1
10
16
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/e892c0a944f620da1155e3d72c487521.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=G0QTKSE3Njj7ze8JcbgZvaBly7fw3gYxlnJvGPw9Jtpx2oB47mpX2sq9WQBSCwbRoD4Zj%7EkuPyk8ak-67mfE2OI3fOzcfLW1LM%7EQVxFI-D4qlZetHP0nH0Xdn2MQv-DoOGK5YNBfyMwF3AURucDYdQp0Z3g3zem9dlOm3jrCjkIdn-pLPDfwIvTVZiKy33c3W%7EsLI3oXnUMe2%7E%7EreWro-HQIkpDKcrpGiLrD7pPZOE1lc1j-X6-Kr6eNNXTk9mN-vfW9hWdcU22eL5lGwW8CY77EKFipQC8dbOSQy23Y5XwDn2JmLbjINw%7E0fMIsYl44PKGZ-Z2UAbqBhcqhppg6jg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
5491188ac4612503682c28713ef79f65
PDF Text
Text
F
THE
Quarterly
Journal
OF
_________ E D U C A T I O N.
No. i.
'Vol. i.
MAY, 1867.
A WORD TO OUR READERS.
there room and need at the present time for a new educational
HI iournal? We think there is. Within the last quarter of a
Blsl century especially, education has made rapid strides through•
.
out the land. Not only have schools greatly multiplied, but
the improvement in the quality of their teaching is even more marked
than the increase in their number. Results, and not attendance of
scholars merely, is now expected and required from them. Grants for
education—which have increased from year to year; Schools of Design,
Mechanics Institutions, and Working Men’s Colleges ; the movement in
our great universities; the local examinations of Oxford and Cambridge
of the Society of Arts, and of the College of Preceptors; the discussions
m Parliament and the press, in social congresses and public meetings__all
evidence that the public mind is at length, and rapidly, becoming fully
alive to the importance of education, and attaining to a better under
standing of its requirements. It will be our ambition to render what aid
we can m furtherance of this great work. Education is a vast continent
even yet but partially explored and imperfectly cultivated. There is
much to be done, and we hope to secure the co-operation of many who
are engaged m the work of tuition, and of earnest, able, and tried friends
01 education 111 carrying out our enterprise.
It will be the especial aim of the Quarterly Journal of Education, by
promoting intercommunication among teachers and others interested in
education to bring about a closer sympathy between them, and a better
understanding of all matters connected with their common work.
m
wit11 PartP or sect’ the Quarterly Journal of Education
will afford facilities to the advocates of different systems and methods of
teaching to make known their respective views, so that all may benefit
by their mutual comparison. We shall discuss the books and appliances
most useful for teaching, and endeavour to place our readers as far as
possible au courant with whatever is most interesting in regard to educa
tion and its progress in all. parts of the kingdom. Essays, and occasion
ally examination-papers, will also appear in our columns. Such will be
the freight of the little bark we this day launch on its first voyage.
X’
I
�2
OUR EARLY ENGLISH SCIENTIFIC WRITERS.
BY THE EDITOR.
—---- LONG and barren period intervenes between the scientific
activity of ancient Greece and that of modern Europe.
During the middle ages philosophy was mystical and dog
matic father than experimental and inductive. Men did not
matic, rather
trust to Nature and experiment, but leaned upon the staff of authority,
and looked for guidance to the wisdom of the ancients, There was a
disposition “to study the opinions of others, as the only mode of form
ing their own; to read Nature through books; to attend terwhat had
been already thought and said, rather than to what really is and happens.
Euclid was mathematics, Aristotle natural history. To question what
Aristotle had said was almost as great an heresy as to question tne
dogmas and authority of the Church.
Philosophy thus came to be little else than an exposition of. the
thoughts of other men; and in place of independent investigation into
the phenomena of Nature, were compilations and epitomes.
Experi
menters were replaced by commentators; criticism took the place of
induction : and instead of great discoverers we had learned men; and
as a consequence (as Lord Bacon, in describing the character and state
of knowledge at this period, remarks), philosophy was 1 barren m effects,
fruitful in questions, slow and languid in its improvement. The following
sentences, which form the conclusion of a lecture—one upon a course .of
Euclid, delivered at Oxford—illustrate better, perhaps, than any descrip
tion, this temper of mind :—“ Gentlemen hearers, I. have performed
mv promise, I have redeemed my pledge, I have explained according tomy ability the definitions, postulates, axioms, and first eight propositions,
of the 1 Elements of Euclid.’ Here, sinking under the weight oi years,
I lay down my art and instruments.”
.
.
But though the great strides made by modern science date back
no farther than from the beginning of the seventeenth century, yet
earlier beams of light during that drear interval penetrated the thick
darkness around : a few bold spirits, from time to time, rose sypenor
to the mental indolence and superstition and scholastic pedantry that
prevailed, and, despite opprobrium and persecution, had the courage
to interrogate nature for themselves. Their “.ineffectual fires may
have “paled” in presence of the greater luminaries that have since
risen above the horizon; but they were the heralds, of the dawn, the
precursors of that brighter and better day in which it is. our happiness
to live
They faithfully handed down the torch of science, and did
somewhat also to increase its light. As there were reformers before
Martin Luther, so in modern Europe there were philosophers who to
some extent applied the inductive method in their researches before
Francis Bacon. They were the avant couriers of that great power which
has revolutionized the thought and changed the face of modern society,
and their names therefore deserve a place among, those which the world
will not willingly let die. Holding this conviction, I propose \ery
B
�Our Early English Scientific Writers,
,
3
briefly, to recall the names of some of those old English worthies who
in their day rendered such service as they pould in promoting a spirit
of inquiry into
“Nature’s infinite book of secrecy,”
(
•
j
’ ■
and in advancing our knowledge of, and control over, the phenomena
and forces of Nature.
The earliest English writer on science whose works have come down
to us was Adelard, a monk of Bath, who lived in the mid Hie of the
twelfth century. He is said to have been learned in all the science of
his time. In pursuit of knowledge he travelled through France, Ger
many, Italy, and Spain; and also visited Arabia, then the great seat of
learning. The. “Elements of Euclid” was translated by him out of
Arabic into Latin; a copy of which, beautifully written on parchment,
with illuminated capitals, may be seen among the Arundel Manuscripts
in the library of the British Museum. Beside this, and the translation
of a work on the “ Seven Planets,” he wrote several treatises on Physics,
and on Medicine, and one on the Seven Liberal Arts. A treatise by
him. on the Astrolabe is also preserved among the manuscripts in the
British Museum; its chief, if not its only, value now is as a curious spe
cimen of our early scientific literature.
