning now to the realities of life, we will look at the Commandments from our own point of view. Surveying dispassionately the history of religious opinion through all ages of the world, we perceive that, notwithstanding all the assump­ tions of infallibility by Popes and Ecclesiastics in general, there has been a constant progress in religious belief. We also per­ ceive that the saying of old, that ‘ God made Man in his own image/ should be replaced by the real fact that ‘ Man has always been and is still making God in his own image ’; that as human knowledge increases, as our ideas of what is right and noble and true go on improving, so do our ideas of what a perfect God must be. We have long since given up the crude notion of an angry and jealous God—of a God who was ready to walk in a Garden on earth, and to come at the call of every patriarch who chose to summon him,—and though kings and earthly potentates may still invoke the God of Battles in their prayers, and Arch­ bishops and Bishops may still write prayers on cattle plagues and cholera, deprecating God’s wrath, and urging him to interfere and abrogate his own laws at the call of man, we express the hope that the days of such mistaken attempts to honour God are numbered, and that the time is rapidly coming when true science or knowledge shall have swept away these lingering superstitions of bygone ages. And what is prayer—the only prayer fitted for educated minds,—un­ less it be, in the spirit of the Axiom stated below, an earnest searching after and earnest endeavour to obey all the unchanging laws, moral as well as physical, which govern this world? In this sense alone can ‘prayer with­ out ceasing ’ be possible. In this sense men of science, though possibly never entering a church built by the hands of man, may be constantly offering up their ‘praise and thanksgiving’ to the Unknown ‘whose temple is all space/ and ‘ with whom/ as was well said several hundred years ago, ‘ is no variableness, neither shadow of turning.’ The Commandments which we, who have not been brought out of the land of Egypt, and who are not Israelites, but the descendants of Gen­ tiles, may believe to be binding on us, though not given out, as the Ten Commandments are said to have been, on the top of Mount Sinai, are �17 such as we now derive from the united wisdom and experience accumu­ lated by mankind during the past and present ages. Our only AXIOM is this :— It is our duty with all our energies to ascertain the laws, both moral and physical, which govern this world and ourselves; to be constantly endeavouring to obey these laws when ascertained, and never to hesitate to give up an opinion or belief on what is called religion, any more than on any other subject, if we find that that opinion or belief, even though handed down to us from very ancient times, is inconsist­ ent with our better knowledge at the present day. Acting up to this axiom we accept St John’s declaration, (Little children, let no man deceive you : he that doeth righteousness is right­ eous,’ 1 John iii. 7. We also readily accept, as a bond of brotherhood between Christ and ourselves, his declaration in Matt. xii. 50, f Whoso­ ever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother.’ Looking also to Christ’s earnest en­ deavour to enforce the law ‘ Love your neighbour as yourself,’ we desire to be called Christians, although we may utterly repudiate all the miraculous stories of the Old and New Testaments,—although we may utterly repudiate any belief in a personal Devil, just as we do in witch­ craft,—and although we admit neither sacraments nor priests of any kind, and look upon the miscellaneous books bound up together and called the Bible as entitled to no more respect than what is due to them as ancient records of what men have believed and have felt in former ages. We differ from the priests of all denominations and the self-styled orthodox in this ; that, while believing much that is in the Bible, we be­ lieve nothing merely because it is in the Bible. We seek enlightenment in the place of dogmatic assurance, and we accept the declaration of the man of science, who, to use the words of Professor Huxley (in his lecture on improving Natural Knowledge, delivered at St Martin’s Hall, London, on Sunday evening, 7th January, 1866), f absolutely refuses to acknow­ ledge authority as such ; for him scepticism is the highest duty, blind faith the one unpardonable sin. The man of science has learnt to believe in justification, not by faith, but by verification.’ Our faith may be described as a simple ‘ Faith in Works.’ The Commandment which we may state includes all others is to (love thy neighbour as thyself.’ This was, so far as we have any record, first laid down, not by Christ, as many suppose, but in Levit. xix. 18; but there its meaning was narrowed by the words which follow, ‘ Thou shalt hate thine enemy.’ Christ could truly say to the Jews that he gave it to them as ‘a new Commandment,’ earnestly endeavouring to counteract the narrow teaching in Leviticus by telling his hearers to love their �18 enemies, and showing here and elsewhere, that by ‘neighbour* we should understand every human being. Five hundred years before Christ, Con­ fucius, the great Chinese Philosopher, wrote the precept, ‘Do unto another what thou would he should do unto you, and do not unto another what thou would not should be done unto you. Thou only needest this Law alone. It is the foundation and principle of all the rest? The heathen, * Seneca, also said ‘ Live for another as you would live for yourself? Now we do not accept even this Commandment because it was uttered by Moses, by Confucius, by Christ, or by Seneca, but because all our experience teaches us that, whether uttered by them or not, it is, in complete accord­ ance with the above Axiom, a true law of God;—for the more we study the laws of this world, both moral and physical, the more do we find that the happiness of ourselves and of our fellow-creatures—in one word, our well-being in this life—is intended to be the great object of our existence here, and that the real happiness of each individual is dependent on the happiness of others; that a man cannot be truly happy if those around him are miserable. It may be added that by acting thus, and only thus, by really loving ourselves and our neighbours, can we show reverence and love to that mysterious ‘ unknown/—that, to us in our present state, incomprehensible Power which we call GOD, and believe to have, in some way wholly beyond our capacity to imagine, created the Universe, of which our little world is the merest atom. We therefore, to prevent a possible misapprehension of Christ’s meaning, would alter the order in which in selecting the two Command­ ments from Deut. vi. 6, and Lev. xix. 18, he is recorded as having placed them, and would say : ‘ first, thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself, and by so doing (secondly) thou wilt, and in this way only canst thou, show thy love to God? In this sense love to God may be said to be the first (mean­ ing by the first the ‘ greatest/ Matt. xx. 38) Commandment. Only think of the cruelties and murders practised by Christians in all ages under the plea of ‘ first love God/ and we shall agree how important is the alteration in the order of the two Commandments as here suggested. What were the Crusades and all the religious wars since the commence­ ment of the Christian Era—all the martyrdoms and persecutions of Pro­ testants by Catholics, and no less of Catholics by Protestants; and in a less degree, what are all the bitter persecutions and religious feuds and heart-burnings of the present day, but miserable, mistaken attempts to love and honour God by hating and ill-using instead of loving our neigh­ bour ? * Confucius also said, ‘ Desire not the death of thine enemy. We may have an aversion for an enemy, without desiring revenge? This probably is the doc­ trine practically held by most Christians at the present day, of whom it would be a stretch of imagination to say that they consider it a duty to llove their enemies.’ �19 THE COMMANDMENTS. 1. Love your neighbour as yourself. Do unto others as you, in the exercise of your best intelligence, think they ought to do unto you. And how ought I to love myself? This is a question not generally put to children. The duty itself is not properly enforced—but is rather depre­ cated under the fear of inculcating ' selfishness.’ The following may be stated as some of the laws, without obedience to which it is impossible to say, ( I truly love myself? 2. Parents.—As a parent or guardian of children, so instruct and educate them, and so conduct yourself, that they may learn to honour and obey you, and prepare themselves in their turn to instruct their chil­ dren, without troubling themselves too much whether ‘their days may be long’ or short, but taking every pains that 'it may go well with them’ in the land of their birth or adoption; and that they may, in learning to hon­ our and obey you, in your imperfection, learn still more to reverence and obey that perfect Power, which is revealing itself continuously in the works of the Creation, and which we worship as God, the Father Uni­ versal. The Hebrews of old said, the sins of the parents are visited on the chil­ dren unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate God. While rejecting the idea implied by the literal statement of a jealous God punishing mankind for merely hating him, we accept these words partly as meaning, If you do not obey the laws of God, but disobey them either through wilfulness or ignorance, the consequences of your conduct or your bad example will, by God’s unvarying laws, injure not only yourself but also your children. Remember too that your neglect of your children will react upon yourself. Assist also in educating the poor—those whom their parents are unable or neglectful themselves to educate. Be to them as a parent, where opportunity offers. All of us are liable to suffer, and arc constantly suffer­ ing through the ignorance of what are called the lower classes, although this effect of their ignorance is very generally overlooked. 3. Health.—Will ye ‘ take no thought for your health, what ye shall eat and what ye shall drink; and for your body, what ye shall put on ? ’ Matt. vi. 25. On the contrary, study the laws which govern your body and your mind. Make yourself well acquainted with the beauty of that wonderful piece of mechanism, that temple in which you dwell and which constitutes your ' self,’ and strive to preserve it in perfect health as your most valued treasure—'that it may be well with you’ on this earth. �20 Though Solomon’s finery, made by human hands, was not so wonderful as the lily, yet Solomon’s body without any clothing at all was at least as glorious, and so is your own naked body, as any lily of the field or any other of the comparatively simple works of creation. Do no injury wilfully to your own body, nor to that of any man or creature. ‘ If thine eye cause thee to offend’ (Matt. v. 29 and 30) ever so much, do not pluck it out; ‘ if thine hand offend thee,’ do not cut it off; but keep both eye and hand, both body and mind, under proper control. You cannot ‘cut off’ the real offender, your brain and will. In the carelessness for health, we continually find the sins of the parents visited on the children, as instanced by madness, gout, and other diseases properly called hereditary. Without health you are incapable of doing your duty, and you become a burden to those whom you ought to protect and to comfort. Thus fasting is no duty to us. We must take the greatest care to get good food, though never eating or drinking too much ; while if we purposely eat or drink too little, simply to ‘ mortify the flesh,’ we do an injury to our health, and thus do wrong. Remember also that mind or soul and body are one. You cannot separate what God has truly joined together. A strong and healthy body enables the mind to act healthily. A weak body tyrannizes over the mind. 4. Conduct.—Form good habits when young. Think for yourself. Study to do right. Do not be misled by the common notion that what is called ‘ Conscience ’ is an intuitive ’faculty or gift at your birth which will develope itself without effort on your part. As a child gradually learns to stand upright, wholly unconscious of the slight mental and bodily effort still necessary to sustain him in that position, so by the care­ ful exercise and training of his moral and intellectual powers may a man gradually learn to judge, almost unconscious of an effort, when he is act­ ing uprightly or otherwise. Watch over this faculty continually so as to keep it, like the rest of your bodily and mental powers, in an ever healthy state. Be just; be industrious, frugal, and careful, thus avoiding * debt (understand by this word inability to fulfil your engagements) as the greatest shame, and becoming a self-supporting member of the community in which you live. Be sober, be temperate, be chaste, controlling your passions and preserving your health; but if you are struck on one cheek (Matt. v. 39) do not offer the other cheek to be struck. Or if a man takes your coat (Matt. v. 40), do not let him have your cloak also; of him that taketh away thy goods, do ask for them again (Luke vi. 30). If a man wastes your time by making you walk a mile with him * The reader is referred on this question to an able treatise, A Discourse on Ethics of the School of Paley, by W. Smith, Esq. London, Pickering, 1839. 8vo, price 3s. Gd. �21 (Matt. v. 41), do not add to his folly and your own by walking two with him. On the contrary, and notwithstanding what is said in Matt. v. 39, < resist evil ’ always to the best of your ability. If injured by another, strive to have him punished, that his conduct may be amended. Be considerate of the feelings and opinions of others; but still be not frightened out of plainly expressing your honest convictions either from false delicacy towards others who differ from you or from a fear of their coldness or hatred. Never give way to anger in discussion. Be moie particularly guarded when the question is a religious one, for here its very importance is apt to excite. The inclination to anger may anse fiom vanity rather than zeal for the truth, and should warn you that you are possibly in error or have not mastered the subject. Judge others, that in so doing you may learn to judge yourself. While obeying the injunction, Mudge not, and ye shall not be judged; con­ demn not, and ye shall not be condemned’ (Luke vi. 37), to the extent of not blaming others where, as constantly happens, you cannot know all the motives of their acts ; do not think that by judging leniently of others, you will escape f judgment/ or the consequences of your own folly or wickedness. Moreover be not deceived! Justice may be, but mercy, in the usual sense of the word, is not an attribute of that Great Power which governs and con­ trols this world. Punishment, either direct or indirect, in the depriva­ tion more or less of that state of well-being for which we are fitted, at­ tends every breach of God’s laws, physical or moral. Neither ignorance nor good intention can be pleaded with success. The infant that burns its hand in the fire or falls out of window, suffers punishment, without mercy. The man who swallows poison, believing it to be medicine— and the man who, knowingly, drinks strong liquors in excess, equally suffer for their acts ; and so does the man who gives way to his passions, whether he has, or has not, had the advantage of a good education. For a definition of what may in one sense be called mercy, we might quote the Psalmist, ‘ Thou, Lord, art mercifdl; for thou rewardest every man ac­ cording to his works/ Psalm lxii. 12. The true mercy shown is the gift of reason, which enables us by care and foresight to protect ourselves and our children from nearly all suffering. For the rest, we must be con­ tented, seeing that all things are not possible even to a God. How can we be free-agents, and yet be secured against all suffering from our own acts and the acts of other free-agents like ourselves ? 5. Language, Truthfulness, and Oaths.—Strive for the greatest accu­ racy in expressing yourself, and early teach your children the true mean­ ing of the words they utter, and urge on them the importance of correct expression. A child is often made unhappy from inability accurately to con­ �22 vey its meaning; and through life what constant quarrels and misery, among even those who ought to be nearest and dearest to each other, arise from carelessness or inaccuracy in the use of language. Speak the truth at all hazards ; but do not suppose it to be a duty to say at all times every thing you happen to believe. When called upon in a court of justice to give evidence, do not accept the direction "Swear not at alP (Matt. v. 34) literally; but swear or promise in the way that other men may think most binding on the conscience, even though you feel that in thus doing you in no way increase your obligation to speak the truth, and nothing but the truth. 6. Promises.—Keep your promises, unless in keeping them you are committing a greater error than in breaking them; but to avoid the dis­ grace of breaking a promise, be extremely guarded in making any pro­ mises at all. You are not able to foretell what may happen, and you may find you cannot keep rash promises. Who but the most infatuated would now hold up Jephtha’s slaughter of his only daughter, on account of a rash and superstitious promise, as any thing but a fouL murder, an abom­ inable wickedness ? 7. Property.—Lay up for yourselves treasures here (Matt. vi. 19). Take thought for to-morrow, so that you may be able not only to keep yourself and your children from want and bodily suffering, and conse­ quent ill health; but may have a surplus for those who through real mis­ fortune, or mental or bodily incapacity, have need of assistance. Bear always in mind that although two of us shall agree to ask something (Matt, xviii. 19), it is not true that God will grant it merely for the asking. Nor if, like fowls of the air, none of us sow nor reap, nor gather into barns, shall we be fed as they (Matt. vi. 26) ; but we shall starve, and de­ servedly so. Though God has clothed us with a body more beautiful and complex in its structure than any lily of the field (Matt. vi. 28), still his having done so is no reason for supposing that we shall have, without proper exertions on our own part, proper clothing to protect us from the inclemency of the weather. The lilies of the field want no clothing; but you will die of cold unless you clothe yourself. 8. Charity.—Do not e sell all that thou hast and distribute unto the poor’ (Luke xviii. 22); for if you do, you will only increase improvidence and want. On the contrary, never ‘ give to him that asks you ’ (Matt. v. 42), merely because he asks you; neither give to the poor merely because they are poor. Rather suspect that the beggar is an unworthy object; and remember that the giving alms to such a one is a bad act on your part (prompted by your own ill-regulated impulsiveness), for it is—not �23 only an encouragement to idleness, but a discouragement to the industri­ ous neighbour of that beggar, and increases the evil you thus thought­ lessly try to remedy. Neither purposely give your alms ‘in secret,’ relying on the promised reward in Matt. vi. 4; rather attend to the instructions to ‘ let your light so shine before men that they may see your good works ’ (Matt. v. 16). Alms openly and judiciously given, will offer an example and encourage­ ment to your neighbour to do likewise. Still give not alms ostentatiously nor in expectation of praise or of mercenary reward here or hereafter. If the knowledge that you are doing good to a neighbour is not a sufficient reward, you must have been very badly trained as a child. Probably the greatest real charity you can bestow is to assist in having the children of those who are unable or indifferent, properly trained and taught, so that ‘ they may learn and labour truly to get their own living, and do their duty in that state of life’ in which they may be placed, or to which they may attain by their own intelligence. 9. Observance.of Days.—Keep each day as holy as any other;—God, in the only way we can see him, namely, in his works, works every day alike ; He never rests. Vary your occupations, arrange them as may be expedient (‘ all things are lawful unto me, but all things are not expe­ dient,’ St Paul in 1 Cor. vi. 12) ; but your work in life—working righteousness—must be continuous as God’s is. * * Freed from superstitious observance of days as being one more holy than another, such an institution as a periodical cessation from ordinary work is eminently ‘ expedient ’ among a hard-working people, so expedient that as mankind grows in wisdom neither the penalty of death enacted by Moses nor the 5s. fine of our modern legislation will be wanted to enforce it. The Sunday as a day more particularly set apart by man for assembling together, either in public or private, for worship, or for moral instruction and training, which if true must be religious,—for family and social reunions and intercourse,—and for the enjoy­ ment of healthy recreation, bodily exercise, and innocent amusement,—may be an institution of the utmost importance for promoting the love of ourselves and our neighbours. We have to remember, however, that the real rest given by God to man is the portion of time allotted to sleep. If it were not that man commits excesses in labour, both mental and bodily, periodical days of rest would certainly not be necessary, however enjoyable. A proper amount of labour judiciously varied in its kind every day in the year would be quite as conducive to health ; but just as a man, who commits excesses in eating and drinking all the week long, may recruit himself by abstinence on one day in the week, so may we, in the present state of society, be in every respect benefited by a cessation from labour. Let us remember also that the artisan, shut out by the superstition of the age from national museums, picture galleries, botanical gardens, and other places �21 10. Idolatry.