Another scientific author, of some note in his time, was Daniel of
Merley, or, as he is sometimes called, Daniel Morley, who, if not a
contemporary of Adelard, flourished in the same century with him; and
like him travelled into Spain and Arabia to increase his learning.’ He
wrote a work on the “ Principles of Mathematics,” but of which no copy
is known to be extant. Another work by him, entitled “ De Inferior!
et Superior! Parte Mundi,” has been more fortunate in escaping the
ravages of time; a copy of it is preserved in the British Museum, bound
up with Adelard’s treatise on the Astrolabe. It is based on the Alma
gest of Ptolemy, and is dedicated to John, Bishop of Norwich. •
But, next to Roger Bacon, perhaps the most celebrated of our early
scientific authors was Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, who was
born in 1175, and died in 1253. If we are to credit his biographer, he
must have been a living encyclopaedia, having been not only profoundly
versed in Scripture (a rare attainment in those days, even in a bishop),
in theology, and. in ecclesiastical law, but also excelling in music, logic,’
metaphysical philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and other branches
of natural philosophy. Besides being active in his episcopal duties, he
was a voluminous author. The catalogue of his works appended to’ his
biography shews that in addition to many theological and miscellaneous
treatises, he wrote on the “ Heat of the Sun,” on “ Motion,” on the
“ Quadrature of the Circle,” on the “ Air,” on the 11 Rainbow,” and on
the “Utility of the Sciences.” A selection of his scientific works was
published at Venice in 1514. From writing on astronomy he was called
an astrologer, and is so designated by the poet Gower; and like all who
at that time distinguished themselves by superior knowledge, he enjoyed
—or we should rather say suffered—the reputation of being a magician.
Stories were widely circulated and believed of his having invented a
speaking head made of brass, and of an infernal horse which he had
1— 2
�4
History- Teaching.
erected by his magic art, and on which he was said to have ridden
through the air to Rome. Whether these stories point to some mecha
nical inventions, which popular ignorance would be sure to attribute to
sorcery and connect with supernatural legend, cannot now be ascer
tained ; but we know that any extraordinary invention or discovery, as
the printing press, or gunpowder, would indubitably, in that age, be
fathered on the Evil One, as the illustrious friend of Grosseteste, Roger
Bacon, found to his cost.
But I must defer to another paper the sketch I propose to give of
this the most distinguished Englishman in our scientific annals prior to
the advent of his still greater namesake, the author of the “ Novum
Organon.”
HISTORY-TEACHING.
BY WILLIAM ROSSITER, F.R.G.S.
TTEMPTING to “get blood from a stone” has generally been
considered work in vain, and “ skinning flints ” is sometimes
described as unprofitable labour. The same truth is put
classically as “ ex nihilo, nihil fit" and also colloquially as
“ out of nothing, nothing comes.” I suppose most of us have felt the
truth of this, probably in more ways than one; but I think also that we
teachers, especially teachers of English, suffer frequently from this law,
without even realizing, fully, the cause of the failure of our work.
In teaching Latin or Greek, we never expect a pujpil to use a word
or a construction that has not been explained to him; nor do we look,
in teaching physical science or mathematics, for our pupils to know what
we have not taught them: yet, how frequently do we wish, rather than
hope, for our school-boys to write good English, and to compose narra
tives and essays, without first supplying them with the means of acquiring
the requisite knowledge or ability !
No subject is more frequently chosen for “composition” than
history; and what materials do we give the minds of the “ composers ?”
Generally, compilations of historical facts—frequently admirable as con
taining in a few hundred pages a resume of the facts of history, but
generally dry and barren for the purpose of instruction, giving school
boys nothing but a stereotyped list of names and-dates, summing up a
reign in a chapter, a campaign in half a page, a character in three lines,
and this generally in language the most general and comprehensive pos
sible, and therefore the most difficult for a boy to comprehend.
As a step towards remedying this evil—and a very great step it is—
we have school-books which are not compilations, but extracts from good
authors. These are exceedingly useful, so far as they can be useful, but
they do not satisfy the want I am endeavouring to describe, the want on
the part of school-boys of a sufficient familiarity with facts to know what
to say, and with good English to be able to say it.
�History- Teaching.
5
The very excellence of the extracts is one great cause of this. An
extract from Hallam or Macaulay is nourishment to a mind familiar with
the names and things spoken of; but to one who knows but little of the
facts, and comprehends, and that but imperfectly, but few of the allusions,
an extract from a philosophical author is but a delusion and a mockery,
except for the purpose of accustoming the mind, to expressions which it
may one day understand and know how to value.
There may be much difference of opinion as to the extent of this
“want” on the part of our scholars, there will probably be even more as
to the best means of supplying it, if admitted to be existing. The means
I have adopted is to use, as reading-books, historical novels and plays.
For example, in the study of the Plantagenet period, we have read
“Ivanhoe,” “King John,” and “Richard II.” I don’t mean -selec
tions, but the whole book in each case, taking care to remember that
we were reading “fiction” and not “fact,” but on the whole en
joying the graphic descriptions of the novelist or poet somewhat
more than we should the correct statement of carefully compiled facts,
and, it is to be hoped, educating our hearts as well as our minds, by
learning that “history” does not mean a list of battles, treaties, and
persecutions, but a record of the lives of men and women by whose
struggles, successes, and failures, we may learn to guide ourselves.
Probably our plan may call forth objections on many different
grounds. If so, I will try to be guided by them, and if I can to meet
them. Practically, at examinations, instead of some boys sitting chew
ing their pens, wondering what they shall say, I find every one complain
that the time was not half long enough.
Industrial and Reformatory Schools for the County of
Kent.—The Justices of Kent have resolved to avail themselves of the
provisions of the Industrial Schools Act and the Reformatory Schools
Act passed last session. At a meeting of magistrates held in January,
a committee was appointed to consider the expediency of the court
taking action under these Acts, and their report was presented- at a
court of general session, held on Thursday, 19th March. The com
mittee were of opinion that it was desirable that the system of indus
trial schools should be put into operation in the county. They recom
mended that, in the first instance, suitable buildings, with land attached,
should, if practicable, be hired for this purpose; but that, failing this,
the court should erect one house for boys and another for girls, each
house to be capable of accommodating about 50 children. With refer
ence to the’reformatory schools, the committee recommended that the
court adopt the provision of the 27th section of the Act 29th and 30th
Viet. cap. 117, by making contracts with the managers of the Reforma
tory School at Redhill, or any similar institution for the reception of
boys and girls respectively. The court unanimously adopted the above
recommendations, and notice was ordered to be given that at a subse
quent session the justices would proceed to make a contribution out of
the county rate for such purposes.
�6
ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE MEMORY.
"
BY S. E. EENGOUGH.
AN possesses three primary intellectual faculties, imagination,
memory, and reason. Reason is the monarch, which every
other portion of his nature was created to obey: but the
character and extent of the sway exercised by this kingly attri
bute over the realm of mind depends upon the harmonious action of its
two subordinates, the imagination and the memory. If imagination does
not impart creative life to every province of science in which reason
claims to exercise a judicial function, if memory does not retain its stores
of knowledge in readiness for service at a moment’s notice, reason
expends its energies in vain, and, exhausted by fruitless efforts, too
often becomes the deluded and willing slave of sense and appetite. In
plain terms, the prerogatives of reason can only be maintained by the
judicious culture of the other faculties. Yet any systematic discipline of
the imagination has hitherto had little place in schemes of education,
while it has been the custom to tax unduly the powers of memory with
out the slightest regard to the laws which regulate its action. The time,
we trust, is not far distant when education will be based on rational
principles; when the nature of the human mind, and the processes by
which alone it can be normally developed, will be studied with no less
care than that at present bestowed by the agriculturist on the com
position of soils and the chemical elements of the crops which they are
required to bear.
Youth is the seed-time of our life, and the mind cannot be expected
to produce a harvest useful and rich in quality, and beautiful in form,
unless the germs of future intelligence be early implanted within the
memory. It is a manifest duty, therefore, of all engaged in education to
analyze carefully the constitution of this faculty, and to become ac
quainted with any methods by which the treasures committed to it may
be preserved from perishing. Every individual possesses two almost
distinct kinds of memory, one of which is for the most part under the
control of the will, and is more properly termed recollection; the other
is the passive recipient of impressions conveyed to it through the medium
of the senses. The efficiency of this latter faculty depends mainly on the
possessor’s physical constitution, bent of character, and habits of life, and
is only susceptible of a limited measure of improvement. It is far ptherwise with the recollection, which is subject to volition, and the capabili
ties of which may be increased to an indefinite extent. With this
portion of memory the educator is of course chiefly concerned, and the
failure of attempts to impart information to the young generally arises
from inattention to the laws on which the power of recollection depends.
These are referable to the two heads of association and attention.
The principle of association of ideas may be described as the ten
dency of two or more facts or conceptions, which have been con
templated together or in immediate succession, to become so connected
that one of them at a future time recalls the other, or introduces a train
of thoughts which follow each other in the order in which they were
�Ou the Cultivation of the Memory.
7
originally associated. The causes or conditions of this association of
■ideas are threefold—resemblance or contrast, contiguity in time or place,
■cause and effect. On these principles, then, one thought may suggest
or recall another, which has some relation to it in either of these respects.
The success of the teacher or student in educating and strengthening
the powers of recollection is mainly dependent on the judgment with
which he seizes upon the associations best adapted to insure a lasting
connection between some new fact, which it is desired to imprint upon
the memory, and some other idea, which already exists within the mind.
Now, whether the associations in any particular case should be strictly
logical, local, or merely accidental and arbitrary, must be decided, not only
by the subject matter to be remembered, but also by the mind and
circumstances of -the pupil. Associations, for example, of the strongest
and most serviceable kind for one who had always lived in a city would
be weak and almost unintelligible to a person brought up in the country,
and w? versa. As a general rule, an association should be natural and
rational, should be calculated to quicken the attention by exciting interest,
and should be of intrinsic value, and add to the stock of information at
the same time that it furnishes assistance to the memory.
li Every fresh fact or idea,” it has been truly said, “ should be put by
in its proper place in the mind—that is to say, the new fact or idea
■should be associated with its proper class of facts or ideas already
existing in the mind. A general principle gives the key to the remem
brance of a whole series of facts or events. Physical facts are best
remembered through a knowledge of their general law, effects through a
knowledge of their cause, and results through a knowledge of the general
principles upon which they depend.”
The unwillingness which every intelligent teacher must feel to en
courage his pupils to form frivolous and unnatural, and therefore neces
sarily transient associations, will always prevent artificial aids to memory
from occupying any but a very subordinate place in education. But a
good mnemonical system has its use, and, if properly applied, would save
a vast amount of time and labour. There are many things which it is
necessary to remember, and which are incapable of rational association,
.such as statistics of every sort, unconnected events and lists of names.
How much of the mental energy of children is wasted in the vain attempt
to engrave upon the memory by wearisome repetition such items of
information, which might be mastered more effectually in one tenth of
the time by the aid of mnemonical association !
A striking instance of what may be done in this way is afforded by
Mr. Stokes’s ingenious method of teaching the multiplication table, by
means of which—incredible as the statement may appear—a child of
ordinary capacity may be made perfectly familiar with that formidable
task in a single hour. This great boon to infancy has now been intro
duced into the chief national schools of Glasgow, the masters of which,
fifteen in number, have signed a testimonial to its efficiency. Mr. Stokes
is certainly at the head of all mnemonical professors. Having spent
much time over different systems of artificial memory, we feel able to
-assert with confidence, that the mnemonical key which he places in the
�8
On the Cultivation of the Memory.
hands of his pupils combines in itself the advantages shared among all
other systems, and we strongly recommend it to any one preparing for a
competitive examination.
We have next to consider the surest method of quickening the
attention, the importance of which arises from memory being often the
result of the complex action of several senses. There is, so to speak, a
muscular memory, or involuntary movement, the result of habit and
suggestion—and a memory of the tongue, the eye, and ear, as well • as
reason. If each of these memories can be brought to bear simul
taneously on the same object, an indelible impression is commonly pro
duced. And this is not so difficult as might be supposed. We are
acquainted with an accomplished German linguist who has availed him
self of this principle in teaching language with astonishing success.
Appealing to the eye by written words, to the ear by clear and forcible
enunciation, and quickening the attention by always obliging his pupils
“ to suit the action to the word, and the word to the action,” he under
takes to impart a conversational facility in French or German within a
few weeks. To the simultaneous appeal made to eye, ear, and reason,
we must attribute the success of the Pestalozzian system of instruction,
which is especially adapted to infancy, when the activity of the powers
of observation, as contrasted with those of reflection, clearly indicates
that the senses are the chief channels by which knowledge should reach
the mind. To us it seems scarcely credible, that fifty years ago geo
graphy was commonly taught without an atlas. Fifty years hence, it
may seem equally astounding, that the minds of children of seven years
old and upwards should be nourished, or rather starved, as they generally
are at present, on a diet of grammatical abstractions never fully under
stood until the reason is matured.