—‘ Little children, keep yourselves from idols’ (1 John v. 21). Avoid Idolatry in any form, whether it be in making an idol of one day over another, or of a book, of an idea, or of a man. Accept a belief from no man. To adopt or to hold a belief because it is written in a book, or because a man or a church, in olden times or at the present day, declares it to be true, is idolatry and superstition just as much as to fall down before a stone, a picture, a graven image, a piece of bread, or a wafer, and worship it. Think for yourself, unfettered, and undismayed by the fear of consequences, or by the knowledge that the multitude is against you. If you wish for a saying of Christ in support of this, re­ member the passage (Matt. x. 35), ‘ for I am come to set a man at variance against his father, and the daughter against her mother, and the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law.’ If you thus obey the command to love yourself and your neighbour alike, you will, in the only way possible to man, show your real love to GOD, and you may truly say with the Deuteronomist— ‘The Lord our God is one Lord, whom we love with all our heart, and with all our mind, and with all our strength.’ In conclusion, we would ask our Christian neighbours to think for themselves, whether it would not be better to teach their children even from such a code of Commandments as is here imperfectly sketched out, than from those of the Jewish Decalogue. We would also ask them whether they would not prefer that their children should, on their en­ trance into the world, have some such plain and simple guidance for their inexperience, in the place of solemnly binding themselves to believe, most usually without pretence of understanding them, three Creeds, differ­ ing one from another, and the present Thirty-nine Articles of our National Church ? In the one case they will be free to use their God-given faculty of reason; in the other, they will grow up under a crushing bond­ age, slaves to a priesthood and their barbarous anathema, ‘ To doubt is damnation ! ’ How can a Church be truly national, if it does not permit the widest differences on questions of mere intellectual belief ! where he might have a chance of learning God’s ways to man—has a perfect right to spend the Sunday in his ordinary employment, and far better will it be that he should do so than in mere idleness. JOHN CHILDS AND SON, PRINTERS. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource God's commandments according to Moses, according to Christ, and according to our present knowledge: a sketch suggestive of a new Westminster Confession of Faith for the laity of the 19th century Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: 24 p. ; 22 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Printed by John Childs and Son. "Addressed to all who deem it their highest duty as well as right to "think for themselves" [Title page]. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available N. Trubner & Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1867 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5267 Subject The topic of the resource Presbyterianism God Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource [Unknown] Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (God's commandments according to Moses, according to Christ, and according to our present knowledge: a sketch suggestive of a new Westminster Confession of Faith for the laity of the 19th century), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts God Moses Presbyterian Church Westminster Confession of Faith https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/04c7b3f201c1db7234cd6202e0975649.pdf?Expires=1779926400&Signature=v6KSbSbxpOaMMS-NTOXdFXWbpgl2Dd0cbHRwpYu3SZs%7EnYunAKXqkr%7E8sjcDV3SxwDPWQJKb6esSM7FuoYklD0smz5MCaMrOWBGPDgqlAs6B0-eegEzxYfjwZTnyeulR0VVmkyHbTSH0VL4gCw%7EK%7E2Eph7bP4X0XnSoDJhkKuiJXkCCdjOFs3gddEC8jqm9iBC1GOnAu3Qr4qLU3UHVPSR8F-FwUKdHQh6PpXb5-EBQ4Z9E6YfwQ8PVaZc5OuGzGsWsXQrnqCz8BaZArDWHw9SDlDldS-Nr4NrgNa5yjeWkFfrQPSqhOnBYPnYfXRoZPzS-DT5yk2e9Co3J1r8dUpA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM a65619fea772857f83ed4e97994bb73c PDF Text Text KHITA AND KHITA-PERUVIAN. �II I 1 �THE Khita Khita-Peruvian Epoch: and KHITA, HAMATH, HITTITE, CANAANITE, ETRUSCAN, PERUVIAN, MEXICAN, Etc. BY HYDE CLARKE, F.R.Hist.Soc. ; Vice-President of the Anthropological Institute ; Honorary Member of the Anthropological Institute, New York; Corresponding Membir of Ethnographic Society of Paris, American Oriental Society, Societe des Americanistes ; Member of the German Oriental Society ; Honorary Member of the Byzantine Philological Society, Constantinople ; Fellow of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen ; Fellow of Statistical Society ; Corresponding Member of the Society of Engineers of Vienna ; Vice-President of the Society of Arts, etc. LONDON: N. TRUBNER & CO, 57 and 59 LUDGATE HILL, E.C. �EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY M‘EARLANE AND ERSKINE, ST JAMES SQUARE. �PREFACE. The following pages consist chiefly of a memoir read before the Royal Historical Society, for the purpose of giving a brief sketch of the work carried on by myself and others, for the investigation of a great epoch of culture, which preceded the Assyrian, the Semitic, and the Greek, and which, accord­ ing to my views, extended to America, and closed the period of ancient intercourse between the Old World and the New. This essay will be found very imperfect and fragmentary, for it cannot deal with the whole of a subject so wide, and it cannot give exact information on new and obscure epochs, of which little is known, to which investigation is newly directed, and where the results present but a small relation to what remains to be discovered. Indeed, my chief object is to direct the attention of scholars as much as of the public, to these fields of research. It will be noticed that all kinds of names have been used, shifted, and changed, and this must necessarily be the case for what is new and undeterminate. Akkad and Sumerian are as yet conflicting terms, and some most distinguished Semitic scholars deny that there is any Akkad language of a Turan­ ian class. Shifting my ground as circumstances suggest and permit, I have adopted the term Khita, from Dr Birch, but I give it a much wider application. Indeed, the topics of these pages constitute the battle-fields of scholars, Akkad, Etruscan, Hamath, etc. I have extended the ground of controversy by bringing America into connection with the classic regions. If, however, so much controversy and so much difference of opinion exist, nevertheless the solid results are great. The discovery and determination of Akkad constitute an era in scholarship. The explorations of Dr Schliemann in the Troad and Mycenae yield us material proofs. The newest researches of Dr Deecke of Strasburg, as to the derivation of the Cypriote and Phoenician characters from the Assyrian cuneiform, give us facts of importance, and, as in all such cases, new means for further inquiries. It is such progress which encourages us to persevere in the de­ cipherment of Etruscan, Hamath, and Maya. �vi PREFACE. My own part in these labours, although a busy one, has been humble; it has been the task of an explorer, laying open ground for others. Although I have laboured hard on many points, yet if I had limited myself to the complete elucidation of any one, there would have been no one to carry out my work of a general exploration. In this course there is ample encouragement to persevere, because the detailed labours of others, as those of Dr Schliemann and Dr Deecke, have con­ firmed my preliminary investigations. Thus encouragement is given me to persevere in those portions of the inquiry, the more particularly the American, in which the sanction of scholars has not yet been accorded to me. Much of what is here given has, of course, been printed by me before, because the subject is progressive, and because it is only in this way information can be accumulated. There is, nevertheless, even in the books and papers, portions of which are here repeated, much useful to inquirers, for tracing the development of the study, and the names are given of some few of my memoirs on the subject: Ephesus. (Smyrna, 1863.) Assyro-Pseudo-Sesostris. (Bengal Asiatic Society, 1865.) Inhabitants of Asia Minor. (Ethnological Society’s Journal, 7th March 1865.) Proto-Ethnic Condition of Asia Minor, etc. (Ethnological Society’s Journal, November 1865.) On the Prehistoric and Proto-historic Relations of the Populations of Asia and Europe. (1871.) Note on the Hamath Inscriptions. (Palestine Exploration Jour­ nal, 1871). Relations of Canaanite Exploration. (Palestine Exploration Journal.) Pre-Israelite Populations of Palestine. (Palestine Exploration Jour­ nal, 1870.) On the name Britannia. (Society of Antiquaries, 1871.) Researches in Palestine, and Proto-historic Comparative Philology, Mythology, and Archaeology. (Trubner, 1875.) Prehistoric Names of Weapons. (Trubner, 1876.) Siva and Serpent-Worship in Asia, Africa, and America, and the Bribri Language. (Trubner, 1877.) HYDE CLARKE. 32 St George Square, London, S.W. June 1877. �CONTENTS. PAGE Origin of Canaan, Ham, Havilah, Cush,.............................................................. I History of Hittites, ........... Hamath or Khita Inscriptions, ......... 2 3 Comparison with Himyaritic, 8; Cypriote, 9; Warka, Albanian, 10; Etruscan, 11 ; Libyan, 12; Hebrew, 14, ...... 8 Origin of the Alphabet and Syllabary—Square—■ Magic — Prehistoric Symbols, 16,................................................................................................. 13 Canaanite Population—Epoch and Migration of—Peru, ■ . . . .17 Akkad Language—Sumerian—Georgian, 20, 23, . . . . .18 Etruscan—-Tables of Etruscan, Georgian, Peruvian, ..... 20 Georgian, Relations of—Quichua, 24, . . . . . . . .23 Negative Series—Red, Eve, 26, . . . . . . . . .25 Khita-Peruvian Migration—Indo-China—Cambodia—India, . . .27 Affinities of American Grammar—Aymara—Quichua—Othomi, 32—Mexico, 29 Monuments and Culture in Old and New World—Calendar, 35, . .' . 33 Topographical Nomenclature—Examination of T^ble of Town Names of Canaan, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Spain, . . . . .37 Town Names in America—Migration, 67 ; Traditions of Ancient Connection with America, 69, .... ...... Appendix I.— 66 River Names of India, Italy, New Granada, Peru, . . . -73 Lake Names, ........... 73 Mountain Names, . . . . . . . . . *74 Town Names, ........... 74 Appendix II.— Table of Sumerian Words, Akkad, Circassian, Georgian, Etruscan, Mon, Peruvian, Mexican, etc., . . . . . . .81 Note on Dr Deecke’s Identification of Cypriote, Semitic, and Cuneiform, . 85 Index,................................................................................................................... 87 ��ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, KHITA, HAMATH, CANAANITE, LYDIAN, ETRUSCAN, PERUVIAN, MEXICAN, ETC. The Book of Generations, in chap. x. of Genesis, states that Canaan was a son of Ham, and consequently brother of Cush, of Mizraim, and of Phut. This is given again in the First Book of Chronicles, chap, i., ver. 8. Cush (Gen. x. io) held Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. The verse says : “ And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel and Erech,” etc. Again, verse 11 says : “ Out of that land went forth Asshur and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah and Resen, between Nineveh and Calah; the same is a great city.” Asshur (verse 22) was a son of Shem. Cush, therefore, was considered to be a dweller in Baby­ lonia, and not in Africa. This is consistent with Havilah, son of Cush, being Havilah, chap, ii., ver. 11. Of the rivers of Eden, “ the name of the first is Pison, that is it which encompasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold.” Khavilah has been well conjectured to be Kholkis or Colchis, and the river the Pshani, which, as I have pointed out in the Georgian languages, still means a river. The interpretation with regard to Cush is, that he was one of the occupants of the great central kingdom, which included Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, and which was afterwards occupied by Asshur, who issued forth from thence to make his �2 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. campaigns in the west. Gen. x. 15, goes on to say: “And Canaan begat Sidon, his firstborn, and Heth [the Hittite], and the Jebusite, and the Amorite, and the Girgasite, and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the Sinite, and the Arvadite, and the Zemarite, and the Hamathite; and afterward were the families of the Canaanites spread abroad.” The Horite was a Canaanite (Gen. xxxvi. 2). These people were closely related, politically, and probably ethnologically and linguistically, and as one or other took the leadership, so would its name be adopted to signify the whole league, as Hittite, Hamathite, Horite, in the same way as among the Germani, English, Saxons, Germans, Warings, etc. These Canaanites were politically connected with the other members of the family of Ham, who are recognised as holding Western Asia. The Hittites, adopting the compendious ac­ count of Dr W. Smith, are the descendants of Heth or Cheth, the second son of Canaan. The notices in the Bible give us but scanty notion of their power, but the Egyptian annals tell us of a very powerful confederacy of the Hittites on the Orontes, with whom Sether I., or Sethos, fought about B.C. 1340, and whose capital, Ketesh, near Emesa, he captured. In the Egyptian annals the name of Heth is said to stand for Palestine. . Mr George Smith gave, in the Journal of the Palestine Exploration Fund, for October 1872, an account of notices of Palestine in the cuneiform inscriptions. After referring to the invasions of Sargon in the sixteenth century B.C., he found no records until the time of Tiglath Pileser I., about B.C. 1120. He reigned about the time of Eli, judge of Israel. He defeated some tribes of the Hittites, and captured the city of Carchemish, which has so lately been explored by Mr Smith, and the remains of which are justly regarded as of so much importance. About B.C. 870 Assur-nazir-pal marched into Syria, crossed the Euphrates near Carchemish, and Sagara, king of Carche­ mish, paid him tribute. After five years of war, Shalmaneser, �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 3 B.C. 854, advanced into Hamath, destroying the country and ravaging the towns. His advance was resisted by a league of kings of Syria and Palestine, under Benhadad of Damascus, whose armies included 14,000 men under Irhulena of Hamath. The battle took place on the banks of the Orontes, and it checked the march of Shalmaneser. This was followed, how­ ever, by other inroads down to B.C. 846. In B.C. 842 Shal­ maneser was more fortunate, and compelled King Jehu and the kings of Tyre, Zidon, and others, to give him tribute. The successors of Shalmaneser carried on frequent wars in Syria. -Tiglath Pileser, B.C. 743, imposed a tribute on the king of Hamath. In 740 he attacked the city of Hamath. The people obtained the assistance of Azariah, king of Judah, but were defeated, and a large part of their country was an­ nexed to Assyria. Hamath is a city on the river Orontes, in Syria, on the northern border of the Promised Land. It is mentioned at the time of the Exodus as one of the kingdoms, and was an original seat of the Canaanites (Gen. x. 18). Its king, Toi, yielded allegiance to King David (2 Sam. viii. 9). Solomon built stone cities in Hamath (2 Chron. viii. 4). Palmyra was one of those cities, it is said. By the prophet Amos it was called “ great,” and in 2 Kings xvii. 34, it is spoken of by an Assyrian king as one of the chief of his con­ quests. It still has a population of 30,000. The Hamath inscriptions appear to have been first noticed as early as 1812 by Burckhardt (“Travels in Syria,” p. 145, quoted by Burton, “Unexplored Syria,” pp. 138, 333). He says of them : “ In the corner of a house, in the bazar, is a stone with a number of small figures and signs, which appear to be a kind of hieroglyphical writing, though it does not re­ semble that of Egypt.” So, too, it turns out that a Hamath inscription had been previously seen in the south-eastern region of Asia Minor. It was in the same bazar of Hamath that, in 1870, Mr J. Augustus Johnson, the U.S. ConsulGeneral, and the Rev. S. Jessup, of the Syrian Mission, came upon a stone in the corner of a house, which contained an inscription in unknown characters, as Burckhardt had done. �4 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. They did not succeed in getting squeeze impressions, for fanatical Moslems crowded upon them when they began to work upon the stone, and they were obliged to be content with such copies of this and other inscriptions subsequently found on stones over and near the city gate, and in the ancient bridge which spans the Orontes, as could be obtained by the aid of a native painter. Mr Jessup endeavoured to purchase a blue stone, containing two lines of these strange characters, but failed to obtain it because of the tradition connected with, and the income derived from it. Deformed persons were willing to pay for the privilege of lying upon it, in the hope of a speedy cure, and it was believed to be effi­ cacious in spinal diseases. Such was the discovery of these remarkable inscriptions, and in such imperfect form did they come before the scholars of Europe and America. Mr Johnson, like many others, was of opinion the characters were allied to the hieroglyphic. Professor E. H. Palmer saw the copies in the possession of Mr Johnson at Beyrout, and he was so persuaded of their archaeological importance that he induced the committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund to send Mr Tyrwhitt Drake to Syria in 1870 to obtain squeeze impressions and photo­ graphs of the inscriptions. Professor Palmer, concurrently with myself, engaged in their decipherment, but without suc­ cess, as he informed me. Between 28th February and 5th March 1871, Captain R. F. Burton visited Hamah or Hamath (“Unexplored Syria,” p. 333), and at the request of Mr Walter Besant, secretary of the Palestine Exploration Fund, proceeded to inspect the inscriptions. Herr Petermann published some details concerning the inscriptions in the Athenceum (No. 2267) of April 8, 1871 (Burton). In 1871 Mr Tyrwhitt Drake succeeded in getting good squeezes and photographs. The latter I found of little use. Mr Tyrwhitt Drake found an inscription in Aleppo. The material of the Hamath stones is compact black basalt (Burton), polished as if by hard rubbing. The characters are �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 5 in cameo, raised from two to four lines, separated by hori­ zontal framings, also in relief. They are sharply and well cut. Mr R. Biddulph Martin confirmed this from inspection in the Museum of the Seraglio at Constantinople, when removed. “The first thing,” says Captain Burton, “which strikes the observer is, that they must date from the metal ages, and that they are the work of a civilised race.” Minute descriptions of the first found stones are given in “ Unexplored Syria.” Captain Burton thought that the Wusum or marks of the Bedawi clans might lead to the decipherment. Although I think it quite possible that some of the signs may be found among the Bedawi, it is not to be expected that such would afford any key to the meaning. The range of the Hamath characters includes not only the kingdom of the Khita, Khita or Khatti at Hamath and Helbon (Aleppo), but the inscrip­ tions referred to at Ibreez in Lycaonia, and many relics in Babylonia, as the marks identified by me in the plates of Loftus, and the five seals discovered by Mr Layard in the record chamber of the palace of Sennacherib. With regard to the statues at Nimphae and the Ephesus road, Herodotus, as we now know, erroneously attributed them to Sesostris, and affirmed that they bore inscriptions in hiero­ glyphics, which they did not. It appears to me not impos­ sible that these inscriptions were in Hamath or Khita char­ acter. This character has been already traced in Lycaonia; and it bears an actual resemblance to hieroglyphics in its features and dispositions, so much so that on the rediscovery of the Hamath inscriptions, Dunbar Heath and others were led to class them as Egyptian. There is generally some foundation even for a mistake of Herodotus. It may be remarked that the statue in situ is of such friable materials, being cut in the rock, that I have declared, after careful examination, that it never bore an inscription. With regard to the other mutilated statue, rediscovered by Mr Spiegelthal in 1866, it is on a slab cast down, and it must be of very different material from the others. Therefore, it �6 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. occurs to me that one statue may have borne an inscription in Hamathite. This is of interest in reference to the exten­ sion of Khita and the relations. I long since stated it to have relations with Cypriote, Libyan, Himyaritic, and Hebrew. The test first applied by me roughly, as stated, was the simple statistical or numerical method of counting the signs ; and this, having obtained the transcripts from Captain Burton, I repeated more carefully after a better knowledge of the inscriptions from study. The number of signs in the five inscriptions is about 300, and these are thus decomposed, allowing for the best classification our present imperfect know­ ledge allows, and using the most convenient type-symbols : 0, 27; 26; O and C, 24; £5, 21; L, 18; £ 15; I, II; II, 11; V (crossed), n; O, 9; IL, 8; V, 7; knife form, 7 ; S (exclusive of double letters), 7; 3,5; 3, 4- Then there are many which cannot be represented by symbols. These may be subdivided into Single characters, frequently used, . 33 Double letters, etc., .... 5 Characters used once, each,. . -15 The question then presented itself, What is the character of these signs so distributed ? and undoubtedly they answered to the general nature of an alphabet or syllabarium, although we can be by no means assured. The other solutions that were proposed were that the signs are ideographic records or lists of the cattle marks and brands of Arab tribes (Captain Burton). Although some of the marks are used as brands, yet the whole composition does not answer to either descrip­ tion. On any liberal interpretation of them as ideographs, the types are not sufficient to afford any record of war and peace. If we allow them to include a register of cattle brands, then we want signs to indicate the names of the proprietary tribes or individuals, which, after all, would bring us again to some kind of record of words, and thereby to the solution that they are written signs. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 7 Accepting the hypothesis of characters representing sounds as that most probable, and as deserving of further investiga­ tion, the next point is whether they belong to a limited alphabet of letters or to a system of syllabic characters. The number of about fifty types would admit of a syllabic system. The general nature of the inscriptions on inspection is this : we have a variety of single signs, many of which are recurrent; we have some apparent ideographs ; and we have a number of flourishes. These flourishes, however, are not made with a brush or pen casually, but cut in hard stone designedly. It is permissible to consider that some of these flourishes may consist of several characters joined together. One group can be recognised so tied together, and also in its separate members. In the similar or seemingly allied alphabets, liga­ tures, monograms, and double letters are known to have existed, or to exist. The elements are consequently to be distributed as Characters, Ligatures, and Ideographs (real or supposed). This is the gross result at which we must arrive from in­ spection under the numerical method, an approved process for scientific investigation. The next mode of examination is by comparison with alphabets. The Phoenician or Cadmean used in the Hamath district does not correspond. The Himyaritic used in the same region does offer some similitude, so does the Cypriote. The cuneiform also shows correspondence. The Himyaritic or Sabaean character is chiefly known from the inscriptions found near our town of Aden in Arabiaj and from the inscrip­ tions at Axum in Abyssinia. Himyaritic inscriptions have also been found in Mesopotamia or Babyloniaand there are characters on gems from Babylonia, supposed to be Himyaritic. The characters on these gems, and on the bricks from Warka, have a resemblance to the Hamath. The Himyaritic cha­ �8 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. racter was represented in Ethiopia or Abyssinia by the Ethiopic, and is still represented by the Amharic or Abys­ sinian alphabet. A Sabaean grammar is given by Captain Prideaux {Trans. Biblio. Arch. Soc., vol. v.). Many Himyaritic inscriptions are in the British Museum, and a large collection has been published by the authorities of that institution under the direction of Dr Samuel Birch and Mr A. W. Franks. These have been deciphered by the late Dr M. A. Levy of Breslau in the Transactions of the German Oriental Society. These inscriptions are generally in lines or divided by bands like the Hamath inscriptions, but the lines are of single characters, whereas in the Hamath there are rows of characters unsymmetrically set out. The Himyaritic characters are read from right to left. In one inscription there is a monogram (B. Mus., plate i., No. i), undeciphered by Osiander and Dr Levy. In two inscrip­ tions there are hands. We find hands in No. 5 Hamath inscription, the hands being in each case displayed ; but in the case of the Himyaritic inscription, the hands are outside the inscription, and in pairs. These Himyaritic inscriptions (B. Mus., plate vii., No. 11, and plate vii., No. 8) are dedicated to Almakah and Baal. Almakah I regard as equivalent to Moloch. They form the same sign as the blessing of the Cohenim among the Jews. The main characters which correspond in Hamath and Himyaritic are: Characters symbolised. I • • o ■ • Power in Himyaritic or Amharic. Stop. y 1 u n z “i D . • • ■ • • n- to \ O V b SH L M Besides these there are equivalents of H, *, 2, to, H, and n. 1 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 9 The comparison with Cypriote suggests many more points of comparison, because in Cypriote there are arrowheaded or dart-headed characters, as in Hamath. Again we find i, I, O, «S, A, L, S, etc. Of the influence of Hamath on Cypriote, as pointed out by me, no doubt at present exists, and every observer has confirmed it. As we have the syllabic sounds for some of the Cypriote signs, this ought to give us some help towards the sounds in Hamath, but as yet it does not. There is every appearance that in Hamath and in Cypriote the signs had a different value, as they had in Hebrew. Aleph, Yod, Caph, Ayin, and Wau can never have been the original values for the letters, the variant forms of which, no less than other circumstances, throw light on their real meaning. The Cypriote that we have at present is an Aryan adapta­ tion, but we may yet find Cypriote characters with a language allied to Khita. Cypriote shows no less than Libyan and other Western languages that an alphabet passed out first from a Khita source to the west, and that it was afterwards largely modified by Phoenician variants. The words in Cypriote are divided by stops. Many of the characters appear to be double letters, as in Hamath. Some of the inscriptions are read from right to left, but some appear to suggest a former arrangement from top to bottom. Bricks were brought home by Mr Loftus from Warka, in. Babylonia (“Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana,” London, 1859, p. 169), which bear peculiar characters. These have been supposed to be the rude and earliest form of cuneiform, and have accordingly been converted into cunei­ form inscriptions, or accompanied by cuneiform renderings, and translations have been published. The Warka characters or hieratic, however, bear a resemblance to the Hamath and the Cypriote, more particularly to the former. The Warka inscription, if compared with Hamath No. 2, middle line, has this remarkable peculiarity. It also begins with A, and has in its neighbourhood, next to it, A with a staff, again very near it is = also. The same are found in No. 3 Hamath �10 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. second line. Characters nearly similar are found in the be­ ginning or lowest line of No. 5 Hamath. This formula is found under a variant in each Hamath inscription. In the Warka we find a square reticulated or covered with cross lines ; in Hamath A with the staff so treated in Nos. 2 and 5. An inscription at Abydos, in Egypt Journal de la Society Asiatique, series vi., vol. ii., 1868, No. 14), apparently bilin­ gual, is for one portion allied in character to Warka and Cypriote. With Lycian there is a great conformity, the num­ ber of characters showing a correspondence with Hamath being nearly a score. They include : V, A, 1 or T, I, O, V or A, 3, 1AI, Z, 8, Q, 3, n. There are two remarkable alphabets in use in Albania, and which are to be found in Dr Von Hahn’s “ Albanesische Studien” (Jena, 1854). At p. 280 is the long alphabet, and at p. 297 is a short alphabet. These are modern Albanian or. Skipetar alphabets. Dr Von Hahn has devoted much atten­ tion to the larger alphabet, considering that many of the ele­ ments of it are ancient. Of its fifty-two characters many, however, are evidently modern adaptations, but from inde­ pendent investigation I concur with my friend Dr Von Hahn, that many are independent representations of ancient char­ acters. The Albanians are, in a general sense, an unlettered people, but there is no more difficulty in believing that they have pre­ served ancient letters than there is in accrediting, what admits of no doubt, the preservation, in a modified form, of the Lib­ yan alphabet by the Berber tribes, which, like those of the Albanians, are unlettered. The Berber alphabet has under­ gone similar modifications to the Albanian, and particularly in the application of double letters and special sounds. The peculiarities of the Albanian alphabets are so striking that a German savant in the “Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandische Gesellschaft,” published an essay on an attempt to decipher the Lycian inscriptions by means of the Albanian alphabet and languages. This does not appear to �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 11 be successful any more than that of interpreting Lycian, Etruscan, etc., by means of Armenian. The first point with regard to Lycian is to, ascertain what the language is, for even supposing’the transliterations we have to be serviceable, it does not follow that the Lycian language is an Indo-European language, notwithstanding the supposed genitives, because those genitives may be Caucasian. It does not follow be­ cause the modern Albanian alphabet has a resemblance to the Lycian that the powers of the modern Albanian alphabet are the same as those of the ancient Albanian. Still less does it follow, because there is a resemblance between some of the letters, that the Albanian language has any connection with the Lycian. It may be noted that the Albanian grammar shows many traces of resemblance to Caucasian. The reason that we have already found so many points of resemblances in these alphabets is, that one race ruled and one political language was at one time employed in the several regions anterior to the Indo-European, and for this reason the supposed Phoenician or Cadmean influence is not sufficient to account for the phenomena. With regard to Hamath and Albanian the resemblances are few. They include: V or A, l> o, <h or C or □, 8 or 8- There are several points worthy of study in the Celtiberian characters, but I have not been able to collate the materials. The Etruscan also presents points of resemblance to Ha­ math, where it diverges from the Phoenician. The words, numerals, and case-endings of Etruscan, which have been preserved, are susceptible of explanations from the KhitaPeruvian group. The Himyaritic characters having been referred to, and their employment in Ethiopia or Abyssinia, it is to be ob­ served that Professor F. W. Newman, in his Berber studies long since, and Dr Judas of Paris, in his special studies of Libyan, made known points of resemblance between the gram­ mars and alphabets of the respective districts. �1% ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. The chief monument we have in Libyan is the Thugga Stone in the British Museum, a remarkable bilingual monu­ ment, from Thugga, near Tunis, in Phoenician and Libyan, but which has never been published by the Museum authori­ ties. It has, however, appeared several times in print, as in Gesenius, the best copy being that published by Dr A. C. Judas, from a squeeze supplied to him by Dr Samuel Birch. There are also many Libyan inscriptions from Algeria, some with a Latin text published by the Academy of Constantine, or in the Revzie Africaine, and commented upon by Dr Judas, Dr Reboud, etc. There is great diversity of opinion as to the value of the letters and the meaning of the inscriptions, the latest doctrines of the French school being that Libyan is to be interpreted by the Berber alphabets. This is a very natural proposition, as the Berber alphabets, well exemplified in the Tamashek, in the grammar of that language by Colonel Hanoteau, show evidence of descent from the Libyan. It does not follow that the Thugga inscription admits of interpretation by Berber, although it is possible some of the inscriptions of the Roman period are of Berber affinity. In the Thugga inscription we find two languages, one of the conquering Phoenicians or Carthaginians. The other lan­ guage may be that of the aborigines, the Berbers, but it may be that of a former dominant race. Semitic influence cer­ tainly prevailed in North Africa, for it is proved by the family of what are called the Subsemitic languages, showing an abiding influence, testified to by the Himyaritic, and con­ tinued by the extension of the Arabic language even to the shores of the Atlantic. There are, however, ancient geogra­ phical names to be found in North Africa, which conform to the general geographical nomenclature of the ancient world, and which are consequently not Phoenician, and many of the names assumed to be Phoenician very probably do not belong to that class. What the Libyan language was will much depend on the determination of the genitive in the genealogical portions of �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 13 the Hamath and Thugga inscriptions. Dr Judas takes this to be N in Thugga, and to be Berber. The Thugga inscription is in single lines, and reads from right to left from the top, but there is some reason to believe that this is a special arrangement, consequent on the attempt to translate line for line the Phoenician, which is so arranged. Dr Judas has proposed, with reason, to read the Algerine Libyan inscriptions from bottom to top in columns, beginning at the right. The Thugga and Libyan characters which show a resem­ blance to Hamath are nearly twenty, and include: v, i, o, # or 0, & □, 3, n, n, il, z. It is very questionable whether the letters of the Thugga inscription are in the right position. The Thugga inscription we know begins with a genealogy, and it was by means of this Gesenius discovered the symbol for son, which is “. This is the symbol we find in Hamath and in Warka, in a similar position, but in Hamath it is Illi. Each word is divided by a stop. The character II within another II, I consider to be a double letter. The Algerine inscriptions furnish us with some additional characters. Of the Kabyle or Tamashek modern alphabets we have three forms given by Colonel Hanoteau. These alphabets do not agree with each other, nor are they wholly Libyan. They consist partly of a system of dots. To show its peculiarities the following are examples : B or V is represented by 0 ,, X G D R T F S L M N T ,, 99 99 99 99 99 U, A O, D 3 ][ ® II 99 99 99 I + There are various double letters formed with + (T) final. The �14 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. only one that can be represented is for I + (Nt) for 11 + (Lt) we have H with a cross bar, for St a circle O with a cross + enclosed. The materials we may consider available for com­ parison with the Hamath inscriptions are : Himyaritic alphabet and inscriptions. Ethiopic ,, „ Amharic or Abyssinian alphabet and inscriptions. Warka inscriptions. Cypriote „ Lycian „ Albanian alphabet. Celtiberian inscriptions. Libyan „ Berber. Of these, we have satisfactory explanations of the Him­ yaritic inscriptions of Aden, which are in Sabaean, a language allied to the Hebrew. We have bilingual inscriptions of Cypriote, in Phoenician and also in Greek. Lycian, in Greek. Libyan, in Phoenician and also in Latin. It is worthy of consideration what relations exist between the Hamath and the square Hebrew alphabet. The chief forms recognisable are FT C, r, l> & but nothing like a considerable portion of the Hebrew alphabet. In the Ha­ math, however, and in the Hebrew, as in the Himyaritic and Libyan, square forms are to be found. If we look at some old alphabets, as Hebrew, Himyaritic, Libyan, Hamath, Etruscan, old Italic, old Greek, Lycian, Cypriote, Albanian, we find such forms as these: HI=JL-irnu:ZDAV><AVHFd3ElT + X HYWMZSSMK and in rounded forms we have such as : O-oe^ocnubCaD ) C s 8 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 15 Then we have letters with a staff or tail, as in Phoenician and in p (P), X, /z, </>. The shapes of the square letters suggest that they are parts of a square (perhaps of the square of Orion), thus J L 1 T are its four angles, n, U, i, E are the three sides of a square in succession. L is L, “I is "T (Daleth) and "1 (Resh), and T is the Greek Gamma. H is H (He), and H (Cheth, Kheth), in Hebrew, and II (Pi) in Greek. is Beth in Hebrew. D is Mem and Samech in Hebrew. The A of the Phoenician, (Beth) of the Himyaritic and Hebrew, r (Gamma) of the Greek, '1 (Daleth) of the Hebrew (A of the Greek), and H (He) of the Hebrew, are at the be­ ginning of the alphabet in close proximity, and suggest that they belonged to a square, and formed part of a square, thus : r n i a n- There is a square alphabet in modern use known as a secret alphabet. It is formed by two lines (=), crossed by two lines (II), and which, forming a double square, gives nine compart­ ments. Each of these being separated forms a letter. This alphabet may be found in some books on secret writing and cipher, and is a masonic secret alphabet in England, France, etc. It may be founded on the Tau and Orion. The alphabet is worked from left to right at top : J is A, U is B, L is C, J is D, EJ is E, E is F, “] is G, n is H, g is I. The characters are then dotted inside or otherwise. J. is J, i-J. K, etc. A third series is obtained by marking the char­ acters with three dots (.’.). Rabbis and other Jews likewise use this mystic cross as a secret alphabet, but they begin from right to left at top : I is LJ is i, J is 0, E is T 0 is i"T, J is 1. The second series is also obtained by a dot (.), and the third by .’. This carries out the whole Hebrew alphabet, including the final letters, and consequently provides the whole Hebrew numerals. Instead of dotting the first series of nine to make a second �16 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. series, there is, however, another modification of the mystic alphabet, which provides for taking the second series from another double cross formed by crossing the two lines trans­ versely. This gives V A, etc. These geometrical alphabets are carried back to a more ancient date in the works on white magic, and thence still further back to the most ancient epochs of magic and the Cabbula. They may be termed the Cabalistic geometrical alphabet. The Arab and medi­ aeval literature of magic, white and black, is a continuation of the ancient schools of magic, and preserves their traditions. Some of these are still practised in Moslem cities, from Morocco to the far East; and occasionally characters derived from the cuneiform are employed by a Maghrebi magician in charms to cure a sick child, or to lure back the lover of an Arab or Osmanli girl. It is the teaching of the Accad and Assyrian schools of Babylon and Chaldsea, which is made orthodox for the Jew by the great names of God, for the Christian by the invoca­ tion of the Blessed Virgin, for the Moslem in strict conformity with the potent and ineffable power which the votaries of Islam believe to reside in the form and sound of divine words, and which coerce genii, good and bad. The means to beatitude of one powerful sect of dervishes is the compression in sound of Allah Hoo. The characters are the attributes of divinity, and command the spirit world. Several of the magic alphabets exhibit forms adapting not merely the geometrical characters, but others found in the alphabets we have been discussing. Some of these are now casual, but they may be survivals. We find the * of the Cypriote and Warka, but then a character much like it exists in cuneiform. The great Gelghether magic alphabet presents I A, — B, V 1 □, the little Gelghether LI + “ I The Sabaean magic is most like a true alphabet, for its B is LI, its M is M, its S is MM, F is □ crossed, R is V, Th is +. The great and little enchant­ ment give the forms in LU UU, which we find in Hamath and Warka. Thus there appears to have been a continuity of the appli­ �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 17 cation of these Cabalistic forms of a square or double cross (based on the Pleiades or Tau), which was in itself mystical, as it consisted of triads; and there being further three triads, there was, besides the mystic number of three, the great mystic number of nine. If we take a double cross, and then a transverse double cross, and begin according to the ancient method of Warka, Libyan, and Hamath, we begin at the right, but we begin at the bottom, and not at the top, as the Jews now do. The question may arise whether, having begun at I", we should not, according to the Hamath and later Libyan method, work upwards in columns, proceeding to C and L. The Thugga inscription suggests progress horizontally from right to left; and we may return boustrophedon or bull-ploughing in furrows, or as a serpent would wind, as we find on a Him­ yaritic altar inscription in the British Museum series. So, too, in the Hamath inscriptions. In the attribution of sounds and powers to the characters at a most early date, nature-worship exercised a great influence. Thus in cuneiform a star figures as the determinative for a deity. In Chinese, Eye, Sun, Moon, Mouth are allied in char­ acter, as we find them philologically in the prehistoric period. In Hebrew we have Aleph, Waw, Yod, Caph, Ayin, Thau. In our own alphabets we have I, 0, $. In the African lan­ guages the hand and foot are male, and the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, female. In mythology we know that the hand is an emblem for man. In Hebrew the alphabet begins with the equivalent of the star, and closes with the Thau, the emblem of the Pleiades. Upon the grand question of the population of Canaan, Professor Campbell