Lastly, it is obvious that nothing quickens the attention so much aspleasurable interest. That which is learned unwillingly never sinks deep
in the memory ; and school tasks are too often rendered unnecessarily
irksome and distasteful. We believe there are very few children who, if
taught judiciously, would not take delight in their school books, instead
of listlessly dogearing their leaves, or moistening them with their tears..
It is needless to add, that when a lesson is learned con amorext is learned
in half the time, and the mind receives on a sensitive surface a perma
nent impression.
The Number of Candidates for Examination at the Train
Colleges.—By a return just issued, it appears that the number of
candidates who presented themselves for examination at the training
colleges at Christmas, 1866, was 1614, against 1555 at the previous
Christmas, of whom 1207 passed their examination, against 1306 at the
previous Christmas. The number of those who entered the training
colleges in January, 1867, was 1121, against 1215 in January, 1866, and
the number of pupil teachers apprenticed in 1866 was 3070, against
2631 in the previous year.
ing
�9
THE USE OF CYCLOPAEDIAS
*
BY VERNON LUSHINGTON, ESQ., B.C.L.
HE English Cyclopaedia consists of eleven great volumes, twodevoted to geography, three to biography, two to natural
history, and four to arts and sciences. No critic can pretend
to have read it, but only to have read in it; all, however.,
speak highly, most highly, in its praise. Its peculiar merits seem to
consist in its convenient divisions, and a large degree of completeness,
combined with a very moderate price. I have hardly done more than
look into the Biography and Geography, but with very great satisfaction;
reading descriptions of strange places I have visited, and life-stories of
memorable men now passed away or still living.
Perhaps the first sensation of the reader on opening these massive
volumes will be one of bewilderment, and unwillingness to traverse any
such vast mountain of knowledge. But on better consideration he will
feel two things; first, that kind of reverence which the spectacle of any
great human labour cannot but call forth; and secondly, that this (or
indeed any) Cyclopaedia is a witness to the inexhaustible interest of
reality and simple truth. He will see that it is in fact a record of a
thousand thousand conquests over thick night, won in many generations
by a far-reaching industry, and patient intelligence, in many cases even
—say the discovery of America—by downright unmistakable valour:
and so gazing on these columns, there may come flashing through his
mind something of the exultation with which a people greets a victorious
army returning homeward. At least he cannot but observe how the
age in which we live is assiduously minding and doing her business;
everywhere extending and consolidating positive knowledge; with honest
sober eyes scrutinizing the past of human history, studying the starry
heavens, the solid earth, and all living things, tracking everywhere the
dominion of steadfast laws, then recording what is found, for ourselves
and for those who come after. A Cyclopaedia witnesses that all these
things are being done.
But let not the reader stop here ! Admiration is good, but not
barren admiration. Let the book be really used. A great dictionary
of this. kind, if -within easy reach, should be constantly appealed to.
There is no study, no reading, which does not involve local conditions,
the. history of particular men, the growth of successive efforts, and a
variety of other matters which it is well to know, sometimes even indis
pensable to know, if we would rightly understand the subject in hand.
It is here that a Cyclopaedia, the design of which we owe mainly to the
great Frenchmen of the last century, may be of real service to the indi
vidual student. It is “ a teaching all round,” a catalogued summary of
all knowledge. Under the names of particular men and places, it posts
up such information as ordinary inquirers seek for concerning them;
* “The English Cyclopaedia,” conducted by Charles Knight.
Evans.
London: Bradburv and'
�IO
S
The Use of Cyclopaedias.
under the titles of subjects or things, it gives short popular treatises,
popular in the right sense, which relate the history, and describe the
scope of the special matter, whatever it may be: the essence of a good
Cyclopaedia being, as already suggested, that the information shall be
easily found, and when found, shall be accurate, clear, and, so far as it
goes, sufficient. Thus a Cyclopaedia is a condensed library; which omits,
of course, a whole world of truth and beauty that lies in the works of
original authors, yet guides us to them, in some measure gives us their
results, or at least announces them: it contains also much that is not to
be found elsewhere. There might be worse desultory reading than in
this big book; but its true use is to promptly supplement or animate
our study of this or that subject, which we are otherwise steadily pur
suing ; to make our knowledge sure, precise; a thing of great importance.
Therefore, when in doubt, look !
To take the biographical volumes, for instance. What interest to
those who are studying mathematics or drawing, to look up the biography
•of Euclid or Titian ; to our students of Latin, to find a life of Ctesar or
Horace or Cicero ready at hand, with some reasonable criticism of their
work as a whole; to our lovers of music, to read what follows under the
names of Beethoven, Mozart, Rossini! Again, students of the physical
sciences will often here find a helper at hand to solve some pressing
doubt: often, also, they are discouraged from attacking scientific books
{even if accessible) by their bulk and complexity; in this Cyclopaedia
they will find numerous articles contributed by distinguished professors,
short and readable, yet thoroughly trustworthy, which may send them
instructed and refreshed on their way. Again, to every thoughtful man
the history of his own occupation and its processes presents peculiar
interest: a banker’s clerk may rightly wish to learn something of the
history of banking; a wool-spinner to learn where the wool comes from,
and how his beautiful machinery has been produced; an engineer to
read of the labours of Watt and Stephenson, and so on. .All such
matters are very conveniently studied in a Cyclopaedia. Again, for we
must not pass over the two noble geographical volumes; our home, the
city or town in which we live, the country round about, the places we
visit in our holidays—these we cannot know too much of, and here
again the Cyclopaedia will be our friend.
These slender indications must suffice. It will be observed that a
Cyclopaedia does not dispense with ordinary text-books, and ordinary
steady work, still less with poetry and art, and all that supreme class of
human utterances which speak directly to the heart of man; but it has
a use of its own for every class of students. As such it well deserves a
place in every student’s library.
This notice should not pass without a grateful tribute to Mr. Charles
Knight himself. He is not the publisher, but the “ conductor ” of this
Cyclopaedia, the publishing part being undertaken by the firm of Brad
bury and Evans : they also deserve our thanks, for they take upon them
selves a heavy money-risk which can only be rewarded in many years.
Mr. Knight’s publishing days seem now over. He began his career at
.a time when books were printed for the rich few: he was the first of
�The Use of Cyclopcedias.
II
British publishers who dedicated themselves to the people. He has
since been followed by many: new readers have produced new pub
lishers, and these again new readers; and so the good work goes on.