gives us invaluable materials for forming a judgment, in his various and learned papers in the Canadian Journal. This population most probably extended into Egypt, where Brugsch Bey has found four hundred parallel names, and in which I look for the “ Turanian ” element, for Thebes, and the other old names by which Egypt was known to the Greeks, are Sumerian. The intercourse with Caria, too, B �18 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. long continued. The union of Sumerians with Semites ex­ plains the ethnological peculiarities of the Jews, who are evidently a mixed race with two elements. With the absolute chronology of these successions I do not propose to deal. Three thousand years ago the Sumerian race had come in contact with the Semitic, to which it had to succumb. Seven hundred years later is perhaps to be taken as the epoch of conflict with the Aryan race. This, however, gives us no real instrument of measure. We do not suffi­ ciently know how far the members of the Hamitic classes are to be regarded as synchronous. Although the Sumerians were assailed by the Semites three thousand years ago, they were only overcome by the Spaniards four hundred years since ; and in Indo-China they still flourish. The question, therefore, is not the duration of culture in the form of language, but what are the spaces required for its development ? If the Sumerian settlement in Babylonia took place four thousand years ago (see Ernest de Bunsen, “ Chronology of the Bible”), then the settlement in India would be of the same date, if the migration was from a common centre in High Asia, as the division of West and East Sumerian in pronouns, and other details, seems to indicate. The settlements in Indo-China would shortly follow, and afterwards the occupation of Java and the islands. It is quite within compass that Peru was reached three thousand years ago, or even four or five thousand. It is to be observed that the Malay occupation of Australasia must have cut off the Sumerian intercourse with America. Then it is to be taken into consideration that if the intercourse had been kept up at a time when large ships were used by the Phoenicians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, or Arabs, we should have witnessed different conditions. Cattle and horses would have been carried across the Pacific. Had the intercourse from Indo-China to South America been fresh in the memory, the Arab navigators would have heard of it. The Akkad, Accad, or Sumerian must be looked upon as �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 19 a main stock of the class with which we are now dealing. Of the cuneiform inscriptions, the Assyrian and the later Per­ sian had been deciphered, while an early type, named after the kings of Accad, remained obscure. M. Oppert supported a non-Semitic and non-Aryan interpretation, and by the labours of Mons. F. Lenormant many of the characters have now been read, and the language is disclosed to the world. What that language may be has been hitherto a matter oi dispute. The learned M. Halevy has made himself ridiculous by asserting it is no language at all. The chief authorities upon it have shown many alleged relations with VascoKolarian and Ugrian, which, however, are not Ugrian, but prehistoric, while I have confirmed my own forecast {Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1871, pp. 53, 58), that it would be found to have Georgian affinities, and to belong to a Palaeo-Asiatic class. I am now, however, able more dis­ tinctly to assign its position by showing that whatever its affinities may be, it is closely connected in language with the former monument and city building races of the old and new world. In the tenth chapter of Genesis, already referred to, Accad is brought into the scheme of classification under the family of Ham. The early kings of Chaldea entitled themselves rulers of Sumiri and Accad. Dr Hincks, on the strength of inscriptions belonging to Accad, had proposed for the lan­ guage the name of Accad, but M. Oppert directed attention to the fact that the people called themselves Sumir or Sumer, and urged the adoption of the term Sumerian. This appears worthy of support from the nature of allied forms. Samaria, a holy city and country, Semirus in Armenia, and Seumara in Iberia, are perhaps forms of Sumer. Raamah and Rama would be conformable. Armenia belongs to the same stock and epoch. Smyrna (Smurna) and Samorna of Ephesus may also be assigned, as may be Asmurna of Hyrkania and Zimura of Aria. Ephesus and Smyrna must have been great seats of Sumerians. There we have Mount Sipylus (Sipula), with �20 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. the Suburu or statue (Akkad) of Niobe. There is, however, strangely enough, another possible explanation I can suggest in the relation of Sipylus to Sibu, Siva or Seba, and of Niobe to Nebo. The ancients were by no means agreed as to the attribution of the legend of Niobe. It is possible that both of these explanations may have been applied in succession, which is a common phenomenon in mythology. Near is another Lydo-Sumerian sculpture, the Pseudo-Sesostris of Nymphse. Near Ephesus is Pygela or Pugela (Pucala, Pucara, the castle), the R changing to L in this district. Using the term of Sumerian as a general term, we have Accad for Babylonia, and Dr Birch’s term of Khita for Hamath, while we may use Sumero - Peruvian or KhitaPeruvian to cover the whole of the unclassified phenomena of race, language, culture, and mythology. The Georgian languages afford an interpretation of some of the terms of the pre-Hellenic topographical nomenclature of the old world. These languages now include the Karthueli or Georgian, the Swan, the Lazian of Asia Minor, the Min­ grelian, etc. One ancient representative appears to me to have been the Canaanite. While the names of rivers and places are uniform in Asia Minor, the few remains of the language and inscriptions, except the Lycian, which is most likely Lesghian, appear to conform to a Canaanite or Georgian standard. To this, in compliance with ancient tradition, the Etruscan is by me annexed, as it was in 1870 and 1871 {Journal of the Anthro­ pological Institute, pp. 56, 58), although it must be stated that my materials of interpretation have as yet been scanty. The Rev. Isaac Taylor, who has published a book on a Ugrian hypothesis of Etruscan, at the Congress of Orientalists produced a further paper as to the connection of Etruscan with Accad, which is based upon and confirms my views. In illustration of the general connection, and of the interesting question of Etruscan, Tables I. and II. may be referred to. Mr George Smith, in the last moments of his life and dis­ coveries, appears to have confirmed at Carchemish this con­ formity of Etruscan and Khita. �21 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. TABLE I. ♦ America. Georgian. Others. chvalay (Circas­ sian), akun (Mexican). maris, puii ? shwili (akhali, young), krma, bichi, butsi (Othomi). Goat, Ape, Eagle, kapra, arimus, antar, tkhavi, [iremu, stag], arthsiri, bosheth (Canaan­ ite), khapa (Mon), Hawk, aracus, Beetle, Swan, Crane, burrus, tusna, ginis, kori (vulture), archagi (peli­ can), buzi (fly), sawat, ikvi (duck), Heaven, falandum, Apollo (Sun), usil, Diana (Moon), Ghost, shadow, Helmet, Black, tala, hinthial, cassis, thapir, Brown, Strong, kiarthialisa, kahathial, I, me, And, me, cei, Cupid, agfisur, Vulcan, sethlans, gwar, love; shur, desire, tsetskhli, fire, Make, work, kana, qana, Aurora, thesan, Boy, son, Etruscan. agalletor, paka (Peruvian). kondori (Quichua, Peruvian). vonafay (Circas­ sian), zal (Accad). la (Burman), (nitheli, dark), chachkani, shoonseh (Circas­ shavi, sian), kardzi, atta (Circassian), high, mu (Akkad), mi, ancana (Quichua ; eagle, Peruvian). andvui (Misteca). sillo (Aymara; star, Peruvian). citlali (Aztek). llantu (Peruvian). ga (Quichua, Peru­ vian). tletli, fire (Mexi­ can). kana, cut (Aymara, Peruvian). tuna (Akkad), dawn, TABLE II. Etruscan. Georgian. thu, zal, huth, ki, kiem, sas, be[m]ph, alchl? etc. Circassian. essa, oh, shee, htsan, as, shoa, sau, Canaan. moe, 1. makh, 2. 34. 5. 6. 7. 10. Camb., Akkad. sami, othkhi, khuthi, ekusi, shwidi, sam, Peruvian. mai. yscay. kimsa. ttahua. sojta. pakalko. kalko. �22 •ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. In the following illustrations the same characteristics as in Etruscan are to be found : Asia Minor. Earth, gissa (Lydian), Water, Rock, Garden, vedu (Phrygian), taba (Carian), ganos (Phrygian), Village, town, Fat, oil, deba (Thracian), pikerion (Phrygian), Sheep, ma (Phrygian), Horse, ala (Carian), King, gala (Carian), W. and E. Asia. America. yatta (Circas.); khsach labtayeh (Huastec) ; (Cambodian), tepe (Aztek). pseh(Circas.); pi (Mon), tepe (Aztek). kana (Georgian); gana (Accad), daba (Georgian), deba (Guarani). pshey (Circas.); pa? raccu (Quichua). (Accad), maylley (Circas.); me, llama (Peruvian). goat (Cambodian), ♦ la, animal syllable (Accad), ungal (Accad), One source of Etruscan, as of some other extinct languages, is to be traced to the same process of “survival” as in all anthropological departments. Latin will, when duly worked by analysis, form a rich mine. Survivals of Etruscan in Latin. Goat, . Spring, Sieve, Old, Straw, Seat, . . pipe, . . Crime,. Brush, . capra, . scaturigo, scatebra, etc., cribrum, vetus, . stipula,. scabellum, . scamnus, scelus, . scopetus, tkhavi (Georgian), tsqori. tsqaroni. tskhrili. azvili. thskepli. tsodva. tsetskhi. While Canaanite and Hamath come within the Hamitic scheme of Genesis, and are so far allied to Sumerian, which their character of culture supports (Journal of the Anthropo­ logical Institute, 1871, p. 58), yet there are divergences of language and of culture so great that I cannot but regard the Canaanitic, Lydian, and Etruscan, as constituting a distinct �23 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. branch, at present to be assigned to Sumerian, but perhaps afterwards to be subdivided. It will most likely be found that Accad and Khita, being separate stocks, others are to be assigned to each of them. Hamath, Carchemish, or some such local metropolis, most likely afforded the centre of a distinct development of civilisa­ tion, with tribal forms of language and mythology, and pro­ ducing syllabic and alphabetic characters, afterwards attributed to the Phoenicians. Georgian and Akkad have double plurals, the remains of a prehistoric characteristic, and there are re­ semblances in the verbs and numerals, but there are dissimi­ larities. The Georgian double plurals -ni and -bi figure as third personal pronouns in Akkad. These particles are not without resemblance to negatives. At an early period of the examination of Georgian, I was much struck with the propensity for sticking in or inserting consonants, as in Mexican and other languages. The imme­ diate explanation of the tl in Mexican is, however, to be sought in Circassian. In Georgian it is perhaps th. The exact affinities of Georgian are not shown by the ex­ isting members of the Sumero-Peruvian or Khita-Peruvian class. Some are found in Ka, a language allied to the IndoChinese group, and some in Cambodian, yet Georgian is evi­ dently related to Etruscan. Thus : Georgian, Head, Mouth, River, Rock, Mountain, Stone, thawi, piri, . mdinare, Cambodian. tuwi (Ka). soar, daktani (Ka); tanle. tamoe, „ The elements of Georgian are found in the numerals: I, arthi, G. (trao, Ka) ; 2, ori (bur); 3, sami (tarn); 4, othki (chin); 5, khouthi (Ka); 8, rwa (peh) ; 9, tskhra (tsar, Khong). Ka is found for 5 on the left hand in Mon. The Georgian nume­ rals equal the left-hand Mon and Ka numerals. �24 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Comparison of Akkad and Georgian Grammar. Akkad. = Nouns more than one plural, = Emphatic form ending in a vowel, . = Negative series, ..... = Formation of persons of verbs, = Formation of participle, = Formation of negative verbs by the prefix Nu, = Resemblance of numbers, = Insertion in verb Of pronouns governed, = Use of post positions, .... —■ Use of Ni, Bi, .... . = Use of M, S,................................ Georgian. The following table shows the comparison of Akkad : Comparison of Akkad and Quichua Grammar. Akkad. Quichua. Noun, emphatic state, a None. Dual = 2 (kas) . J? Dual regarded = 2 (pura) pronouns postpositional 99 several plurals . 99 pl. -ene 99 = -cuna, -ntin. -mes 99 plural by duplication . 99 locative -ta. 99 = -ta, through. ablative -na 99 = -nae, wanting. opportune -gal . 99 = ? -ccepi (after, behind), Verbs governed, . persons not the same. pronouns incorporated plural -une, -ne . 99 = -un ? -mus, -s . 99 -chic. gan, to be, exist. 99 = can, to be. [plural, Noun, numeral used without Adjective after noun, before noun. Pronouns S. 1 ? 2 ? 3, two forms, Pl. 3, • • „ Demonstrative some resemble = Conjunction Cama, with, and = cama, according as, Numerals, many . = all. ordinals -kam =nequen. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 25 It is in what I term the negative series that one of the leading laws of prehistoric philology and mythology is to be found. Under this the negative No or Not is the equivalent of Night or Black (Niger). It is also the equivalent of woman, as the negative, man being treated as the positive. So all female names become negative, as wife, Eve, ewe, hound ( = bitch), she-goat, cow, mare, etc. Death, kill, executioner, * have negative relations. So have egg and nit, and secondarily pea, bean, and nut (as resembling an egg). Ear and head appear to be negative. Nephele, in mythology, is one of the forms of Khaveh or Eve. Shadow is a negative, and in some cases equivalent to soul and night. In Guarani there is an ingenious distinction between the soul of the living and the dead; and so of a head, bone, skin. The soul of the dead man is supposed in many countries to lodge in birds. This may be one ground why the bird is negative, as bearing the soul of the dead. Blood is a negative apparently as related to death. Hence red is a negative, and some curious mytho­ logical and archaeological conditions arise, for red is likewise the equivalent of the number two. Dr Zerffi informs me that red was the second colour in various positions, as on dice and on temple terraces, but this requires closer investigation. Mr Park Harrison and Mr J. Jeremiah have observed the use of red as a colour widely pre­ valent in the regions now under consideration, for the purposes of this investigation. The red hand figures equally in Syria and in America. The virtue of red as a preservative against the evil eye is referred to in Walter K. Kelly’s “ Curiosities of Indo-Euro­ pean Traditions and Folk Lore,” p. 147. In Buchan, Aber­ deenshire, the housewives tie a piece of red worsted round their cows’ tails before turning them out to grass for the first time in the spring. It is, however, better shown in Germany (p. 229), where herdsmen lay a woman’s red apron, or a broad axe covered with a woman’s red stocking, before the threshold * In another relation woman becomes the equivalent of the Yona and mouth, and by her periodicity, resembling that of the moon, the equivalent of that body. �26 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. of the cow-house, and make the animals step over it. The bringing together of woman, cow, and red, is noteworthy. The lady-bird seems to hold its place in folk lore as being red (p. 95). It is held unlucky to kill a lady-bird in Germany, as the sun would not shine the next day. It is possible that the robin redbreast owes his mythical place to the same characteristic, and it is also unlucky to kill him. The wood­ pecker has a red head or mutch (p. 86), and a black body. Bad is negative, as is naked. Sleep and dream are negative, as belonging to the night series. Salt is negative. Water, in some senses, is a negative, and appears to be connected with woman. Night was the negative of day, or the closing of the eye, and it had its own world of darkness, with its night sun, its sleep, and its dreams. It was the domain of shadows and the ultimate refuge of the soul. Its mythological relations in this respect will best be studied in the treatment of animism by Mr Tylor. There are few prehistoric, protohistoric, or historic languages which do not display the negative series. Among such may be named : Wolof, Agaw, Vasco - Kolarian (very marked), Ugrian, Egyptian, Sumerian (very marked), Dravidian, Semi­ tic (not strongly marked), Aryan (very marked). For Aryan, a popular illustration is afforded by not, night, nut, nit, naked, nest, snow, Eve, ewe, egg, wife, cow, nox, nix, nex, nux, nec, non, nudus, nidus, nodus, niger, nubes, ovis, ovum, avis, uva, caput, auris. The way in which the negative roots are distributed among the various branches of a class is peculiar, and affords a dis­ tinction. Thus Latin uses N largely, and O (KR) sparingly; Greek, M, O, largely, and KR or KL sparingly. Thus Aymara uses P, K, H ; Mon uses P (sparingly), K, H (sparingly), and T. In reality, the dissyllables are chiefly the same, for the O (ovum, oon) is nothing but the K, B, and KB of the VascoKolarian and Sumerian Kaba, Paka, and the KR (Karua, Auris, etc.) that of the Sumerian Raka. The words for woman, as Khaveh, Eve, Agave, Hebe, Ne- �27 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. phele, Wife, have descended through ages as the formula for verbal mythology, and hence figure so largely in the earliest records of Genesis, in the traditions of the Eastern Mediter­ ranean, and among the Aryans. A sufficient example will be afforded by the following : Negative Series. Mon of Pegu. Aymara. Moon, Red, Two, Ear, Head, Night, River, No, Not, Salt, Bad, Bitter, Black, ab, ab, a, ab, ab, be, c, c, c, C, b? paksi, pako, papaya, (paoki,) phekai. haipu, hahuire, hani, hazu, •.. haru, chamaka ? b, ab, a, b, b, b, a, c, a, be, b, b, khatu. hpakit. pa. khato. katan. khatan. pi. ha. po. hakha. katan. katsan. The dissyllable is largely developed with the negative. It should be mentioned that a negative is not necessarily a prefix or suffix, but in prehistoric grammar may be intercal­ ated, as in Gondi (Khond), Vasco-Kolarian, and Sumerian Akkad or Khita-Peruvian. A middle negative may depend on the same principle. The question may be incidentally considered, whether the Sumerian population of Indo-China was supplied from Baby­ lonia, or from a common centre in High Asia. In my view, it was from the common centre, because although there are great affinities between the Sumerian or Akkad and the eastern analogues, yet there are greater affinities between these latter among themselves, and there are common points of dissimi­ larity from Sumerian. There were most probably two migra­ tions in succession to the Agaw. One embraced the Akkad, Mon, Cambodian, Aymara, and Maya (and Toltek?). The other, the Georgian, Etruscan, Siamese, Quichua, and Aztek. The earliest may, however, have been the Circassian Otomi. �28 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Proceeding onwards, Indo-China, or the southern districts of the further peninsula beyond India, may be treated as one linguistic area. They include Pegu in the west, Siam in the middle, and Cambodia in the east. This region was known to the ancients as being held by populations in a state of advancement. Pegu is the country at the mouth of the Irrawaddy, and was formerly independent, but fell under the dominibn of the Burmese empire. In 1852 the province, with the towns of Pegu, Prome, and Ran­ goon, was taken by the English. The people call themselves Mon, but are called Talain by the Burmese. The language is a most valuable member of the Sumerian for illustration. There are large ruins. Siam lies in the middle of India, beyond the Ganges, and is the seat of a great and settled empire. The Siamese people and language are, however, of less importance to us in this inquiry, at this period, than are the others. Kambodia, or Camboja (Kan-phu-cha, Chinese), is the western part of Annam or Cochin-China, on the Saigon and Cambodia rivers, bordering on eastern Siam. Of late years it has been attacked by the French, who have taken and hold Saigon. The great marble ruins of the ancient capital of the Thinae, near Saigon, have long been known. The Cambodians were remarked by the early Arab voyagers as manufacturers of very fine linen. The natives call themselves Kammer or Khmer (=Aymara). Kitaya too, or Indo-China, may be only another form of Khita, equivalent to Kissii or Cissii, and to Quichua. It is to be observed that the explored monuments of Cambodia are not ancient like those of Baby­ lonia, but rather modern and synchronous with those of Peru and Mexico, but it is probable earlier remains will be found. Cambodia has been studied by M. Mouhot, by M. Garnier in his large and valuable work, and lately by Mr Kennedy in his paper read before the Indian Section of the Society of Arts (Journal, 1873-74), when I presided, and had the oppor­ �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 29 tunity of giving some early explanations of the linguistic relations as recorded in the journal of the Society. The ancient kingdom of Camboja, in India, which gave name to the Gulf of Camboja, or Cambay, has engaged the attention of Indian archaeologists, but not to the degree its importance merits. In the later history of this kingdom it was still considerable, but it was the representative of an ancient and perhaps the earliest civilisation of India, belong­ ing to that epoch, which was universal, of which General Cunningham has found the examples. The river names of India are repeated in New Granada, on the one hand, and in Etruria and Italy on the other. In conformity, as I stated in a note sent to the International Congress of Orientalists in 1874 (N. Triibner), the town names obey the same law. It was from India, and not from Babylonia, that we may, as said, assume that the stream of civilisation passed towards