But Mr. Knight has the credit of leading the way; he was the first man;
he threw his bread upon the waters. The object of his life has been to
bring to the numerous humbler classes sterling English literature and
solid information on national and every-day subjects. We cannot
remember the first appearance of the “ Penny Magazine,” but it still
.gives pleasure in many a cottage, and in its day it wrought great things.
Since then, Mr. Knight (whose own name is modestly omitted from the
biographies) has brought out good volume upon volume, good series upon
series; himself an author of considerable note, the writer of a history of
England and many other books; and what is an especial claim of
honour, he has done more, as editor and publisher, than any other
Englishman for the name and fame and large use of Shakspere.
One day his own name will appear in this book, and all his labours
be duly chronicled; and he will then show well worthy of comparison
with the illustrious family of the Etiennes, more commonly known by
the Latin name of Stephens, the celebrated printers of the sixteenth
century, whose lives I have been reading (for the first time) among the
biographies. They dwelt in Paris and Geneva, patronized, in the
ancient worthy sense, by princes and wealthy merchants, by Francis I.
and Henry III. of France, by the State Council of Geneva, by the
munificent Fuggers of Augsburg; and, on the other hand, persecuted
and hindered (not very seriously, however) by Catholic prelates. There
they produced grand “ Dictionariums ” of Greek and Latin, editions of
Greek and Latin authors, editions of the Bible, and theological works;
writing and printing for the scholars of Europe. What could be done
for letters in those days they did, and excellently well. The same noble
enterprise and unwearied industry has marked the career of our English
printer in the nineteenth century, in his labours to give to the people of
England English secular literature. And here Mr. Knight stands as the
representative of the latest—may we also say, in promise the highest ?—
effort of the English printing-press. What a contrast, what a progress
between the sacred missal, written by one hand, and tenderly illuminated
for the delight of a few high-born eyes, and these stout volumes of secular
lore, printed and stereotyped for the service of the million ! Something
may be lost, but how great the gain ! Worthy of a “ Hymn of Praise,”
such as Mendelssohn actually wrote in honour of Gutemberg, the first
printer’s anniversary day.
At the same time, this is true and most true—that life is a thousand
fold more than books; and especially that no man can live upon a
Cyclopaedia. And the service which positive knowledge has to render
is but begun. It has yet to make itself felt as a disciplined orderly whole;
to deal with far higher subjects (a real political economy, for instance);
and to do what no Cyclopaedia can do—fashion a methodic education,
and reach, in a living form, the great multitude of men. What is espe
cially needed, is that the modern mind should be able to unite itself
wholly with the past; should be able to rise above details—in history
�I
12
The Use of Cyclopaedias.
above chronicles, in science above specialities, in life above professional
subtleties; not despising or neglecting these, but subordinating them;
should comprehend the relations of the great provinces of knowledge to
each other, their office to the individual mind and the social life of men.
This seems a gigantic task, almost an impossible one, and, indeed, to
the first undertaker it is a work of the first order of magnitude; but the
thing once done or truly conceived, practical success is ultimately cer
tain, and every step gained will wonderfully simplify and illuminate all
our conceptions. A right education will, then, aim at communicating
this ascertained order as the basis of all knowledge. But for.this pur
pose a Cyclopsedia is not the instrument. To the philosopher it is but a
quarry of materials, to us it is and must remain only a discoursing dic
tionary. Such thoughts are naturally suggested by the spectacle of this
vast accumulation of knowledge ; and the question which will be asked,
Whither is it all tending? And if, with such great issues before us,
involving inevitable large changes of opinion and practice, we cannot
but look with anxiety to the future, sincerity tells us we must on, and is
full of noble hope withal. In the early times of maritime discovery,
there was an African cape, called Bojador, or the “ Outstretcher,”
which the navigator dared not pass; and rumour said that those who
went beyond would become black men. The cape was passed, and the
outward figure of the world made known; but the bold Portuguese did
not become black !
To go back to Francis I. and the Stephens. Francis, whose face you
may read in Holbein’s portrait of him in Hampton Court, had faults
enough, and an intriguing, warring life with the Emperor Charles V. and
even our Henry VIII.; but he had a genuine love of having gifted men
of peace working about him. Thus Andrea del Sarto, “ the faultless
painter ” (of Browning’s admirable poem), the knave also for once, who
ran away to Florence with the King’s money, describes his former joy
“In that humane great monarch’s golden look,—
One finger in his beard or twisted curl
Over his mouth’s good mark that made the smile,
One arm about my shoulder, round my neck,
The jingle of his gold chain in my ear,
I painting proudly with his breath on me.’
And so it is told how Francis would often visit Robert Stephens in his
printing-house, and might be seen silently watching him finish his proof
before he started upon familiar talk. The English people cannot so
visit Mr. Knight; they are not kings at all; they can but buy Mr.
Knight’s books or read them, which is what Mr. Knight desires. But
many and many a man unknown to him bears him silent gratitude, and,
hereafter, a poor English student asking, “ How came these good books
to me ?” may have for answer, “ By the faithful work of many men;
among the foremost, the worthy English printer, publisher, editor, and
author, Charles Knight.” And so we heartily congratulate him on this
his great work.
�i3
ON TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN SCHOOLS.
BY W. H. WALENN, F.C.S.,
Compiler of Abridgments of Specifications relating to “Electricity and Magnetism,
their generation and applications,” “Photography,’ “Plating or coating metals with
metals,” etc., for the Commissioners of Patents.
HE reasons why chemical science has received so little atten
tion in schools maybe shortly stated under two heads
ist.
The belief that no practical good could be effected, in the
pupil’s mind, by adding to a curriculum already full to re
pletion, a science difficult in itself and only useful to those who intend
to make it the study and profession of their lives. 2nd. The very
general, but erroneous idea, that chemical science is difficult to teach,
more difficult to illustrate, and nearly impossible of experimental de
monstration by the pupils themselves.
In respect to the first point, Dr. W. A. Miller, F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry in King’s College, London, at the meeting of the British
Association at Birmingham, in 1865, as President of the Chemical
Section, gave it as his deliberate opinion, that the methods of investi
gation employed in Chemistry entitle it to be regarded as an “ instru
ment in training the mind, and shaping the intellectual development of
the future.” After setting forth the difficulty which those whose edu
cation is based upon the linguistic system have to realize the magnitude
and true bearing of the power of the science, “and its educational
value,” he goes on to say that, “ Science is not merely to supply her
facts : she is to be employed to develop the powers of the mind, and
to discipline them for action. Hence it is of far more importance
to instil principles, and to cultivate precision in observation, in thought,
and in description, than it is to load the memory with mere facts, how
ever valuable. In short, the system of cramming is to be eschewed,
while the formation of habits of comparing, reasoning, and judging is
to be encouraged in every way.”