the Pacific, and in India will yet be found the origin and remains of early letters, the influence of which to this day will still be recognised. The two names of the hundred-streamed feeder of the Indus, /z^sudrus (100, Georgian), and ZWudrus (100, Sanscrit), are worthy of note ; as also athasi (1000, Georgian), and athasi (88, Hindustani). The affinities of grammar between the new world and the old, though dealt with by various writers, as in the “ Mithri­ dates,” were only scientifically treated by a few, as by Hum­ boldt, the Rev. Richard Garnett, and Dr Daniel Wilson (“Prehistoric Man,” p. 594). Characters common to the Polynesian had been recognised, but Mr Garnett pointed out that besides these, others were to be found common to the languages of the Dekkan in India. On the other hand, Dr Oscar Peschel, in his “Volkerkunde,” 1874, p. 472, still maintains that the culture of Peru and Mexico was indigenous. Mr Tylor also (“Early History of Mankind,” p. 209) says: “No certain proof of connection or intercourse between Mexico and Peru seems as yet to have been made out.” This ex­ presses the state of prevalent opinion, and although the �30 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. materials for linguistic investigation are abundantly displayed in Dr Latham’s valuable “ Elements of Comparative Philo­ logy/’ such opinion has been little contested. In fact, although the languages are allied, yet that alliance has to be demon­ strated from the outside, and until the disinterment and de­ cipherment of the Sumerian or Akkad inscriptions, it was almost impossible to be proved. The Aymara and Quichua languages of Peru, the Aztek of Mexico, and the Maya of Yucatan, are all allied with the Indo-Chinese, and thereby with the Akkad as Sumerian. Even to the negative series and numerals the points of resem­ blance are remarkable. Some of these resemblances between Akkad and Quichua had, on the perusal of M. Lenormant’s works, struck Senor de la Rosa, a distinguished Peruvian scholar, and, on the reading of my paper at the Anthropolo­ gical Institute, he referred to several examples lying on the surface. He also referred to resemblances between Quichua and Semitic and Aryan. These I treated as resulting from the influence of Sumerian and the older languages on Semitic and Sanskrit. The Rev. Professor Campbell of Montreal has furnished me with a large number of analogies between the Peruvian words cited by me and Celtic. In Peru and Bolivia the chief languages now are the Quichua, or Inca, and the Aymara. Of the Aymara, a copious and valuable memoir was on the 21st June 1870, communicated to the Ethnological Society (parent of the Anthropological Institute) by the late David Forbes, F.R.S., and this constitutes a text-book. The language of the Aymaras is spoken in southern Peru and northern Bolivia. They were conquered by the Incas. The Quichua is spoken in northern Peru and southern Bolivia. The Aymaras claim to have been a great people before the Inca conquest (1100), perhaps beyond any South American people. Ruins of grand palaces and temples are found at Tiahuanaca, on the south of Lake Titicaca (Forbes), the capital of the Aymara land. The conquest of it was completed- in 1289, but was followed by serious revolts. Forbes says, too �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 31 (p. 4), that, according to Indian traditions from Aymara as well as Quichua sources, the Aymaras, even before the time of the first Inca, Manco-Capac (1021-1062), possessed a de­ gree of civilisation higher than that of the Incas themselves. Consul Hutchinson maintained before the Anthropological Institute a like doctrine as to the Chimoos. The Aymara area has been supposed to be limited to that now occupied by them, but it is to be observed that the names found in the neighbourhood of Lake Titicaca are much better developed in New Granada. It is therefore evident that the Aymara, or perhaps pre-Aymara, occupation must have extended so far north. Mr Clements Markham con­ siders that the Inca empire never reached so far northward, and Mr Forbes was not aware of such an extension of the Aymara as must now be allowed for. Aymara is possibly the equivalent of Kerner or Khmer, the name of the Cambodians, and of the Sumer, the name of the people connected with Accad. Quichua, in Peru, and Quiche, in Mexico, may re­ present the Kissii or Cissii, or Khita ; and these again may be connected with Cush or Akush. Of the Quichua or Inca lan­ guage and people it is not necessary to say so much, as they are more familiarly known, and have been and will be inci­ dentally referred to. To the Quichua language Mr Clements Markham has de­ voted himself, and produced a grammar and dictionary which have been of very great service in these investigations. I have also employed the “ Arte of Torres Rubio,” on which his grammar is founded. This work of Mr Markham’s is likely to be of more importance even than he anticipated, now that Quichua and Aymara must be studied for the comparative grammar of Akkad. Senor de la Rosa and Senor Pacheco are engaged on new Quichua grammars. The Aztek culture of Mexico, as Humboldt-well saw, was derived from the old wrorld, as was its language, which is to be classed with Sumerian, but intermediate between Aymara and Otomi. The Otomi, Cora, and Tarahumara, with perhaps the Huas- �32 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. teca, constitute a class under Sumerian influence, but allied with the Adighe or Circassian, which likewise exhibits Sume­ rian influence, and has a remarkable but distant resemblance with Etruscan. In the Caucasian languages, I had long since traced what are called North American characteristics, and others I found in the Georgian, but the cause was unknown to me till of late. A considerable influence must have been exerted by the Agaw and Otomi migrations on the Indian languages of North America. The presence of the Circassian-Otomi has to be accounted for. The higher Sumerians are marked as a city-building people, but the Circassian in the Caucasus is what the Otomi is in Mexico. The Otomis must have preceded the Sumerians in South America, or been driven forward by them as the Agaw-Guarani were into Brazil. The Otomis may have had connections or dealings with the monument-building races of North America. At a later date, on the Sumerian kingdoms in Mexico becoming weaker, they returned and invaded Mexico. Dr Latham (“ Opuscula Essays,” i860, p. 395) gives “the result of a very hurried collation,” for the Otomi, “ said to be with languages akin to the Chinese en masse” (p. 397), and for the Maya (p. 398). The latter list is chiefly of Aztek words. He makes no remarks, but the tables show many affinities with Tonkin and Cochin-Chinese. Had Dr Latham followed this up, he might probably have obtained the clue to the relation of the Mexican languages, though he might have been baffled, as some of the affinities can only be illustrated by bringing together the Quichua and Aymara as members of the group, and the Akkad then undeciphered. It is, in fact, now a part of the evidence that Humboldt, Garnett, Latham, etc., are found to have contributed material for the true solution. The history of Mexico is supplied from accessible sources. Its best known language is the Aztek. On the preceding Toltek, I can throw no light. The monuments and culture �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE; ETC. 33 of Mexico may, after the reference already made to them, be passed over. Sufficient to say, that the monuments are of great dimensions and highly decorated. Yucatan possesses similar remains, described by J. L. Stephens. The Maya, a language formerly cultivated, comes distinctly within the Sumerian class. In “ Incidents of Travel, by J. L. Stephens, in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan,” vol. ii., are hieroglyphics, which are arranged in rows, and appear to present some of the principles of the cuneiform or hieratic, as III U HI HU □ II. The same is to be observed at Palenque (ii. 342, 424). These latter present even more resemblance to the Hamath inscriptions, as ® ©, also the extended arm (see also Hissarlik and Easter Island) is worth further examination. The square hieroglyphics, or rather squares of hieroglyphics, found in Central America, are most probably only a modifica­ tion of the row or column of hieroglyphics in the Yucatan and- Hamath, and which has a representative in hieratic cuneiform. The carvings on the rocks at the Yonan Pass, in Peru, engraved by Consul T. J. Hutchinson (“ Peru,” ii. 174, 176), are deserving of study. Some of the characters are idiographs, but some likewise present a resemblance to Hamath and other characters ; and Easter Island inscrip­ tions, on which Mr Park Harrison has laboured, deserve attention. In Polynesia the remains of massive stone build­ ings have been found in Tongatabu, Easter Island, Rota, Tinian, Valan, and elsewhere (Wilson’s “ Prehistoric Man,” p. 109). To these may be added Java, Pegu, Cambodia, Peru, Mexico, and Yucatan. Among the facts adduced by Mr Park Harrison for the migration from east to west, through Australasia, he refers to colossal heads in the east, and in Easter Island. Colossal heads will be found in Stephens’ “ Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan,” vol i., pp. 139, 143, 150, 152, 153, and 328. They have been identified in Babylonia, Cambodia, Easter Island, and Peru. M. Perrot, under the name of Lydo-Phrygian, and myself, c �34 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. under the name of Lydo-Assyrian, and which I would now call Lydo-Sumerian, have pointed out the westerly extension of the monuments in Asia Minor, including the Niobe, near Magnesia ad Mseandrum, and the Pseudo - Sesostris, near Nymphae, in the Smyrna district. To this may be added the colossal head from the outskirts of Smyrna, found by Mr F. Spiegelthal in 1865, and identified by me, and brought to the British Museum by Mr G. Dennis. The name of LydoAkkadian is perhaps still better for these monuments. The use of enormous blocks of admirably squared stone, without cement, is a feature common to both continents, and deserving of investigation, as well as the mode in which such blocks were quarried and transported. In South America there were no beasts of burthen available. The employment of bricks and cement, and generally the adoption of the build­ ing arts, are also worthy of careful examination. Stephens, in his “Yucatan,” vol. i., p. 134, gives a very remarkable engraving of a capital of a column at Uxmal, of old world character. At Uxmal there are buildings con­ structed on terraces and mounds, as there were at Babylon (i. 135)- This is worth observing for further comment. Burial towers are to be recognised in Syria, Persia, India, Siam, and Peru. The knowledge of bronze, goldsmiths’ work, silver work, and other metallurgy, has not passed unobserved by writers. Gold dentistry has been recognised in Peru and Egypt (Tylor, “Early History of Mankind,” p. 175). The employment of bronze in America presents no difficulty under the acceptation of a Sumerian settlement. If the Agaws did not become acquainted with the large tin supplies of Malacca, the East Sumerians did, as they were acquainted also with the working of gold and silver; hence they readily in­ troduced these arts into America, or rather improved them, because the mound builders were acquainted with copper and bronze working. Although the Sumerians, as the topographical nomenclature shows, were acquainted with tin in Britain before the Phoenicians, it is probable Malacca, and not Britain, was the great seat of the early supply of tin. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 35 Consul Hutchinson (“Peru,” ii. 266) institutes a justifiable comparison between the masonry and pottery of ancient Peru observed by himself, and the prehistoric discoveries of Dr Schliemann in the Troad. In fact, if my views are correct of the Lydians, Phrygians, and Carians of Asia Minor, with the Etruscans and Sumerians, then there would be a positive identification of epoch and class between the Troad and Peru. In Peru, drinking cups and other articles were buried with the dead, as in Etruria, Greece, etc. The Peruvian cups were supposed to be used for drinking at the funerals (Forbes, 49). The woven fabrics are also to be noted in connection with Peru and the country of the Thinse or Cambodia. The quipu or knotted cord, as a record, is found in Peru, Mexico, Hawaii, Polynesia, the eastern archipelago, and China (Prichard, iv. 466; Tylor, “Early History of Man­ kind,” pp. 156, 160). The scape llama referred to by David Forbes (p. 45), may be compared with the scapegoat of the East. Sacrifices of men to the gods were used by the earlier races, as the Dahomans, but it is to be noted that they were a prac­ tice also of the worship of Baal, and in Peru and in Mexico (Wilson, “Prehistoric Man,” pp. 81, 91, 290), as well as in the East. Von Humboldt long since noticed the connection of the Mexican calendar with the Asiatic, and deduced therefrom the Asiatic origin of the civilisation (see also E. B. Tylor, “Anahuac,” 241). The Yucatan calendar is allied to the Mexican. The subject of the calendars and inscriptions, to­ gether with the Peruvian and Central American languages, for a long time occupied the late Chevalier Bollaert, the author of the “ Peruvian Antiquities,” and of many memoirs, particularly on the Maya alphabet. The half month in the early Maya or Yucatan calendar consisted of thirteen days (Stephens’ “Yucatan,” i. 439). The Siamese, likewise, use as an essential part of a date a half month. This now consists of fourteen days. �36 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. The dates in Siamese are arranged on a cross (+). In Yucatan, part of the cycle was placed on a wheel divided into four, practically, N., E., W., and S. The two systems show a resemblance, and the cross may represent the spokes of a wheel. The Yucatan calendar, which was the same as the Mexican, has lucky and unlucky days, still a common system in the East. The calendar and the alphabet are closely connected to­ gether by a symbology illustrated by Mr Narrien and Mr R. G. Halliburton. * In the middle of November we have in a line : i star, . . . . * Sirius. 3 stars, inthe belt of . * * * Orion. q stars, . . . . * * % Bull. 7 stars, cross or Tau, . . Pleiades. The Pleiades, or Seven Dancers, are to this day in many countries, as of old, said to be the paradise of the souls of men. This day of the conjunction of the Pleiades is, according to seasons, the beginning of the sacred or of the agricultural year, and the festival of the dead. This great and awful day has, too, in many ages and in many lands, been celebrated by human sacrifices. Here is the natural basis of that symbology, which has played such a part in all times, and which supplies at natural intervals I, 3, 5, and 7. It is also, to all appearance, a basis of natural worship, and of syllabic or symbolic characters. At the beginning of the alphabet we have the star (, or ) * its equivalent; at the end, the cross or Tau of the Pleiades (P- V)The straight line ( —) of three stars in Orion, and the angle (<) of the five in the Pleiades, have afforded models for characters, as the Tau has done. * See my “Prehistoric Comparative Philology and Mythology,” appendix; W. F. Blake’s “Astronomical Myths,” p. Ill, and the work of Ernest de Bunsen, now in the press. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 37 As these furnished the straight and male elements, Sirius itself being probably an emblem of the sun at night, so did the moon afford the round and female elements for the com­ binations of the syllabacy. In the Hebrew square alphabet, which bears evidence of preserving the prehistoric traditions, and which is probably older than the Phoenician and not newer, we have Aleph, Yod, Caph, Ayin, Pe, Tau ; Aleph and Tau being beginning and end, and Yod and Caph being together in the middle of the alphabet. These two distinctly represent prehistorically male and female, and being described in Hebrew as the hand and the hollow or palm of the hand, as before stated (p. 17). The cross has been found by Dr Schliemann in the Troad. The cross is derived from the Pleiades. The square cross is common among the Aymaras (D. Forbes, 39), and was ob­ served by Stephens in Central America. The red hand seen in the monuments of Yucatan (Stephens), Bollaert says he has seen as far as Arica in Peru (“Anthro­ pology of the New World,” p. 114). It is common in Syria and Morocco (Dr A. Leared’s “Travels in Morocco Rehlf’s “ Morocco ”). The Honourable Mr Clay points out that the umbrella was a mark of dignity among the Peruvians, as it was in Babylonia, and is still in the Indo-Chinese countries. Mr W. Chappell, P'.S.A., states that an ancient Peruvian flute gives a scale, showing that the Peruvians used a scale illustrative of that used by the ancient nations of the old world, and giving evidence of a common origin. The disposition of seven pyramids or mounds by four and three in Egypt and America is probably due to the four outside stars and three inside stars in Orion, but may refer to the Pleiades. The traces of use of Kawa in Brazil, Chili, and Polynesia most likely belongs to the preceding migrations of the Agaw or Guarani race. It is with a view of strengthening the chain of evidence that attention is now directed to the town names of Palestine. �38 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. These, down to the end of Chronicles, are about four hundred in number. It is possible that some Hebrew names may be embraced in the list, but exact identification is not yet pos­ sible, and a casual error is of no immediate importance. The first step is to arrange these names, as far as may be, according to their roots, and it will be seen that they thus fall into a smaller number of classes than might be supposed, and into distinct classes. The classification by roots may appear fanciful to some, the more particularly as the consonants are sometimes trans­ posed. This is itself an important phenomenon of the pre­ historic epoch, and which has been already referred to as used for the purpose of differentiation. It is possibly in reference to this that transposition is to be found in local names. The last part of Dr Carl Abel’s great work, “ Keptische Studien,” largely deals with transposition or metathesis of the roots ; and the fourth part, the “ Comparative Philology of Hiero­ glyphic and Coptic,” is greatly dependent on metathesis for many of its results. It has been already stated that the Rev. Professor John Campbell of Montreal has for a long period assiduously devoted himself to the study of the personal, tribal, and local names of Scripture, with a view to determine the eponyms. Besides his papers in the Canadian Journal, and the separate publication of them, his researches will be now better known by means of the paper contributed by him this year to the Biblical Archaeological Society. In this he deals much with names in the Babylonian district, and shows great pro­ bability of their survival even to the present day. It is to be observed that the possession of a tribal name, or of a lan­ guage, is no positive evidence of descent. Celts speak Eng­ lish. The Achaian Greeks apparently represented tribes of older and other Agaw race ; and if Cymry be continuous with Cimbri or Cimmerii, as Rawlinson and other scholars have taught, it may also be continuous with older forms, like Khmer, as proposed by Professor Campbell, but by no means of the same descent. The Emperor of Germany was King of the �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 39 Romans, as Agamemnon was King of the Achivi, and Mal­ colm of the Picts and Scots ; but this did not involve descent, unless by an heiress. For the purpose of comparison with the archaeological regions referred to, the corresponding names are classified in four groups: ist. Asia Minor, including Armenia, and with Caucasia, Crete, Cyprus, and the Asiatic islands. 2d. Greece, with the northern regions, including Thrace and Illyria, and with the Greek islands. 3d. Italy, with Istria, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. 4th. Spain, with the Balearic Isles. The names here given do not constitute the full list, but they are given copiously, because the cases of identity are numerous and striking, and, if a few only were given, they might be suspected to be merely casual coincidences or freaks of language, such as may be picked out from the most dis­ cordant languages. Here it is not so, and careful examina­ tion will show that the results must be true, and what they ought to be. �40 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. g Comparison of Canaanite Town Names. co ‘S o H o 175 CO H % g H cn a < £ cd C) <D <U cfl {fl o o Jig X : ££ 2 g • 8 <5 g CO co Ph § : _ • 8 ’cn <U cd N cd M : cd 8 of Ph a • .h o l.g cd cd s § <V cd Xi XI co co N co : 8 g g ■ •£ 8 g ’ .rt cd ,td pstfg Q P4 S : • • : »-« •: • cd • : 8 ; cd H : 8 g t3 g • cd S cd l : S g rd • r-i cd : S c • cd o = o wh<K HO •5 Q s £ Q �MDN ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 41 �42 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. o o ci g’ >5 *1 ■ s' .H 'S S ci Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. <Z) g 5 Ph o a o S N >-) £ § C/2 55 W £ W C/2 § C/2 m pi �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC, 43 �44 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. i g' Ph Town Names—Continued. C/2 Comparison of Canaanite I W g cn M Ph �45 BRK Rabbah ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. & ffl <z> Pi PA tn pa tn PA Q tn PA �46 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. tn 'in G Ph C/2 ; *5 3 • G h-J * .2 in' o .&1 2 : gJ • • 2 •H o : • : S • h-3 = * • : ~G 52 o* G 2 Ph "g Cu o Tj Lg PL( < ffl o G <u G O : g . 