In respect to the second point, in answer to questions put by the
Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Public Schools Bill, in
1865, Dr. Sharpey, L.L.D., F.R.S., observes, that the elements of inor
ganic chemistry are well adapted to render instruction in physical
science exact and solid, “provided that instruction be carried on mainly
by practical lessons at which the pupils take part themselves in the ex
periments, and are permitted to handle and work with apparatus.” .
Apart from the weight which necessarily attaches itself to the opinions
of these celebrated men, we have no doubt that any well-informed
person who looks into the subject for himself will come to the same
conclusion, and that the introduction of Chemistry into schools is but a
question of time.
It is now acknowledged, on all sides, that when learning is imposed
as a duty only—as a task—that the progress of pupils therein is slow
compared with that which is made when their interest is excited. Of
�14
On Teaching Chemistry in Schools.
all sciences, Chemistry is the one most capable of exciting interest in
boys. . In order to do so, however, striking results must be presented
to their view, and, when they have sufficient facts in their minds, those
facts may be applied to analyzing the results and deducing further facts
from them; thus the development of the perceptive and of the rational
faculties goes hand in hand, and one faculty is made to assist the other
by action and re-action.
The labour of teaching is reduced, and the ability of the pupils is
further stimulated, if they are allowed to make such experiments them
selves as their progress in the subject warrants.
The method of teaching Chemistry may be by class books, followed
up by lectures, oral and written examinations, and by certain experi
ments made by the pupils themselves.
Class books’6 are very serviceable in the intervals between lectures;
their principal uses seem to be, laying the foundation of the mnemonics
of the subject, elucidating, by precept and example, the mathematical
principles of the science, and explaining, in proper sequence, the vari
ous processes that are necessary to the attainment of a given result.
They may either be employed to prepare the student for what will come
in the next experimental lecture, or to explain more fully the results
shown at the previous lecture, or (which is the most complete plan) to
clear up the points of the last, and to lay a foundation of theory for
the next lecture. In cases where only a small time can be allotted to
the subject, the class book may be made the text book of the lecture,
both in respect to the arrangement of the experiments and as to the
matter to be placed before the pupils.
Lectures afford the means of laying before the pupils, in a connected
view, the principles and practice of the subject, and many important
details of manipulation may be successfully explained, which would be
dry and trivial if written. Verifications of grand truths and the beauty
of certain results may be made manifest, also deductions may be drawn
from them which would scarcely appear warranted if merely read in a
book. Where experiments are not admissible, as in illustrating the
manufacture of iron, well marked and coloured diagrams of the furnacesand apparatus used are very suitable. Every boy should have a note
book (of ordinary copy-book size) so as to take notes of the points of each
lecture and sketches of the principal experiments and diagrams. At
the end of each lecture, it is a very salutary practice to give out certain
questions bearing upon the subject, to be answered in writing at the
next lecture, also to examine the boys orally upon the principles that
have been inculcated. A weekly examination or “ recapitulation” may
also take place with advantage.
The extent to which the pupils may be permitted to work out their
own experiments must depend very much upon the class of school and
upon the appliances at hand. That this can be done much more easily
than is generally thought possible, the author has endeavoured to de* One of the newest and best class books is ‘ ‘ Lessons in Elementary Chemistry : inor
ganic and organic,” by Henry E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owen’s
College, Manchester. London : Macmillan and Co. 1867. Price 4s. 6d.
�On Teaching Chemistry in Schools.
15;
*
monstrate, but, in establishments that have a laboratory attached, the
pupils may readily work out most of the leading experiments to the
verge of organic chemistry.
In imparting instruction in Chemistry, as in any other subject, the
most important thing is to lay a good foundation. The great principlesof the science should be deeply impressed, both on the memory and on
the reason, at the beginning of the course, by repeated experiments, and
by constant reference to examples in common life so as to connect the
knowledge which is being imparted to that which already exists in the
pupil’s mind.
In the mnemonical part, every student should write out fairly in his.
note book and commit to memory good definitions of what the science
treats of, and of the terms used; the principal elements should also be
learnt by heart, together with their symbols and atomic weights. As the
chief laws of the subject are elucidated (by experiment or otherwise),
they should be placed in the said note book in a tabular form. By this
means, at the end of the course, each student has a complete annota
tion and memoria technicci written by himself, which he can therefore
more easily refer to than any other book.
In the rational part, the notes on the lectures themselves will furnish
abundant instances of the steps by which the discoveries of the science
were made, and of the rationale of well established processes and de
finite changes. All calculations of atomic weights, density of gases, &c.,
as well as the laws and systems of crystallography, and of nomenclature
and notation, come under this head, and afford good practice.
In the experimental part, it is also essential that lucid notes be taken,
and it will be found most successful in the end if the demonstrator or
teacher requires each boy to read over his notes to him before the
students are dismissed; this is important, because it will be found
that the experimental division of the subject clears up all points that
were previously obscure, and there often remains some debris that
require removal; also in interpreting the bearings and results of experi
ments, students necessarily require much guidance. All experiments
should form a connected series, and should elucidate brilliantly and.
pointedly some great truth, the only exception to the latter rule being
the exhibition of useful details of manipulation. Mere “ cookery book”
experiments (as the author has heard them called) such as “ How to
make green fire,” “ How to make mimic lightning,” &c., and all that
are isolated or have no immediate relation to the matter in hand, should,
generally speaking, be avoided.
The highest authorities upon the Science of Chemistry have given
their decided opinion that it should be taught according to the latest
theoretical views, and with as little as possible reference to theories that
rather form a matter of history than of present interest. For this reason
the. new nomenclature and notation should be adhered to throughout, in
their pure and simple form; the notation fully deserves this straight
forward treatment and this universal adoption, for it at once connects
* See ‘‘Little Experiments for Little Chemists,” by W. H. Walenn, F.C.S.
T. J. Allman, 463, Oxford Street. Price is.
London;
�■I 6
On Teaching Chemistry in Schools.
atomic weights with volumes and with specific heats; further assistance
to the unity of the science, as well as to its grasp of facts under a
minimum of general laws, is afforded by the adoption of the theory of
types in inorganic as well as in organic Chemistry, and the doctrines of
atomicity and saturation of combining power remove many difficulties
that have always been felt in the subject. The molecular and substitu
tion formulae that have lately come into general use, appear, in conjunc
tion with the above theoretical principles, to have brought the science
into a sufficiently stable condition to warrant the teaching of the latest
theories in a connected form/''
In conclusion, it appears scarcely possible that the conscientious and
enlightened preceptors of England will deny the entrance, into their
scholastic system, of a science which draws out so many of the latent,
but easily excited, faculties of the mind, and of outward application, as
Chemistry. Chemistry is the rallying point of other exact and experi
mental sciences, and its branches are many, reaching even to the
-celestial bodies.