5m • 5m • g H gT r2 o Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. ,S .2 "H <L> g .2 'G .2 *2 in J> x " ‘55 ci S :|8 Lusitania g « g « 8 £> ci *35 5m g ci h-4 H m G O o I *1 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 47 �Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. 48 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. D 49 �50 Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. cd ,g ’o 5-, r >33 is M is § &coio CO ~ S3 ~ ~ 3 A A cT.S ^cs ,S '5 S ’3 "s^A 3s * r~r cd rr Ka -4 ’ —» * <u ~ Cd IT1 »—< 3c-J o os M g H <z> M >-) _ __ K qj r~ rti CL CL £ mScWdW Q £ M GJ r<D r± Gi 00U0S �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC, 51 �52 1J ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 53 �Comparison of Canaanite Town Names—Continued. 54 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. g o H ' * J* HH <1 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. i-l cn cn CO 55 �OMPARISON OF Canaanite Town Names—Continued. 56 ■ ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 57 The identification of these names does not depend on simple general resemblance. They will be found to afford details of relationship, which again become of great importance to pre­ historic investigation. The prefixes are—M, T (D), S, B (P), K, L, Y, O, etc, being the ancient series and extending beyond the Semitic. The words in the Hebrew transliteration are generally in a crude form without a final vowel. They commonly consist of three consonants, with or without a prefix. Many are dis­ syllables, which in Greek and Latin transliterations are trisyllables. This latter seems to be the Caucasian form for town names, but in Asia Minor there are tetrasyllables. The tetrasyllables in Italy are mostly caused by the addition of a Latin termination. The vowels conform to a great degree in the Hebrew and the other transliterations, though not always in the same order. Thus, to take a few cases from the earliest in the list: Mozera, Masora. Shamir, Zimara, Ismara. Maarath, Marathus, Maratha, Marathon. Amad, . Amathia, Amathus. Temani, Timena. Dumoh, Tumia, Dumo. Rimmon, Armone, Orminium. Zalmoneh, Salmone. Rumah, Roma. Paruah, Pharugai, Verrugo. Boskath, Phuska, Buxeta. Chozeba, Cassope. Bashan, Passandae, Pasinum. Betonim, Bitoana, Puthion. Aphinit, Apidna, Phintias, Pintia. Abila, . Piala. Punon, . Bononia, Panion. Anaharoth, Anaguros. Charashim, Carasena. Haamonai, Haimoniai. Kinah, Kinna, Kinniani, Kaekina. �58 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Kanah, Sharuen, Zaananim, Sansannah, Idala, . Dilean, Adadah, Hadattah, Kana, Ganos, Cannae. . Saruena. . Saniana. Saniseni. . Idalaea. . Delion. . Adada. . Adatthai. Where vowels are interchanged in transliterations they are commonly the middle vowels (I, E), and the female vowels (O, U). The male vowels are usually represented by A. The representation of the double vowels is another marked point. Baala, . Piala, Pialia. Taanach, Thiana. Gaash, . Ceos. Naarath, . Nariandus. Haamonai, . Haimoniai. Taanath, Teanum. Irpeel, . . Harpleia. Techoa, . Tegea, Attegua. Zoar, Issoria. Zanoah, . Soana. Goath, . . Guthion. Sharuen, . Sarruena, Serrion. Birei, . Bireia, Barium, Pherse. Dilean, . Delion, Dolionis, Tullonium. Ariath, . . Reate. Of the terminations, one of the first to be noticed is that in H. This, as lengthening the syllable, is represented in sixty-six cases by an additional vowel. A few examples are given: Mithcah, . Medokia, Modikia. Nimrah, . Anemurium, Anemoria. Mizpah, . Messapia, Messapium, Mopsion. Berachah, . Ambrakia, Bergium. Bozrah, . Perusia, Bruzcia, Bursao. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Shebah, Balah, . Shiloh, Suzah, . Doroa, . Hachilah, Canah, Hadashah, 59 Siphseum, Zobia. Piala, Velleia. Saloe, Selia. Suissa, Suessa, Suassa. Thurium, Tiora. Akilium, Aquileia. . Chunise, Genua. Dasea, Tisia. . . . . . It is possible that H represents the vowel in the ordinary form, as in Greek and Latin it is I, the vowel now used in Georgian. H changes to N, as Ummah (Homana), Mozah (Amuzon), Socoh (Succeianum), Dimonah (Timonion), Hormah (Her­ mione, Hurmine), Gomorrah (Camarinum), Arumah (Ariminium), and about twenty cases. H changes also to S, as Bozrah (Bruzus), Tirzah (Tarsus), Rabbah (Rhupes), and in about twelve cases. H as a final changes to K, but it is then a radical, as in Sirah (Sirika). As an intermediate letter and radical it also changes to K, as Haresheth (Keressos, Kharissa), Sihor (Sakora), Anaharoth (Anaguros), Hazar (Chasira), Bilhah (Balkeia), and in about twenty-five cases. H as a final is represented, as other finals are, by a plural. This takes place in sixteen cases, as Hosah (Husiai), Zartanah (Zortanae), Hadattah (Adatthai),Berachah (Pharugai), Hachilah (Aigilae). The termination th follows the same general laws as that in H. It represents a lengthening vowel but in a few cases, as Moresheth (Merusium), Baalith (Paesula). Th also changes to N, as in Timnath (Temenion), Mephaath (Mevania), and in six cases. Th changes to S more freely in about twenty-three cases, as Chisloth (Acalissos), Mechirath (Macrasa), Boskath (Abaskus, Phuskus). Th preserves its form as a final and as a radical in many �60 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. cases, as Amatha (Amathus), Kenath (Kunaitha), Maarath (Maratha), but is represented also by D, DD, and T. It is possible that the D in Greek transliteration was sometimes a Dhelta (as in Romaic), and not a Delta. Th as a final is represented also by a plural in twenty cases, as Gibbeath (Kaphuai), Avith (Veii), Moseroth (Mazuri), Gelloth (Khallidai). N is a terminal. Its peculiarity is that in about twenty examples it is represented also by N, as Shihon (Sicyon), Sharon (Serrion), Kartan (Kroton), Kitron (Khutrion), Pelon (Peleon, Belon). In most cases, however, it is represented with a vowel added. Occasionally the N is mute, as in Shimron (Simara), Punon (Pionia), Pirathon (Paratheis). It is also represented by a plural form, as Dilean (Tellense), Rakkon (Eregense). It is to be noted that N is a terminal in other translitera­ tions, as Galeed (Calydon), Helkath (Elkethion), Maroth (Marathon). M is a terminal. M as a plural is not always represented as a plural in other transliterations. The best examples are Akrabim (Akraiphai, Kekropai), Betonim (Bithenae, Potniai), Zaanim (Azani), Gebim (Gabiae), Bochim (Bagae). The plural forms of the ancient town names of the several regions is perhaps to be thus accounted for. A Caucasian capital would consist of three parts, representing the middle, male, and female. The middle town was the citadel, with the residence of the king and soldiery, with the fire-temple on the hill; the male town contained the residence of the governor and the priests, of the artisans and tradesmen, with the temples and groves of worship; and the female town was the seaport or river suburb, with its population of persons devoted to the water, fishermen, boatmen, sailors, aliens, slaves, etc. In case of a summer town and a winter town, the winter town would be the middle town on the hills, and the summer town the town on the river and plain. To ex­ press all the towns the plural of one form, the middle town, �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 61 for instance, might be used; and this practice begun in Caucasia, would be adopted by Hebrews, Hellenes, Latins, Iberians. Looking to the terminations in N, P or V, S, Th, it is most likely they represent the two Caucasian plurals, and the locative and dative cases. Sh as a radical and terminal is represented by S and Z. It is found as Z in Shebah (Zobia), Bashan (Bizana), Eshean (Azenia), etc. As Sh has no character in Hellenic and Latin, it appears to have been specially represented in Greek and Latin by Ss, or S with a vowel, in about twenty-five cases, as Kadesh (Kudissos), Hadashah (Hudissa, Edessa), Bashan (Abassos), Haresh (Keressos), Lachish (Leugasia), Gaash (Kissa), Mashal (Massilia), Shaarim (Siarum), Ashen (Osiana). It is conceiv­ able that Si would be convertible into Sh, but the Ss must have had a like property in some Hellenic dialects. Another noticeable transliteration is the representation of Sh by Sk, Ks, of which we have about twenty examples, such as Ashnah (Sakoena, Skhoineus, Aixone), Mareshah (Morosgi), Shalom (Askolum), Ashan (Oxynia), Shebarim (Skarpha). Z is transliterated by Z in several examples, as Zela (Zela), Azem (Zama), Gizon (Gazene). In all the forms of transliteration the full vowel is occa­ sionally transposed and made the initial letter, as in Eshtaol (Astale), Ishtob (Astapa), Suzah (Assessos), Aznoth (Sunnada), Nimrah (Anemurium). A peculiarity in Canaanite town names, that of alliteration, is to be found in the other transliterations. Thus Madmenah and Sansannah, neighbouring and assonant names, are paral­ lelled by Methymna, Saniseni, Sanisera, Nazianzene, Susonnia. So Hazazon, Hukkok, Gudgodah, Zaanim, Halhul, Elealah, are parallelled by Assissium, Suessula, Sisaraka, Akkatuki, Perperina, Pompelon, Alala. (See also the American names.) It is worth while to regard some of the names, which are common to Palestine and the other regions, and some of Which are familiar enough. �62 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. In Greece we see : Athens. Thebes. Argos. Mycenae. Corinth. Megara. Sparta. Lacedemon. Messene. Elis. Pisa. Sicyon. Phocis. Marathon. Methone. Mantineia. Salamis. Tegea. Platea. Pallene. Cheronaea. FEgina. Chaicis. Eleusis. Messapia. Pharsalus. Leuctra. Cyllene. Dodona. Calydon. Nemea. Tanagra. Ambracia. /Emathia. Ithome. Pharsalus. Pydna. Pelle. Idomene. Rhamnus. Perga. Cyparissa. Abdera. Hermione. Tralles. Ancyra. Ikonium. Priene. Abydos. Lebedus. Colophon. Amasia. Temnos. Methymna. Rithymna. Cnidos. Cyzicus. Gortyna. Comana. Idalaea. Amida. Chimaera. Cebrene. Patara. Mygdala. Azani. Adana. Amathus. Tusculum. Telamo. Caere. Aquileia. Lavinium. Genua. Ariminium. Bergomum. Fidenae. Nomentum. Amiternum. Stabiae. Camerinum. Croton. Misenum. Arretia. Cannae. Regillum. Caudium. Eugube. Reate. Clusium. Marnia. Puteoli. In Asia we find : Sardis. Ephesus. Smyrna. Miletus. Phocea. Mytilene. Rhodes. Tarsos. We recognise in Italy : Rome. Pisa. Sena. Parma. Verona. Syracusa. Capua. Mantua. Mutina. Bononia. Massa. Luna. Gabii. Veii. Tarquinii. Catan a. Mazara. Ancona. Nuceria. Cremona. Assissium. Patavium. Cortona. Sybaris. �63 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. In Spain we may select: Gades. Mentesa. Hispalis. Barcine. Hippo. Carbula. Bsetulo. Salmantika. Carthago. Laminium. Sarteia. Astapa. Tarraga. Toletum. Mago. Myrtilis. Castulo. Basilippo. Gerunda. Nardinium. Equabona. Telobis. Egelasta. Ossonoba. Collippo. Talamina. Turbula. Roboretum. Scalabis. Vergilium. Subur. Araceli. Olcades. Gebala. Salacia. Spartavia. Onoba. Bedunia. Thus the most ancient seats of civilisation, and many great cities of this day, are included in our list. If the Canaanite serves as a test for the other regions, and enables us to ascertain what are radicals and what terminals, and to decide in the essential characteristics, it follows in the concrete that the other transliterations give the like aid for Canaanite. Thus the names of Etruria, Armenia, or Hellas become criteria for Palestine, to decide what is Caucasian and Canaanite, and what is Hebrew. If the names of Etruria or Attica are taken, the Canaanite canon will assist in their decipherment, as they in return throw light on the names of Canaan. The proofs above given are purely philological, but they point to material results. If, for instance, there was at one time a population in Canaan, a population in Kholkis, one in Lydia, another in Bceotia, one in Etruria, and a population in Lusi­ tania, using the same language in the same way for naming their towns, then there must in all these regions have been populations using not only the same language, but the same mythology and the same arts. Their rude stone monuments, their castles, their citadels, their town-walls, gates, foundations, sewers, tombs, arms, utensils, would present points of resem­ blance and comparisons as assured as those to be found in the community of words. Thus the exploration of Palestine under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, if pushed far enough, and deep �64 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. enough, and if adequately supported by contributions, must throw the greatest light on the archaeology of Asia and Europe. The Bible tells us that the Israelites invaded a settled popula­ tion holding walled cities, and, as it is here proved, those cities were built by the same ruling race as that which raised the walled cities of Caria, Attica, and Latium, so will the explora­ tion of Palestine be effectually a classic exploration, as well as sacred, and as much as if conducted in situ in Caria, Arcadia, Apulia, or Hispania Tarraconensis. In the case of Hellenic exploration, we are confused as to what is Cyclopean, Pelasgian, or Hellenic; in Etruria, we hardly know what is indigenous and what is posterior; in megalithic monuments we look for the Druidic, but in Palestine we are free from these sources of confusion. There we shall not be disturbed by Leleges, Pelasgi, Hellenes, Sabini, Iberi, Celtiberi, or Druids. We have one danger, that of distinguishing between what is Phoenician of the Caucasian period, and what is Phoenician of the Semitic period ; but altogether we have less confusing elements. With regard to Spain, it is already evident that the conclu­ sions of Wm. Von Humboldt with regard to the Iberians must be materially modified. The important discovery of that philosopher of the relation between ancient local names in Spain and modern Basque gave us a Turanian population as an element in ancient Europe, but the value of that element was exaggerated by himself and by others, and, among these, by myself in my paper on the Iberians in Asia Minor. It appeared to follow from Von Humboldt’s discovery that all which was not apparently Celtic or presumedly Phoenician or Carthaginian in Spain must be Iberian. One serious conse­ quence of this assumption was that names in Italy, Hellas, etc., resembling those in Spain, were held to be Iberian and evidence of an Iberian population in those countries. It also followed that the ancient civilisation was considered to be Iberian. From the Canaanite test it appears that terms in Spain having Basque affinities are not Iberian in this sense, and many others supposed to be Iberian are not so. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 65 Astura, a name found in Spain and Italy, is one of the strong points of the system of Von Humboldt (see his “ Re­ searches on the Primitive Inhabitants of Spain ”), and yet his derivation of Astura from asta, rock, and ura, water, as signi­ fying “ Rockwater,” is most suspicious. Astura is, however, by all linguistic evidence, the analogue of Ashteroth and Beeshterah in Palestine, and consequently not only of Astura in Latium, of Astura in Mysia, but of a dozen names of allied form scattered over the ancient world. Astura, too, as a river name, is not dependent on the Basque ura, water, but is formed from a radical DRS, as the town names are. Asta, another key of his system, is not formed from asta, a rock, but is a recognisable Caucasian town name. It is Palestine which affords the touchstone in these cases. We may pause as to Astura and Asta in the European peninsulas, but we have no Basque influence to disturb our opinions in Palestine. It follows as a remote consequence, even with regard to the population of Britain, that besides the Iberian element which has been recognised in the Silures and in Western Ireland, there must have been an anterior population of the same alli­ ance as the Canaanite. At the same time there must have been river, and possibly town, names Vasco-Kolarian and Agaw. It is thus the connection of archaeological science, as of physical science, and of all science, extends to the remotest consequences, and the displacement of one atom will imme­ diately and ultimately affect others. Indeed, so far as con­ cerns ourselves, it is within the limits of probability that the present expeditions to Palestine and explorations in the Medi­ terranean lands may throw a light on the megalithic monu­ ments of Britain, and on the gold ornaments of Hibernia. Earlier inscriptions, in characters as yet unrecognised, may yet reward the explorer, and consolidate and harmonise the relics of ancient history. The Accad cities mentioned in the Bible, in Genesis x. io, ii, 12, besides Babel, Accad, and Rehoboth, are: E �66 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. America. Erech, . Calneh, Ninue or Nineveh, Calah, . Resen, . compare „ „ „ „ Arica, Peru. Calanoche (Peru), Oculan. Unanue, Peru. Colacote, „ Charasani, „ Many cities in Palestine are closely represented in America. A circumstance worthy of remark, and which may indicate Sumerian influence in Brazil, if not that the Sumerians had settlements there, is that the Guarani word for town is Taba, that is Tabae, Thebes, etc., of geography, the Daba of the present Georgians. If the Sumerians had at any time a settlement on the great river-mouths, the passage of the Atlantic would be credible, and the knowledge of the At­ lantic Ocean by the geographers of Pergamos and Babylonia accounted for. Under this head of topographical nomenclature, as just stated, a course of investigation is being pursued by the Rev. Professor John Campbell, which can be consulted with great advantage. In the Canadian Journal, and under the titles of the “ Horites,” and of “ The Shepherd Kings of Egypt,” Professor Campbell has adopted as his basis the genealogies of the Books of Genesis, Kings, and Chronicles. With the help of the Egyptian and classic data, he has brought to bear a flood of light upon the Sumerian epoch of civilisation with regard to the genesis and migration of nations, and the mythology of the period. All tends to illustrate the importance of the protohistoric era. Much of his work is necessarily tentative, and although there are few illustrations with regard to America, these memoirs can be profitably consulted by the investigator, in common with those of Lenormant and the Egyptologists. Of course in Bryant, and some of the old mythologists, many of the collateral facts may be found, but treated in a manner incompatible with our present knowledge. As to the ancient extent of the Sumerian region in America, �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 67 it cannot yet be determined, for it must have been wider than at the Spanish Conquest; but with regard to the names here given for the new world and the old, it must be borne in mind that some are Agaw, and extend into Brazil. The con­ sideration of the Brazilian river names gives us a test in relation to those of Europe, and they confirm the opinion I have given of an Agaw influence in Canaan, in Asia, and in Europe, anterior to the Sumerian, and which will have to be taken into account by the craniologist. He has to provide for the Vasco-Kolarian, the Agaw, and the Sumerian migra­ tions. The whole of the phenomena of man in America represent an arrested development of civilisation, cut short as compared with Europe and Asia, not by climate as in Africa, and yet quite sufficient to include the two epochs of great stone monu­ ments, and of palatial works with inscriptions—epochs which embraced the first spiritualised religion, that of the worship of light; a time of thousands of years so remote, that, in the old world, it has now only its scanty votaries among the Parsees of Bombay; time, too, so remote, that the great religions of the globe—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—had, with Buddhism, got time to expand and to cover the eastern hemisphere, while, until the Spanish Conquest, the Americans had, in the flux of centuries, never heard their revelations. Few things so strongly portray the deep, dark gulf of sepa­ ration as this, when associations which had been commonly shared from the beginning of mankind, were snapped in the time of their deepest interest and moment, and it was hazard, rather than the design of man, placed the Indians that perished and the Indians who have survived under the teach­ ing of the missionaries of Spain and Portugal, and which all have not yet known. The evidence of language comes in support of this arrest of development, for there are no languages in America of the later and higher forms. When the early Akkad stopped there, all stopped. This it is which gives the false impression of there being a peculiar and .special American grammar. This �68 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. has been so specially studied and treated, whereas, the languages in America, which cannot be rightly called Ameri­ can languages, are under the same conditions of prehistoric grammar as the eastern languages of the old world. The grammar of Omagua may be as truly called Caucasian as American, and, if we choose, that of Abkhas might be as rightly named American as Caucasian. As there was in the furthest or prehistoric days a stream of emigration continuously from the old world to the new, the question arises whether this set back again, and whether a knowledge of the new world was carried to the old. The first set of population appears to have been over Behr­ ing s Straits, or across the narrow seas, and migrations which could cover the eastern world, even with Akkas and Bushmen, from Lapland to South Africa, would be able to fill America from the snowy pole to Tierra del Fuego, as there is witness enough to show, in blood, in speech, and in folk-lore. It is very questionable whether at any time there was regu­ lar intercourse over the Atlantic, for that would have needed ships ; and a trade once set up, other animals besides dogs, and other plants than those now found, would have followed man. In what we know of the historical period under the Greeks and the Romans a lively knowledge of America was lost. The Greeks could not reach it from the west, and the Romans, when they settled on the shores of the Atlantic, had other cares than to risk the wide, dark sea. A dead knowledge lingered, not only of the geography of the Americas, but of Australasia, which is of no less interest with regard to the latter region, because that exhibits, philologically, evidence of early migrations of the Mincopie or Pygmean in Borneo, of the Sandeh or Niam-Niam of the Nile in Tasmania, and of the Agaw in Galela, and in the other languages recorded by Wallace. There was indeed a system of geography long prevalent among the ancients, and in the dark ages, which is referred to in the Timwus of Plato, and was notably maintained by �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 69 Crates of Pergamos, 160 B.C. (Reinaud, Joicrnal Asiatique, vol. i., new series, 1863, p. 140), and also referred to by Virgil in the AEneid. Four inhabited worlds were treated of, and there appears to have been, in traditions, an imperial title of Monarch of the Four Worlds. This I connect with the state­ ment of Mr George Smith, that Agu, an ancient King of Babylonia, called himself King of the Four Races. Again, with Prescott, who, in the “ Conquest of Peru,” book i., ch. ii., says : “ It is certain that the natives had no other epithet by which to designate the large collection of tribes and nations who were assembled under the empire of the Incas than that of Tavintinsuzu, or Four Quarters of the World.” He quotes Ondegarde, “ Rel. Prim. MSS.,” and Garcilasse, “ Comentarie Real,” ii. 11. This title was perhaps a prerogative of the middle king, or monarch of the middle kingdom of the great civilised empire of the world. The Chinese preserve the tra­ dition of the middle kingdom, the trinary having followed the quaternary system. Thus in Genesis there are three sons of Noah. The Vedas refer to three worlds. The nomenclature of Ptolemy and the other geographers is of the Akkad epoch, and that of the early Biblical books Akkad or Babylonian. The school of Pergamos taught that the world, which must have been treated as a sphere, contained four worlds. Ours was one of these ; and as is true in Asia that it does not cross the line, so it was supposed that Africa does not cross the line, and the Babylonian geographers were well acquainted with Southern Asia but not with Southern Africa. This northern world was balanced by an austral world, and this is so, depicting thereby the Australasian Islands, the scene of Sumerian migrations, and Australia, which was known to them. Australia was, by the Sumerians, as by far later geo­ graphers, supposed to extend from opposite Asia, as a terra incognita of the maps, to opposite Africa. A not less remarkable affirmation was, that the northern world and that of Australia were balanced on the other side of the globe also by a northern world and continent, and �70 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. by a southern world, and this is so in North and South America. It was said, being nigh the truth, that these four worlds were cut off by belts of ocean, one running from north to south, and by another running round the middle of the world from east to west. Such ocean we know shuts off Asia from Australia ; and those ancients might be forgiven who drew a sea over the narrow necks between North and South America, which must then as now have been passed by canoes at por­ tages on the Atrato and on other rivers. These four worlds were alleged to have their men, as we know they had and have ; but to account, amid so much truth, for intercourse not taking place between them in their days, a fable was got up that the seas were made impassable. The philosophers, however, forgot to tell us how the knowledge of these other worlds and the men in them was gained. Gained too, it was, and lost by the cessation of intercourse, after the Sumerians, with the Americas. This was perhaps owing to the rise of a great power in China, which disturbed the road from India, and the seats of kingdom in Southern Asia. How that dream of a true globe and its continents and people reached the Greeks and Romans, and how it suggested to the flatterers of Augustus a title of monarch of those four worlds, is here accounted for. It must be traced beyond Pergamos to those older schools of learning, known to us under such a name as Chaldean, but which had flourished in protohistoric epochs from the dawn of civilisation. There must at one time have been in the olden world men who could bring back this knowledge of the Americas from their Nineveh to its Nineveh and Babel, where the empire of the four worlds got centred, and where one language was spoken and written for the government of the earth. How truly was it then said of Babel, “And the whole earth was of one language and one speech” (Gen. xi. i). The fall of that power was indeed confusion of nations and of tongues. After a time the tradition alone of these other worlds lingered as a theory of cosmography. �71 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Attached to an ancient map of the world accompanying the Commentary of Bicetus on the Apocalypse, and which may date from the eighth century or an earlier period, is a note. This note, inserted in the south of the map, observes that, independently of the three points of the known world, there is beyond the ocean a fourth part, which is unknown to us, on account of the heat of the sun, and on the confines of which, it is fabled, adds the author, that there are antipodes. * The tradition lingered, to be condemned by the Christian Church as a thing that men of learning ought not to learn, but reproduced in our own language by Sir John Mandeville. He insisted that the world was a globe and could be circum­ navigated, and he tells a tale of a man from Norway, who had gone so long by land and sea that he had environed all the earth, that he was come about to his own marches. The intercourse in times of yore between the new world and the old, now again brought to light, rests upon no slight evidence, although the whole of it cannot be included here. It comes in confirmation of the labours of those who have gone before me, and of my own, carried on step by step for some time.f APPENDIX I. The river names, as already stated, are most probably not Sumerian, but possibly Agaw or Vasco-Kolarian. It is, however, useful to examine them, as showing the identity of precedent migrations and languages in the two hemispheres. The following shows the river names of New Granada in com­ parison with India and Italy (Etruria): New Granada. Cane, . Guayabera, Guape, . . . . India, etc. . Cainas, ..... . Chaberis, .... . Kophos,. . . . . Italy, etc. ....... ....... ....... , * Article of my friend Mons. E. Cortambert, quoted in Nature, Jan. ii 1877, P- 235+ See various papers of mine in the Journals of the Ethnological Society, of the Anthropological Institute, of the Palestine Exploration Fund, etc. �72 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. New Granada. Cusiana, . Catarumbo, Cibao, Garigoa, . Cauca, . Ite, Humedea, Lengupa, Ariguani, Meta, Margua, . Nachi, . Nare, Napipi, , Neusa, India, etc. Acesines, Catabeda, Gabellas. Gouraios, Cacathis, Caicus, A. Minor. Utis. Namadas, [Rhogomanus, Persia], Andomatis, [Margus, Margiana], Upia, Paute, Spauto (lake),. Togui, . Tamar, . Tachira, . Tiguanaqui, Tumila, . Onzaga, . Zulia, Suta, Sarare, . Suarez, . Italy, etc. Casuentus. Tokosanna, Tamarus, [Tamyrus, Syria], . . Longinus. Rigonum. Medoakus. Nikia, Nato. Nar, Nure. Anapus. [Enipeus, Macedonia]. Anassos. [Nessos, Macedonia]. [Abus, Britain]. Padus. [Boetis, Spain]. Togisonus. Tamarus. [Tamaros, Britain]. Ticarios. Digentia. Temala, . Sekies. Silis, Silarus. Sadus, . Serus, Sarabis, . Sisigua, . Semindoco, Sumapia, Sichiaca, Sube, Suasius, . Tokosanna, Sinu, Sonus, Sittokakis, Sobanus, Sapara, . Sarius. Siris. ZEsurus. Sossius. Sumathus, Sicily. Sekies. Sabis. [Asopus, Greece]. Sinnus. Asinarus, Sicily. [Sonus, Hibernia]. Other river names are : America. India and East. Caca, Bolivia, Cachy, Peru, . Cacathis, I., Chira, Peru, . Curaray, Peru, Aguan, C. America, Ulua, C. America,. Guapai, Bolivia, Montagua, C. America, West. Kainas, I., . Mira, Ecuador, Marona, Ecuador, . Kophos, I., . Caicus, A. Minor. Caicinus, Italy. Csecina, Italy. Akiris, Italy. Ollius, Italy. Gabellus, Italy. Mitua, Macedonia. Modoacus, Italy. Merula, Italy. Himera, Sicily. �ON THE EPOCH OP' HITTITE, ETC. America. Nasas, Mexico, Nape, Ecuador, West. India and East. Mayo (river name), Peru, Mexico, . . . Mantaro, Peru, . . Mapiri, Bolivia, . . Lempa, C. America, . Lacantum, C. America, . . . . . Mais, I., . Manda, I., . Mophis, I., . Lombare, I., ....... . . . . ....... ....... Pita, Ecuador, . . Catabeda, I., extra, Piti, Mexico, . . . ...... Putu (mayo), Ecuador, . Spauto (lake), . Panuco, Mexico, . . ....... Babo, Ecuador, . . ....... Babispe, Mexico, . . ....... Paso (mayo), Peru, . Hyphasis, India, . Phasis, Colchis, . Yapura, Ecuador, . . ....... Rimae, Peru,. . . ....... Arispe, Mexico, . . Zariaspis, Bactriano, Sirama, C. America, . Serus, India, . Ohosura, Mexico, . . ....... Samala, C. America, . Sabalaessa, India, Sintalapa, C. America, . Sandabalus, India, Usumasinta, Mexico, . ....... Sumbay, Peru, . . Sambus, I., . . Zacatula, Mexico, . . ....... Tepitapa, C. America, . Tabasquillo, Mexico, . Tambo, Peru, . . Tula,. Mexico, . . Dauli, Ecuador, . . Tamoin, Mexico, . . Yavari, Peru,. . . Tea, Peru, . . . Huasa, Peru, . . . 73 Attabas, I., . . Tava, I., . ....... ....... ....... Temala, I., extra, Chaberis, India, . ....... ....... . ....... . Munda,Spain. . ...... . Lambrus, Italy. Alukus, Italy. Helicon, Italy. Anassus, Italy. Anapus, Sicily. Enipeus, Macedonia. . Padus, Italy. Boetis, Spain. . Pitanus, Corsica. [Benacus (lake), Italy N.J. Btebe (lake), Greece. Fevos, Italy. . Pcesus, A. Minor. . ....... Hipparis, Italy. Rubiko, Italy. . ....... . Siris, Italy. ^Esurus, Italy. . ....... . Sontinus, Italy. Ossa, Italy. . ....... Sekies, Italy. Tolenus, Italy. . Tobios, Britain. . Tavis, Italy. Timavus, Italy. Tolenus, Italy. Tilurus, Illyria. . Tamion, Britain. . ....... Axios, Macedonia. ZEsis, Italy. With regard to lake names, they appear to be related to river names: America—Lakes. Old World—(R.) River. Parras, Mexico,...................................... Prasias, Thessaly; Prasiane, India W. Patzcuaro, Mexico, .... Gouraios (R.), India. Chapala, Mexico, .... Copais, Bceotia. Fuquene, Mexico, .... Fucinus, Italy, Sabine. Peten, Central America, . . . Pitanus (R.), Corsica. Amatitan, Central America, . . Andomatis (R.), India. Tamiagua, Mexico, .... Tamion (R.), Britain. Titicaca, Pera,..................................... Caicus (R.), A. Minor; Cacathis (R.), India. Chinchaycocha, Peru, . . . Cainas (R.), India. The identifications of Fuquene and Peten are striking. In the reduction of mountain names very little fortune has ever �74 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. attended me. The cause appears to be that few are Sumerian, that some are Agaw, and that some are most likely older. Old World. America. Cotopaxi, Ecuador, . Cotocha, .... Sangay, Ecuador, Tancitaro, Mexico, Orizava, Mexico, Apanecas, Central America, Assuay, Ecuador, Pulla, Ecuador,. Ambato, Ecuador, Atitlan, Central America, . Alausi, Ecuador, Pasto, Ecuador, Perote, Mexico, Merendon, Central America, Cadlud, Ecuador, Cottia, Alpes. Pactyas. Syngaras, Mesopotamia. Cithaeron, Greece. Oropeda, Spain. Pangaeus, Macedonia. Ossa, Greece. Pelion, Greece. Idubeda, Spain. Bcetios, Drangiana. CEta, Athos, Greece. Ida, Asia Minor, etc. Alesion, Greece; Olgassys, Asia Minor. Phoestus, Greece. Pierius, Greece. Maro, Sicily. Cadmus. Some of these must be identical, but many are doubtful. The town names are, however, those which are of most value for our purposes, as many of these are evidently Sumerian ( marks * resemblance): Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Arica, *Recuay, . Urcum, . >> >> ■ 99 * 99 Arequipa, 99 99 * 99 *Arapa, . 99 * 99 * Yura, Huaura, . *Oruro, . 99 " Astobamba, *Huasta, . >5 Ariare (R.), Central America, Arispe (R.), Central America, Iztapalapan, Mexico, * 99 Yoro, Central America, . * 99 *Trapuata, Mexico, Rabin, Central America, * Ambato (M.), *Acoramba, Illampe (M.), Cosapa, . Casma, Ambalema, New Granada, *Cosuma, Yucatan,.- Old World. *Arakha, Susiana. Arakhosia, Persia. Arikaka, Arakhosia. Araxa, Lycia. *Erech, Accad (Bible). *Rechah (Bible). Aricada, Drangiana. Aragorasa, Armenia. Archabios, Colchis. Arukanda, Lycia. Argos, Greece. *Arubath (Bible). Arabissus, Cappadocia. Arbaka, Arakhosia. Ora, India E. *Oruras, A. Minor. Zariaspes (R.), Bactriana. *Hasta, Liguria. Asta, Liguria, and Lusitania. Ashdod (Bible). Astasanna, Aria. Asthagura, India E. Astakapra, India E. *Corombo (R.), Carmania. Cosamba, India S. *Cosamba, India S. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Cuzmo, . *Chosica,. * Cuzco, Quisco, Congata, . Canchari,. Chancay, . Conongo, . Acafi, Quinoa, . *Cacary, . Caquiaviria, Chiclayo, . *Chepen, . >> • m Mexico and Central America. • 99 * 99 • * *Chipaya,. • 99 Cochilha, New Granada, *Copan, Central America, *Coban, Guatemala, Caparrapi, New Granada, *Chipata, New Granada,. *Kabah, Yucatan, . Chepo, New Granada, . 99 99 • 99 • 99 99 • 99 • *Chapala, Mexico, . *Chapul, Mexico, . Acapulco, Mexico, . A * characha, Caria. Gaggra, Paphlagonia. Gagasmira, India E. . Cocala, India S.1 . * abena, Media. C . * apena, Etruria. C *Cabbon, Palestine. Cepiana, Lusitania. . Caberasa, Media. . Capution, Sicily. *Gibbeath, Palestine. . Cuba, India S. . * apua, Italy. C *Gaba, Palestine. Gabii, Italy. . * apula, Venetia. C . Cubilia, Lycia. Talcanta, . Cundinamarca, New Granada, . Quillo, *Akil, Yucatan, Chollolan, Mexico,. >> 99 . • 99 99 99 Chilca, Quellca, . Colca, 99 • *Chumu, . *Caime, . *Cambe, . Combapata, Chicamo, . *Camana,. *Guamani, *Chalco, Mexico, Chalcicomula, Mexico, *Colosa, New Granada, Chalisco, Mexico, . Comayagua, Honduras, *Cuame, New Granada, Chima, New Granada, *Guaman, Mexico, . Guaymas, 99 99 *Chimeroo, *Catari, . . . . *Cucumba, New Granada, 99 99 . . *Chatura, New Granada, C * uzikos, A. Minor. G * auzaka, Paropamisada. Choastra, Media. Concana, Spain. Iconium, A. Minor. Xoana, India. Gain, Palestine. Aquinium, Italy. . • • 99 . . Concanu, Yucatan, . . Conagua, New Granada,. . Conchagua, Central America, . • 99 Old World. *Cuisco, Mexico, . Chuscal, New Granada, . Cacahuamilpa, Mexico, . Chiquisa, New Granada,. 75 *Cabale, Media. Cabul, Palestine. Conta, India E. Aricanda, A. Minor. A * quileia, Italy. Kaloe, Lydia. Keilah, Palestine. Agylla, Etruria. Akela, Media. *Chalcis, Boeotia. Gilgal, Palestine. *Colossai, Phrygia. Akalissos, Pontus. *Cume, Mysia. *Cumae, Italy. Choma, Pisidia. *Cambe, Gedrosia. *Cocambo, Gedrosia. *Comania, Caria. *Comana, Pontus, and Capp. Cominium, Samnium. Chemosh (Bible). Gimza (Bible). Camisa, Cappadocia. *Kimara, India E. *Cytorus, Armenia. �76 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Catari, . . * adereita, Mexico, C . . ,, . . Catarumbo (R.), New Granada, ,, . . ....... Quito, . . * uaita, New Granada, . C . *Coati, . . Oicata, New Granada, . . ,, . . ....... *Chatuna,. . ....... *Costaparaca, . ....... Costabamba, . ....... Curaray, (R.), . * arere (R.), New Granada, . C *Ocaruro,. . ....... ,, . . Charala, New Granada, . . *Charasani, . ....... Charcani,. . Chiriguana, New Granada, . *Chuana, . . Chanaco, Mexico, . . . ,, . . Canipauna, New Granada, . ,, . . Cunacua, New Granada,. . ,, . . ....... *Caracona, . ....... ,, . ....... Ocona, . . Ocansip, Yucatan, . . . *Ascona, . . ....... ,, . . ....... *Acora, . . ....... *Acari, . . ....... Acoramba, . ....... Corocuero, . ....... * Ancon, . . ....... Hancane, . ...... *Colan, . . Calan, Yucatan, . . . ,, . . ....... Calanacoche, . ....... *Calasnique, . ....... ,, . * culan, Mexico, . O . . ,, . ....... Cailloma,. . Caluma, Ecuador, . . . Calupe, . . Jalapa, Mexico and C. Amer., Challapa, . Jutigalpac, America, Ocharan, . . ....... ,, . . * arupa, New Granada, G . Caropango, . * abna, Yucatan, . L ' . Llapo, .. * abhakhabpha, Yucatan, L . ,, . . ....... Lambayeque, . Lampa, Salvador, . . . Illampo (M.), . Liborina, New Granada, . ,, . ....... Larecaja, . . ....... Mantaro, . . Huamantla, Mexico, . . *Manani, . . Mani, Yucatan, . . . Mani, . . ....... Mirinavis, . Merindon, Honduras, . . Marona, . . ....... Machurana, . Macaranita, New Granada, . ,, . Mogorontoque, New Granada, ,, . ....... *Macari, . . ....... ,, . . Mozca, Mexico, . . . Old World. ‘"Coddura, India S. Cottiara, India S. Cotuora, Pontus. Kattah, Palestine. C * uta, Colchis. C * audium, Sabine. C * atana, Sicily. C * otobara, India S. C * ottobara, Gedrosia. C * areura, Caria, and India. ....... Curula, India S. C * aresena, Mysia. Corcobana, Ceylon. Kanah, Palestine. Kana, Mysia. Keene, Cappadocia. C * anagara, India S. A * ganagara, India extra. Khoana, Parthia. Aganagara, India extra. O * skana, Gedrosia. A * ssecona, Spain. A * carra, Susiana. A * chor, Palestine. C * ora, Lalutus. Agiria, Spain. * Ancona, Italy. ....... Calneh, Accad (Bible). G * elan, Palestine. Calindoca, India S. Calinaxa, India S. Okelum, Lusitania. Akelanum, Sabine. Gallim, Palestine. Calpe (M). Haran (Bible). Acharna, Attica. G * ariphus, India. L * abbana, Mesopotamia. L * abaca, India S. Alambatesa, Comaria. Lampsacus, A. Minor. Lombare, India. Lariaga, India E. Mendola, India S. M * animna, India E. Amana, Media. Morunda, Media. ....... Magaris, India S. Mogarus, Pontus. Makrasa, Lycia. M * egara, Gr., Sicily. Maxere, Hyrcania. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Macari, . . ,, . . *Malla, . . ,, . . Amiloe, . . Mantaro, . . *Marcara, . *Marcomarcani, ,, ,, ,, ,, *Masin, . . ,, . . *Mapiri (R.), . *Napo, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Nasca, . . Nanasca, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Unanue, . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . (Pucara, Castle), *Pucara, . . *Pucala, . . ,, . . Azangari, . ,, . . Patapa, . . Patavilca, . Pataz, . . *Paita, . . Ayapata, . . *Pita, . . Putu, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Putina, . . ,, . . ,, . . Piura, . . Yapura, . . ,, . . *Pitura, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . ,, . . *Paria, . . ,, . . Mescala, Mexico, . . . M * ogote, New Granada, . ....... ....... ....... ' ....... ....... Cundinamarca, . . . ....... M * argua (R.), New Granada, . M * asaya, Yucatan, . . ....... ....... ....... ....... N * eyba, New Granada, . . ....... ....... ....... N * unkini, Yucatan, . . Nicaragua, C. America, . . ....... Nimaima, New Granada, . Nare, ,, . ....... ....... ....... Oiba, New Granada, . . Upia, ,, .' ....... B * ucaramanga, New Granada, ....... ....... ....... ....... [Patawi, Siam], . . . ....... ....... Pauta, New Granada, . . P * itu, Mexico, . . . Peto, Yucatan, . . . U * bate, New Granada, . . ....... ....... P * eten, Yucatan, . . . Potonchan, Yucatan, . . ....... Perote, Mexico, . . . ....... ....... P * aturia, New Granada, . . Necopetara, Mexico, . . ....... Z * upetara, C. America, . . Sopetran, New Granada, . P * ara, ,, . . Paracheque, ,, . . Old World. ....... Maguda, Mesopotamia. M * ala, Pontus. Millo, Palestine. Amilos, Arcadia. Manda, India. M * argara, India E. M * argana, Ceylon. Maricada, Bactriana. M * argus (R.), Margiane. M * assah, Palestine. A * masia, Pontus. M * essana, Sicily. Messene, Greece. M * apura (R.), India. N * ebo (Bible). Nebah (Bible). N * epea, Phrygia. N * asica, India S. N * anaguna, India S. Nuceria (?), Italy. Anaguros, Greece. Nommana, Carmania. Nar, Italy. Anara, India S. N * inue, Nineveh. (Accad) Bible. Ophia, Sabine. Aphia, Phrygia. [cara, castle, Akkad]. B * egorra, Macedonia. P * ygela, Ionia. Pegella, Lycaonia. Agara, Susiana. ,, India S. Patavium, Bithynia. ,, Italy. ....... B * ata, India S. Beda, Mesopotamia. P * ida, Pontus. E * boda, Palestine. Pitueia, Mysia. Phauda, Pontus. P * itane, Mysia. P * adua, Palestine. Bitoana, Caria. Pieria, Greece. ,, Syria. Phiarasa, Pontus. P * atara, Lycia. Badara, Carnithia. Sobatra, Lycaonia. O * petura, India. ....... P * arium. Pyrrha, Caria. 77 �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. 78 Ibarra, Ecuador, *Parac, Cotaparaco, Pariache, . Pariacote, Paruchay, Puno, *Punyon, Panos, Pando, *Papai, . Babo, *Pusi, Puzuzi, *Pasa (mayo) Pisagua, . (Pirca, Quichua wall, enclo sure), . . Birei, Palestine. Podoperura, India extra. Parras, Mexico, *Barichara, New Granada Parachoque, ,, . . . Parisara, India extra. B * arakura, India extra. B * erachah, Palestine. Pharugia, Doris. Verrugo, Latium. Barkine, Spain. *Punon, Palestine. Panion, Thessaly. *Paipa, New Granada, . 99 99 *Pomalca, *Paime, New Granada, . Pichigua, . Puquien, . Pacas (mayo), Palalayuca, n Bogota, „ Pachuco, Mexico, . 99 *Pasco, *Posco, *Pisco, Piscahacha, Pacsi, *Pista, Arambolu, Bolonchan, Yucatan, Tobasco, Yucatan, . *Piste, Yucatan, *Arama, New Granada, . 99 ?9 *Racanya, Tacaraca, 99 * 99 * 99 * 99 • 99 * 99 * 99 ’ 99 * Aposungo, Sangay, . *Charasani, 99 Old World. Mexico and Central America. Peru. *Paria, Parara, Pararin, . • Antisana,» *Ariguani, New Granada, Raquira, New Granada, . Sinu, ,, Sanalarga, New Granada, *Sinoloa, Mexico, Sonora, ,, Okosingo, Yucatan, Texancingo, Mexico, Pandassa, India extra. *Papha, Pisidia. *Paphos, Cyprus. *Pisse (3). *Paseah, Palestine. *Ephesus, A. Minor. *Phoizoi, Arcadia. Pergamos. Perga, Pamphylia. Pyrgse, Etruria. *Bamala, India S. *Apamea, Parthia. Phecis, Greece. Phokaia, Lydia. Pauka, Italy.. Palalke, Pontus. Bolon, Spain. Pelon, Palestine. *Boskath, Palestine. Bezek, Palestine. *Phuska, Macedonia. *Physkus, Caria. Paxos (I.). *Poestum, Italy. *Aruma (Bible). *Aroma, Caria. Ariminium, Italy. *Rakkon (Bible). *Oricana, Media. Arucanda, Lycia. Aragorasa, Armenia. Sena, Etruria, and Umbria. Zaananim (Bible). Sannala, India E. Posinara, India E. Asinarus, Sicily. Sangada, India E. Sangala, India E. Alosanga, India extra. Caresena, Mysia. Astasanna, Aria. �ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Sanagoran, *Sonsonate, S. Salvador, *Tzintzontzon, Mexico, . 