LATIN FOR LADIES.
is only the other day that we were informed that the young
ladies who were examined by the roving Cambridge authorities
acquitted themselves eminently to the satisfaction of their
questioners. And now we learn that the preparations for the
•similar annual proceedings on the part of the University of Oxford are
completed, and that girls and boys alike, though not, we presume, in
company, are to be put through the examination process with due
severity and rigour. On the whole, it strikes us that this is about the
most astonishing of all the astonishing things which indicate the reality
of that social revolution which English society has for some time been
undergoing. That the old universities should send delegates all over the
country to examine the sons of the smaller gentry and the men of busi
ness was a sufficiently startling novelty. But that “the cloister” should
actually dispatch its missionaries to report upon the acquirements of the
sisters of these long-neglected boys is a proof that our fundamental ideas
as to what constitutes the perfection of the female character are radically
changed. Of course it is not to be doubted for a moment that no sen
timental gallantry has warped the judgment of the presiding examiners.
We cannot suppose that a Latin translation, or the solution of a quad
ratic equation, presented by blushing sixteen, would not be as accurately
estimated at its real value as the same performance sent up by an
ungainly boy. We accept, therefore, the figures by which the examiners
represent the amount of success attained by their fair students, and con* To preceptors the following work is a great boon, and is thoroughly exhaustive of the
subject:—“Elements of Chemistry, theoretical and practical,” by William Allen Miller,
M.D., L.L.D., &c., Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. Longman & Co.
3 vols. 3rd Ed. Price £2 17s.
�Latin for Ladies.
17
gratulate them on the delicacy and good sense which have led them to
abstain from publishing the individual names of the interesting postulants
for academic honours. We are quite satisfied with their report, and
it only remains for us to speculate, with no little curiosity, as to the prac
tical results which may be expected to follow from the success of this
wonderful scheme.
That the general character of women would be materially altered, and
altered for the better, by an improved education can hardly be doubted.
Setting aside the popular nonsense about the absolute identity of men’s
and women’s natural powers, it is certain that most of the defects which
men so often cast in the teeth of women are mainly due to the wretched
imitation of education which is all that is in the reach of the immense
majority of Englishwomen. If then they can be made to learn any
thing, or rather to study anything thoroughly, and to carry on their
studies beyond the period of mere girlhood, they must certainly acquire
in some considerable measure that accuracy of thought, that dislike for
rhetorical platitudes, that solidity and fairness of judgment, and that
soundness of critical taste, for which, as things now are, the gentler sex
is not, as a rule, highly distinguished. But it is the incidental conse
quences of the creation of a love for serious study among English girls
of the middle and upper classes which present the most curious subjects
for speculation. What will be its effect upon the “ matrimonial
market,” and upon the education of men? We do not ask whether it
will frighten away our ingenuous youth from offering their hands to
young ladies of whose acquirements they stand in awe and dread.
Possibly here and there some foolish man might abstain from making
pretensions to the companionship of a pretty girl, through dread of being
despised for his inability to extract the cube root and to discuss the
doctrine of the Greek subjunctive mood. But as it is, cases of clever
women marrying stupid husbands are quite numerous enough to reassure
us on this head. The question is not as to the marrying prospects of
stupid men, but as to the marrying inclinations of well-educated women
in general. And here there does seem a probability of a change. At
present, as we take it, it is the want of a definite interest in some work
or occupation of real moment which sets girls speculating about mar
riage at so early a period. It is not because she has a dread of being
an old maid, or is longing to be “ settled in life,” or is discontented
with her home, that the thoughts of a girl of eighteen or nineteen are
so often turned to matrimonial contingencies. It is rather because she
has no present object on which to expend her energies, and nothing to
work upon with a view to any permanent benefit. With boys and
young men it is the reverse. Life with them is very soon a reality,
without any necessity for an early marriage. Men, as a rule, do not
look forward to marrying until they are eight or ten years older than
girls are when they seriously contemplate it. Their business or their
profession, that profession being more or less the continuation of the
work of education itself, furnishes them with an object fortheir thoughts
and for the employment of their energies. But when the average girl
has gone through the wretched “ course of studies” prescribed by the
VOL. I.
2
�18
Latin for Ladies.
schoolmistress or the governess, all comes to an end, and the next'
thing is to be married, or, at any rate, to be engaged. Her education has
totally failed to awaken her interest in the subjects of men’s studies, and
to cultivate her natural faculties to such an extent as to make their
further cultivation and the acquisition of more knowledge a delight and
a necessity. If, then, this new movement succeeds in converting the
■education of girls from a sham into a reality, it -will follow that by hun
dreds and thousands they will be far less impatient for a “ settlement,”
-and will by common consent postpone by three or four years the re
cognised age at which girls may be expect to be mistresses of a home of
their own. Some people may regret the change, but others will wel
come the advent of the theory that a young woman of three-and-twenty
is more likely to be wise in her arrangements for her future life than a
.girl of eighteen or nineteen.
Then, as to the education of the brothers and expectant husbands of
these highly cultured girls. If we have to abandon the idea that the
life of a woman is to be inspired by feeling and the life of a man by
thought and knowledge, a man’s standard as to what is expected of him
self must be raised. Boys who habitually look down upon their sisters’
learning and capacities are pampered in their own idleness, and never
made, as they ought to be, to feel ashamed. At this time, with all our
-advances, the average amount of the real education of the faculties of
English boys, with occasional exceptions, is simply disgraceful, from the
Boys of Eton down to the boys of the humblest grammar-school. And
while Oxford and Cambridge examiners are scouring the country and
’decorating the young provincial prodigies with the title of A.A., the
university system itself is so bad that of those who take an ordinary
bachelor’s degree a very large number are allowed to spend two-thirds
of their time of residence in all but utter idleness, supplemented by six
months’ cram at the end, while the annual six months’ vacation time is
passed in pure, unmitigated amusement. But when the new order of
things reigns in all good households, new ideas will take possession of
the lads who now disport themselves so royally in their ignorance and
self-satisfaction. Shame will do what self-respect and a sense of duty
have failed to accomplish. And while the Oxford and Cambridge
examiners are indoctrinating their charming candidates for distinction in
the country, they will be preparing' for themselves a condemnation as
men incapable of controlling and teaching their own undergraduates.—
Pall Mau Gazette.