99 99 99 *Sonson, New Granada, . Site, „ Suta, ,, *Susa, ,, 99 99 99 99 99 Susagua, New Granada, . 99 99 99 *Susacon, New Granada, 99 Soroche, . Surco, 99 • 99 • Sorata, 99 99 • *Sikuani, 99 Surata, New Granada, *Sarare, ,, *Sura, ,, • 99 • M * *Succha, . Sachaca, . Sacayacu,. Sikasika, . >> • Sachica, New Granada, Soacha ,, Sacota, ,, Seganioso, ,, Fusugasuga, ,, Zaccacal, Yucatan, Sogon, Sechura, . • 99 * Sullillica,. 99 • 99 • 99 *Salli, Yucatan, *Zelaya, Mexico, Zulia, New Granada, *SaIamo, Guatemala, Salmaguela, New Granada, • Suyana, . 99 *Senote, Yucatan, . • • 99 99 • 99 • 99 Zerna, New Granada, *Zema, ,, Zimapan, Mexico, . • Sam an, *Sumbay (R.), *Supe, Monsifu, . 99 Semindoco, New Granada, *Samala, C. America, *Saboya, New Granada, *Sube, Suba, ,, • 99 M * *Zepita, . Zapatoca, >> >> • Yzabal, C. America, *Zupetara, New Granada, Sopetran, ,, Old World. *Suanagora, India extra. "'Sansannah (Bible). *Susonnia, Venetia. *Nazianzene, Cappadocia. *Saniseni, Paphlagonia. Side, Pamphyl., Laconia. Sidas, Greece. *Suzah, Palestine. Susa, Susiana. Suissa, Cappadocia. Suessa (R.), Italy. Suassus, India. *Susicana, India E. Syracuse, Sicily. Saraka, Media. Sariga, Armenia. Saruge, A. Minor. Sarid, Palestine. *Sararra, Mesopotamia. *Saura, Susiana. Saganus, Carmania. *Saguana, Armenia. *Sakoena, Belicia. *Sikuon, Greece. *Saca, Arcadia. Adisaga, Media. Sakasena, Cappadocia. Zazaka, Media. Secacah, Palestine. Sikinos (I.). Shicron (Bible). *Sala, Armenia. *Sela, Palestine. *Solia, Spain. *Salamis (?). *Zalmoneh, Palestine. Salmantike. Aznoth, Palestine. *Sunnada, Phrygia. Sarnuka, Mesopotamia. *Shema (Bible). Ezem (Bible). *Zama, Capp., and Mesopo. Semina, Parthia. *Simyla, India S. *Sambus (R.), India. Sabius, Cappadocia. Zaba, India extra. *Zobia, Pisidia. Shebah (Bible). Sapolus, India extra. *Zephath, Palestine. Sibecla, Lycia. *Sabatra, Lycaonia. 79 �80 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Peru. Mexico and Central America. *Atacama, Tucuma, . *Tauca, . Old World. *Attacum, Spain. Tocaima, New Granada, *Togui, *Tugea, Spain. *Tukki, Spain. Athacli (Bible). *Techoa, Palestine. Tegea, Greece. *Thagora, India extra. *Tagara, India S. Taxila, India E. Attagus, Boeotia. Tarrago, Spain. *Telem (Bible). *Telamo. *Telamina, Spain, *Teleboas, A. Minor. Tholobona, India S. >> 99 99 99 99 Tacaraca, Tuquilipon, 99 *Tekoh, Yucatan, . Tacubaya, Mexico,. *Tachira, New Granada, Tacaloa, ,, Tekit, Tarapaca, *Tolima, New Granada, *Toloman, Guatemala, Tuloom, Yucatan, . 99 99 *Thalambo, Tulapan, Tolla, Mexica, Tolo, New Granada, Tula, Mexico, Tollan, Mexico, Deien, New Granada, 99 Dauli, 99 99 99 99 . Dolion, Bceotia. Dolionis, Mysia. Tullonium, Spain. Dilean, Palestine. Atarmes, Bactriana. Tarbakana, Paropanisada. *Taba, Phrygia, Caria. Thebae, Boeotia, Thessaly. Tebbath, Palestine. Tepuah, Palestine. Thebez, Palestine. *Tabiene, A. Minor. *Thebura, Assyria. . *Tobata, Paphlagonia. 99 99 Tar ma, 99 99 99 • Tabatingo, Tapacoche, 99 *Tipuani, . 99 99 • 99 • 99 9 99 • Tuman, . 99 *Tabi, Yucatan, Teabo, ,, . Tabeo, New Granada, Tabachula, Guatemala, Tabasquillo, Mexico, Tepan, Mexico, *Tibaria, New Granada, Tubar, Mexico, *Tapata, New Granada, Topia, Mexico, Tobasco, Yucatan, . Tamoin, Mexico, . . . • Tumbo, . Tambo, . 5> • 99 • 99 * 99 • 99 • 99 99 * 99 * 99 * 99 • 99 • *Tampico, Mexico, Temisco, • *Tamasinchali, Mexico, . *Tamalameque, New Granada, Tumila, ,, *Tamar, ,, Tanquichi, Mexico, Tenochtitlan, ,, . . *Tena, New Granada, Tizimin, Yucatan, . Tizafpan], Mexico, . Tausa, New Granada, Tuzfpan], . . . . Thapsacus, Syria. Dimonah (Bible). Temani (Bible). Tumnos, Caria. *Tamassis, India E. *Temala, India extra. *Tamarus, India. Taanach (Bible). *Toana, India extra. Tisia, Italy. Tisa, Carmania. Tiausa, India. Dosa, Assyria. �81 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. APPENDIX II. Table of Sumerian Words. The following is a brief list of words divided into three-regions, the American including two columns, and while in some cases a root may be traced throughout, it will be seen that more commonly the western and American roots or types cross in the Indo-Chinese region. This table may be much extended. Ak., Akkad. Cam.,Cambodian.Aym., Aymara. Mex., Aztek. Cir., Circassian. Mon, Peguan. Qui., Quichua. Oth., Othomi. Geo., Georgian. Bur., Burmese. Tara., TarahumAnn., Annam. ara. Huas., Huasteca. Poe., Poconchi. Western. Man, . Woman, etc. . Head, Hair, Face, Eye, Ear, Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. karu, Mon, kkari, Aym, Q., lu, Bur. [mairima, Bur., woman]. tie, Cir., . ....... gun, un, Ak., . hplun, Mon, runa, Qui., . khon, Siam., ....... kon, Shan, ...... ku, Ak., . paka, Mon, chacha, Aym., . nguoi, Ann., kosa, Qui., . . karra, Ak., mulu, Ak., kmari, Geo., sak, Ak., . . shooz, Cir., rak(a), Ak., mak, Ak., [su, man, Bur.], [kosa, Q., man], ....... rakka, Qui. . meingma, Bur., marmi, Aym., . mairima, Bur. , dam, Ak., phdey, Cam., . ....... ....... . ku, Ak., . kbal, Cam., ppekei, Aym. . su, Ak., . katau, Mon. shha, Cir., ko, Karen, ....... kamon, Ann., . uma, Qui., . alu, Kumi, ....... . . sik, Ak., . sac, Cam., suncca, Aym., . shhatsey, Cir., . swet, Ann., socco, Qui., . asham, Kumi. . . . ka, Ak., . akanu, Aym., . piri, Geo., ncca, Qui. . . . limta, Ak., ta, Ann., . [mata, forehead, twali, Geo., panek, Cam., . ....... [Q-J nee, Cir., . mitthah, Ann., . naira, Aym., . si, Ak., nagui, Qui., . . . pi, Ak., . pik, Ahom. tai, Ak., . khato, Mon, ...... F Mexican, etc. [ucari, Cora], tlacatl, uas. uinic, Mex. ninic, Maya. [akun, Poc.; boy]. nxihi, Oth. oquich, Mex. nsu, Othomi. soua, Mexico. ....... muki, Tara. [dame, Oth.] [tomol, Huas.] ....... ayxaca,Totonaca. hool, Mex. moola, Tara. xta, si, Oth. tzotz, Mex. axaya, Mex., .... [Maya. tahnaluich. ghual, Maya. nich, Mex. pusiki, Tara. gu, Othomi. �82 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. . Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. Mexican, etc. . quri, Geo., takumah, Cir., . Mouth, . ka, gu, Ak., dzheh, shey, Cir. Tooth, dzeh, Cir., Forehead, tik, Ak., . thkhemi, Geo. Tongue, . eme, Ak., ena, Geo., nakhu, Karen, . rincri, Qui., nacaz, Mex. tai, Ann.,. hinchu, Aym., . nechkala, Tara. amaka, Kami, . lakka, Aym., . kama, Huas. kha, Mon, simi, Qui., chi, Mex., Poc. zhua, Mon, kchaka, Aym., . tzi, Oth. mati, Qui. Heart, zeit, Bur., lao, Ann., chai, Siam. Ear, Blood, sa, Ak., . libis, Ak., guli, Geo., ghey, Cir. . us, Ak., . sishkhli, Geo., Hand, Foot, . . Horn, Skin, . . Sun, . Moon, Star, . . Day, . . Fire, . . Water, River, , soncco, Qui. chuimo, Aym. . qhane, Oth. tenilla, Tara. zimagat, Toto. htseihn, Mon, . swe, Bur., qui, Oth. estli, Huas. xihtz, Maya. sugab, Ak., su, Karen, maqui, Qui., cab, Mex. kheli, Geo., ka, Kumi, Ahom tachlli, Aym., . cubac, Maya. ta, oyg, Cir., . mo, Ann., maco, Totonaca. arik(i), Ak., kaw, Karen, kayu, Aym., gua, Oth. pekhi, perhi, G., shon, Siam., chaqui, Qui., . acan, Maya. tlake, Cir., akho, Kami, tala. Tara. shi, Ak., . sung, Ann., huakra, Aym., Q. ....... rka, Geo., khyo, Bur. shu, Ak., . sare, axa, Bur., ccara, Qui. kani, Geo., lepitchi, Aym. . shooway, Cir. . zal(a), Ak., inti, Aym., Qui. , hindi, Oth. [usil, Etrus.J, . tonatuih, Mex. mze, Geo., lupi, Aym. pushur, par, Ak. punchau, Qui. . •..... teigha, Cir., taika, Tara. dgeh, Cir., quih, Poc. aquicha, Huas. lid, Ak., . la, Bur., lah,Kar. ,quilla, Qui., citlali, Mex. [lala, Etr.J, hpyalit, Siam. . es, Ak., . paksi, Aym., maitsaka, Tara. maathe, Cir. ooshaghe, Cir., tsah, Karen, sillo, Aym., tze, Oth. citlali, Mex. dghe, Geo., thngay, Cam., . aquicha, Huas. [ur, Ak., light], ngay, Ann., uru, Aym., quih, Poc. tam, Ak., tangway, Mon, . [tonatuih, Mex., ne, Ak., . [ne,na,Bur..sun. ,nina, Qui., Aym. ....... [sun]. kum, Ak., kamo, Cam., naiki, Tara. [nefney, Cir., light]. . a, Ak., ya, Bur., . yaku, Q., Aym. ahti, Cora. o, Salt., . a, Mex.; ye, Tar. aan, Ak. [rain], nan, Siam., unu, Qui., ha, Maya. aria, Ak., [re, Bur., water], hahuiri, Aym. . mdinare, Geo.,. mrach, Bur. ada, Ak., . tak, Cam., atoya, Mex., Cor. ra, Ak., flow. . Sky, Hea­ ven, siku, sikaru, Ak., kor, Cam., kaan, Maya. �83 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. Indo-Chinese, Sky,H’ven.an, Ak., . tza, Geo., Mountain, kur, kar(a), Ak., Hill, . . taghez, Cir., . mtha, Geo., . Stone, Rock, Tree, . Leaf, , . taq(a), Ak., . kwa, Geo., . gu, iz, Ak., khe, Geo., . . . . potholi, Geo., . kani, Kumi, taka, Mon, khalon, Mon, . tu, Mon, . takun, Kami. patouk, Shan. . tamo, Cam., kamou, Mon, kai, Ann., kanoung, Mon, akun, Kami, slak, Cam., thela, lah, Karen, la, Ann. . sre, Cam. Peruvian. Mexican, etc. andvui, Mixteca. taxah, Poc. kkollo, Aym. pata, Qui., tepe, Mex. kak, Aym., Qui., te, Mex. ....... tete, Cora. khoka, Aym. quenua, Aym. kan, Maya. llakka, Aym. lappi, Aym. Field, . . sa, Ak., . . Garden, . gan(a), Ak., cancha, Qui., zaca, Mex. kana, Geo. House,etc.,uru, Ak., . reuan, Siam. ziku, Ak., ngu, Oth. duk(u), Ak., phoun, Cam., uta, ata, Aym., ata, Huas, sakhli, Geo., ban, Siam, puncu, Aym., Q., otoch, Maya. Name, mu, dara, Ak. 9 yamu, Mon, suti, Aym., Qui., sana, Mixteca. tsah, Cir., maing, Karen, amin, Bur. chu, Siam. . lu, Ak., . Sheep, llama, Qui. tzkwari, Geo., . ccaura, Aym. heene, Circ. Jamb, una, Ay., (lamb), Goat, . . gizdin, Ak., . mea, Cam., paca, Aym. thkhavi, Geo., . khapa, Mon. Bull, khar, la, Ak., . karau, Mon. Cow, hari, Geo., . khaboi, Kami. . dapara, Ak., . paren, Mon, bufpuri, Geo. . ....... [falo. Dog, . liku, Ak., . kala, Mon, anokara, Aym., cocochi, Tara. dzaghli, Geo., . khwe, Bur., calatu, Qui. khah, Cir. lion, . likmakh, Ak., . kala, Mon, ocelo, Mex. lomi, Geo., . kya, Bur., puma, Ak., Qui. ....... j,dara, Ak., Wild sheep, . afckhoei, Cam., taruca, Aym., Q. ....... Bird, . . khu, Ak., ....... quauh, Mex. khathami, Geo., khaton, Mon. kattey, Cir., . kava. Snake, . ti, sir, Ak., . tharun, n marun, Mon, katari, Aym. Fish, . . kha, khan, Ak., . ka, nuu., z l, Ann. kanu, Aym., . cay, Poc. bat(a), Ak., . para, Siam. Good,. . khiga, Ak., . chia, Cam., asque, Aym. kargi, Geo., . kha, Mon, qualli, Mex. gala, Tara, gha, Karen, khuta, Tara. Bitter, . hur(i), Ak., . khah, Karen, B., haru, Aym. Sour, . . mekave, Geo. i . khom, Siam. Black, . kug(i), Ak., . khuaun, Cam., akahha, Maya. mi, Ak., . mai, Bur., chamaka, Aym. Red, . . gusci, Ak., ' gau, Karen, pako, Aym., Q., cuz, Mqx. . hpakit, Mon, kokoz, Mex. Great, . enim, nun, Ak., thanot, Mon, hatun, Qui., . noh, Maya. �84 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. Great, Give, . Run, . . malch, Ak., anta, Ak., atto, Cir. . . she, Ak., . ■ ga? Ak., . mu, Ak., . . riati, Ak., Flow, . Go, . Speak, . rli, Georg., . ,. ka, Ak., . ja, Geo., . Eat, Drink, Die, . Kill, . . kaka, Ak., laparako, Geo., . ka, Ak., . nak, Ak., sua, Geo., . khan, khut, Ak. ,. be, ba, bat, Ak. sikua, Geo., . kud, khas, Ak., . re, Geo., . . tuq(a), Ak., Cut, . Break, Cry, . Weep, Place, Put, . . Rise, . . Raise, Many, All, . . ka, khash, Ak., ko, thsqo, Geo., ri, Ak., aka, Ak., . mes, Ak., ka, Ak., . koweli, Geo., . No, not, . nu, Ak., . Negative, nu, Geo., Peruvian. Indo-Chinese. miat, Bur., tau, Karen, . . ....... ....... Mexican, etc. nim, Poc. na, ndi, Oth. sho, Ann., . chu, Aym., . caa, Maya. ka, Mon, . . ku, Qui., . . kia, Tara. pekya, Bur., . ...... maka, Mex. garitaa [aara], huayra, Qui. . ....... Mon, pre, Bur., . [puri, Qui.] . ....... aara, Mon, . [humi,Aym.,Q.] huma, Tara, nikay, Cam., . ....... ynqui, Poc. hankai, Mon, . arusi, Aym. . ....... chho, Bur., . rima, Q. . . ....... hanmarai, Mon. ....... chhan, Cam., . mancana, Aym. .......[Tara, cha, Bur., . ....... qua, Cora, Mex., au, Ann., . , ....... hanal, Maya, kenn, Siam., . ....... hindi, Mixteca. thou, Mon, . ....... chia, Mex. sok, Bur. . . ....... mathi, Karen,. amaya, Aym., . muechit, Cora, kha, Siam., . ....... miquiz, Mex. ....... ....... mukiki, Tara. ....... cuta, Aym. . ....... rei, Cam., . rutu, Qui. . toui, Cam., . huaca. . . ....... khok, Ann. . ....... chura, Qui. cancha, Qui. mhrang, Bur., . hatari, Qui. heka, Karen, . hucaro, Qui. husamia, Bur., miec, Mex. ahmah, Karen, . [naka, Aym.] [kuna, Qui.] pnoom, Cam., . hani, Aym. ma, Bur., etc., . ma, Aym., Qui mao, Maya, na, Kumi, ma, Poc. The pronouns are of such varied type and distribution that only a few selections are offered. Western. I, me, Thou, He, , Indo-Chinese. Peruvian. . mu, idbi, Ak., . awai, Mon, . ....... mi. Geo. . . ..... nyo, Angka, . na, Aym., ...................nga, Bur., . noca, Qui., ----kha, Siam., etc. ....... . zu, Ak., . . tua, Siam., . -ta, Aym., shen, Geo., . tha, Karen, . ....... mun, men, Ak., ....... ....... weyroo, Cir., . bai, Mon, . ....... ....... ba, Angka, . ....... . .. ........ nah, Karen, . nqui, Qui., . ni, bi, Ak., . no, Ann., . hupa, Aym., [ni, bi, plur. Ge.],wa, . . . pay, Qui., igi, misi, Geo., ni, Khyeng, . ni, Aym. . Mexican, etc. ma, Oth. . nuga, Oth. . ne, Mex. ....... . tata, Huas. mi, Totonaca. timo, Mex. pe, Cora. pu, Tara. . nugui, Oth. . nunu, Oth. . bi, Oth. . ...... �85 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. Western. He, We, . . ....... . . me, Ak., . Plurals, Indo-Chinese. pho, Angka, . ....... ....... . -aen, Siam., . -niht, Shan., . -nene, Ak., -no, Ak., . -ni, Geo. -bi, Geo., -th, Geo., . id, Ak., zee, Cir., . erthi, Geo., . . . . . . bi, Ak., . kas, Ak., . oh, Cir., . ori, Geo., . essa, Ak., sami, Geo., shee, Cir., . . . . . . . I, . . 2, . . 3, . . 4, . . . sana, Ak., . 5, . . 6, . . . sha, Ak., . para, Ak., tpey, Cir., . as, Ak., . shoo, Cir., ekusi, Geo. . . • . . Mexican, etc. Peruvian. . n, Qui. . ....... ....... . kuna, Qui., . naka, Aym. ....... ma, Oth. tame, Tara. . nana, Huas. . ....... . tau, Mon, . pay, Aym. . ....... dah, Karen, . ....... te, Cora. moe, Camb., . mai, Aym. . ....... mway, Mon, . hue, sue, Qui., . ce, Mex. mot., Ann., . ....... tam, Totonaca. tach, Bur. . ....... ....... ter, Karen. . ....... ....... bar, Cam., . pa,Aym., . poa, Cora. pa, Mon, . . yscay, Qui., . ome, Mex. ki, Karen, . ......... yoho, Oth. kai, Angka, . ......... os, Tara. sung, thou, Bur., kimsa, Aym.,Q., osh, Huas. sam, Siam., . ......... osh, Maya. htsan, Shan. . ....... ....... pah, Cam., . ....... ba, Tara. pe, Mon. . . ....... si, Siam., . . pusi, Aym. . ___ htse, Shan. . ....... tse, Angka. . ....... ....... pon, Mon. . ....... ....... buan, Cam., . ....... ha, Siam., Shan., ppiska, Aym., Q. ....... patson, Mon. . ....... Pangglla> Kami. ....... ....... sau, Ann., . socta, Aym., Q. ....... sauk, Khyeng. . ....... Professor John Campbell has found Celtic affinities for many of these Peruvian examples, and that for a good reason—that Aryan words of culture descend from the same prehistoric stock, and, in some cases, through Sumerian channels. NOTE ON DR DEECKE. Dr Deecke has just published “Der Ursprung der Kyprischen Sylbenschrift ” (Trubner, 1877), and an article in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen. Ges., vol. xxxi., part i., p. 162 (Trubner, 1877)—another article on the origin of the old Semitic alphabet. Both the latter and the Cypriote he traces to forms of the New Assyrian cuneiform. Dr Brandis �86 ON THE EPOCH OF HITTITE, ETC. in 1873 had already shown the identity of pa in Cypriote and cuneiform. Many of these identifications are clear. With re­ gard to others, I am inclined to assign values different from those attributed by him. It will be seen that this is a capital discovery, as it gets rid of the difficulties consequent on the commonly accepted derivation of the Phoenician alphabet, and brings us nearer to unity in the development of syllabaries and alphabets, ultimately to bring us to that common relation of cuneiform, hieroglyphic, and Chinese, advocated by me, p. 33. The date of the introduction of the selected Assyrian syl­ labary into Cyprus, Dr Deecke considers cannot be earlier than 1330 B.C., and must be placed much later, perhaps as late as the names of Cyprian kings recorded in cuneiform, say 700 B.C., and in use down to a later date. The bearing of Dr Deecke’s discoveries on Hamath or Khita is likely to be immediate. I have long since pointed out (p. 6) the relations between Khita and Cypriote, and have advocated researches for the derivation of Khita from hieratic, which I think I have supported in the A characters. With regard to some of the hieratic characters, I regard them as showing a relation between the numerals and number of strokes, as in bi, pa, sa. NOTE ON M. OPPERT. M. Oppert writes me, in consequence of its being alleged that he had denied the existence of Turanian cuneiform, that he regards the Sumerian character as Turanian, and Akkad as Semitic, and distinguishes in epoch between them. NOTE ON THE CIRCASSIANS. The Circassians, Abkhas, etc., are now at war with Russia, asserting their time-honoured spirit of warlike independence. �INDEX. Abel, Dr Carl, 38. Abkhas, 68, 86—j Agaw. Abydos inscription, 10. Accad, Accadian—j Akkad. Achaian, 38—j. Agaw. Agaw, 26, 27, 32, 34, 37, 38, 65-67, 74—j. Guarani, Omagua. Akka, 68. Akkad, 16, 18, 21, 23, 24, 27, 65, 69, 81. Albanian, 10, II, 14. Aleppo, 4. Alliteration, 61. Alphabet or syllabary, 8, 9, 15, 36, 86—j Albanian, Cypriote, Chinese, Cuneiform, Hebrew, Himyaritic, Libyan, Lycian, Yucatan. America S., Brazil, Guarani, Mexico, Peru, intercourse with, 18, 29, 32, 66, 68 ; traditions of, 68 ; river names, 71; town names, 74; languages, 81— j. River, etc. Armenia, 19, 39, 63. Aryan, 18, 26, 27. Assyrian, 2, 16—J. Cuneiform. Asta, 65. Astura, 65. Australia, 68, 69. Aymara, 21, 26, 27, 30, 37, 81, 85. Aztek, 21, 22, 27, 30, 31, 81, 85—j Mexico. Babylonia, 18, 65—j Akkad, Assyria. Basque, 64, 65—j Vasco-Kolarian. Berber, 10-12. Birch, Dr, v, 12, 20. Black, 17. Brazil, 67—j. Guarani. Britain, vi, 34, 65, 73. Bronze, 34. Bull, 36 Bunsen, Ernest de, 18, 36. Burial towers, 34. Burton, Capt. R. F., 4-6. Bushmen, 68. Calendar, 35. Campbell, Rev. Prof.J., 17, 30,38,66,85. Cambodian, 21, 23, 27, 28, 35, 81, 85. Canaan, 1, 37. Canaanite, vi, 17, 20-22—j. Khita. Carchemish, 2, 20, 23. Caria, 17, 22, 35. Caucasian, 32,68—j. Circassian, Abkhas, Georgian. Celtiberian, 11. . . . . . . Celtic, 30, 85. Chaldea, 17—J. Babylonia. Character—s. Alphabet, Symbol. Chinese, 17, 32, 33. Cimbri, 38. Circassian, 21, 23, 27, 32, 81, 85, 86. Clarke, Hyde, vi, 6,19, 20, 22,28, 29,32. Cohenim, blessing of, 8. Colchis, 1, 63. Colossal heads, 33. Cora, 31, 81. Cross, 17, 36, 37—j Tau. Cross alphabet, 15, 17. Cuneiform, 16, 33, 86. Cush, 1, 31. Cypriote, v, 6, 9, 14, 39, 86. Deecke, Dr, v, vi, 85, 86. Dravidian, 26. Easter Island, 33. Egg, 17. Egypt, 17, .26, 66. Ephesus, vi, 19, 20. Etruscan, 11, 14, 20-22, 27, 29, 35, 39, 63, 82. Etruscan tables, 21. Eve, 25, 26. Eye, 17. Five, 36—j Hand. Foot, 17. Four worlds, 69. Forbes, David, 30, 35. Georgian, I, 19-24, 27, 29, 66, 81, 85. God, names of, 16, 26. Greece, 39, 62, 72. Greek, 26, 57. Guarani, 22, 25, 32, 37—s. Agaw. Halliburton, R. G., 36. Ham, 1, 2. Hamath, 2, 3—j. Khita. Hamath inscriptions, vi, 3, 5, 33. Hand, symbol of, 8, 17, 25, 37. Hand, male and female, 17, 37. Harrison, Park, 25, 35. Havilah, I. Heath, Dunbar, 5. Hebrew, 5, 9, 14, 17, 37, 38, 57. Herodotus, 5. Heth, 2—j. Khita. Himyaritic, 6, 7, 8, 14. Hittite—j Khita. Horite, 2, 66. Human sacrifice, 35. Hutchinson, Consul, 31, 35. . . . �INDEX. Iberian, 64, Ibreez, 5. India, 18, 29, 71. Indo-China, 18, 27, 28, 32, 73, 81, 85. Indus, 29. Ireland, 61, 72. Italy, 29, 39,' 62, 71. Java, 18, 33. Jeremiah, J., 25. Ka, 23. Karen, 81. Kawa, 37. Khita, v, 1, 2, 3, 20, 22, 28, 31, 33, 86— j Sumerian. Khita-Peruvian, 20. Kumi, Kami, 81. Lake names, 73. Latham, Dr, 30, 32. Latin, 22, 26, 57. Leared, Dr, 37. Lenormant, 19, 66. Lesghian, 20. Libyan, 6, 10-13. Lycian, 10, 11, 14, 20, 35. Lydian, 22, 33, 63. Magic alphabets, 16. Malay, 18. Markham, Clements, 31. Martin, R. Biddulph, 5. Masonic alphabet, 15. Maya, v, 27, 30, 33, 81, 85. Mexican, 21, 23, 31, 32, 73, 81, 86—j. Aztek. Mon—s. Cambodian. Monument building, 29, 32, 33. Moon, 17, 25, 37. Mountain names, 73, 74. Mouth, 17, 25. Mythology, vi, 17, 25, 27, 36, 66. Nature-worship, 17. Nebo, 20. Negative series, 25, 30. New Granada, 71. Newman, F. W., II. Night, 25, 26. Niobe, 20, 34. Not, 25. Numerals, 21, 23, 30, 86. Omagua, 68. Oppert, M., 19, 86. Orion, 17, 36. Othomi, 21, 27, 31, 32, 81, 85. Palestine—J. Canaan. Palmer, Professor, 4. Parsees, 67. Pegu, 28. Pergamos, 68, 69. Perrot, M., 33. Peru, 18, 33, 35, 37, 66, 69, 72. Peruvian, 21, 22—j. Aymara, Quichua. . Phoenician, v, 7, 11, 12, 18, 34, 64, 86. Phrygian, 22, 35. Pleiades, 17, 36, 37. Prideaux, Colonel, 8. Quichua, 21, 22, 24, 27,.30, 31, 81, 85. Quipu, 35. Rabbinic alphabet, 15. Red, 25, 37. River names, 12, 20, 29, 71. River names, table of, 71. Rosa; Senor de la, 30, 31. Sabsean, 16—j. Himyaritic. Samaria, 19, 40. Scape-goat, 35. Secret alphabet, 15. Semitic, 18, 26, 57, 86—j Phoenician. Serpent, vi, 17. Sesostris, vi, 5, 34. Seven, 36, 37. Siamese, 27, 28, 35, 81, 85. Sibu, vi, 20. Silures, 65. Sirius, 36. Siva, vi, 20. Smyrna, 19, 34. Soul, 25. Spain, 39, 63, 72. Square alphabet, 15. Sumerian, 12, 18, 22, 28, 31, 66, 86—s. Akkad. Sumerian words, table of, 81. Sumero-Peruvian, 20. Syllabary—j. Alphabet. Symbol 11, 13. , * Symbol 16, 17, 36. Symbology, 36. Tamashek, 12, 13, Tarahumara, 81, 85. Tau, 17, 36—j Pleiades. Taylor, Rev. Isaac, 20. Thebes, 17, 22, 46, 66. Thinae, 28. Thracian, 22. Three, 17, 36. Thugga, 12. Tin, 34. Toltek, 27, 32. Town names, 20, 37, 60. Triad, 17. Tylor, E. B., 26, 29. Ugrian, 19, 20, 26. Vasco-Kolarian, 19, 26, 27, 65, 67—J. Basque. Waring, 2. Warka, 7, 9, 13. Wilson, Dr Daniel, 29, 35. Wolof, 28. Woman, 17, 25, 26, 37. Yona, 25, 26, 37. Yucatan, 33, 35—J. Maya. . . � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. 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