Cambridge Local Examinations.—The greatest number of suc
cessful candidates from any one school, at the late Cambridge Local
Examinations, was thirty-six from the Devon County School, West
Buckland, which for three years in succession has passed a greater num
ber than any other school. Thirteen of these were in honours, and five
were distinguished in particular subjects, among them being the first and
second in order of merit in the Senior English Section.
�19
A PLEA FOR THE ART OF READING ALOUD, AS A
BRANCH OF REGULAR SCHOOL EDUCATION.
BY CHARLES JOHN PLUMPTRE,
Lecturer on Public. Reading, King’s College, Evening Class Department. .
HERE is no complaint more general than the rarity of good
readers in all classes of society. About five or six years ago,
in consequence of a notification on the part of the late Bishop
of Rochester, that a certificate of competence as a reader would
be required in the case of candidates for ordination in his lordship’s
diocese, a general awakening to the importance of the subject seemed to
take place among clergy and laity, and for several weeks one could
hardly take up a newspaper, from “ The Times ” to the humblest pro
vincial journal, without seeing leading articles and letters on “ Clerical
Elocution.”
But no adequate practical result of any substantial and permanent
nature followed from all these discussions. It was an illustration of the
old proverb, “ Great cry but little wool.” Complaints teemed on all
sides, but there was little done to remedy the complaint. Several of
the ¿¿shops have, I. know, from that time advised young curates and
candidates for orders to take a regular course of instruction in the art of
public reading, from those whom they thought were competent, from
natural qualifications, education, position, and experience, to teach that
art. But beyond this nothing has been done, and the evil is nearly, if
not quite, as prominent and widely spread as ever.
What a very able writer says, under the signature of 11 Rhetor,” in a
letter to the editor of 11 The English Churchman,” dated October 3,
1861, may be reproduced now with as much truth as then. The laity
(he says towards the close of his letter!) complain, and most justly, of the
bad reading inflicted on them Sunday after Sunday. But how can it be
otherwise while the present system lasts ? Candidates for the ministry
have no proper instruction, either in the public schools or universities.
They enter on their professional duties with provincialisms and cockneyisms uncorrected, and read positively worse than many of their con
gregation. The varieties of professional incapacity are endless—the
mutterer, who swallows all his final syllables—the drawlev. who wearies
with his tediousness—the gabbler, who rushes through the service at
express speed—the preacher, who mistakes prayers for sermons—the
spouter, who mouths the prayers with the most painful affectation. All
these evils are the necessary consequences of the inadequate estimate of
the end in view, and the means to be employed for its attainment.
Some take half a dozen lessons, perhaps, from a strolling player, or trust
to one lecture on church reading, given by the examining chaplain at the
close of the examination for orders ! The only true mode is a regular
course of instruction under a judicious teacher, carried on during the
year which ought to be devoted to theological training, after taking the
ordinary degree. It rests with the bishops to secure this by insisting
on a certificate of attendance on such a course, and I hope the time is
2—2
�20
A Plea for the Art of Reading Aloud.
not far distant when a reform so urgently required will be effected by
the rulers of the Church.
A recent offer has been made by an anonymous benefactor, to found
an annual prize of /40, at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge,
for the encouragement of proficiency in the art of good reading, but, I
regret to say, has been declined by both universities, on the ground, I
believe, of the difficulty of carrying out the wishes of the donor by
adequate and systematic instruction at the universities, as well as by the
alleged difficulty of deciding who are, or are not, the best readers in
the competition for the prize. The rejection, and the ground of the
rejection, of this liberal offer, have excited much dissatisfaction in the
public mind, and the leading journals have expressed their opinions on
the subject in no very measured language, which I have no desire to
reproduce; but I cannot help thinking that what has been found to
work so well, and to be so easily carried out in London, may also be
introduced and flourish at Oxford and Cambridge.
At King’s College, London, there has existed for nearly twenty
years, a Lectureship of Public Reading and Speaking, most ably filled
now by my friend and colleague, the Rev. Alex. J. D. D’Orsey. On the
establishment of the Evening Class Department of King’s College, a
similar Lectureship was made part of its instruction, to which I had the
honour of being appointed last summer j and though my experience
does not date so far back as Mr. D’Orsey’s, I am enabled to confirm all
that he has said on the subject of public reading and speaking, in his
lecture at the Royal Institution and other places, and can bear witness
to the need for instruction in the art, as well as to the excellent results
that ‘in most cases quickly follow from a regular course of practical
training. Prizes and certificates of merit are given for excellence in
public reading and sp&aking in both the Day and Evening Departments
of King’s College; and my colleague and I have hitherto found no very
great difficulty in deciding to whom such prizes and certificates should
be awarded. Surely, then, what has so long been found practicable
here will be found practicable elsewhere.
The prevalence of bad reading, in one or other of its almost count
less forms, is too generally admitted to need any formal quotation from
writers or other authorities in support of such an assertion. Whence
does this fault proceed ? I believe, in general, from inattention in child
hood, and the almost total absence of any system of teaching in a scien
tific yet natural manner in our public and private schools. I should
prefer on this point taking the evidence of a most competent -witness in
regard to all that relates to educational matters—the Rev. Francis
Trench—rather than offer any remarks of my own. Mr. Trench, in a
lecture delivered at St. Martin’s Hall in 1854, and subsequently pub
lished, says:—
“I must confess I can recall nothing worse than ordinary school
reading and recitation (mark, I say ordinary, because I am well aware
there are some exceptions), whether in the institutions for the rich or for
the poor in our land. Many amongst us can remember very well the
method in which we ourselves said our scholastic lessons in our former
�A Plea for the Art of Reading Alorid.
21
days. Whether any improvement in this matter has of late taken place,
I am unable to say. I trust that it may be so; but at the public school
■where I myself was, and one, too, not inferior in repute to any in the land
—I mean Harrow—the utmost attainable speed in repetition was allowed,
a false key and monotonous delivery of the worst kind was never
corrected or rebuked, no attempt whatever was made to render, or to
keep, the utterance in harmony with the sense; and bad habits of
delivery were formed and allowed, in a manner almost too strange for
belief, and on which I can only now look back with exceeding surprise.
Nor do I conceive that the system was in the least better at other schools.
I cannot let them escape. For should the Etonian, or the Winchester,
Rugby, or Westminster man, or the representative of any other public
school, ask me what grounds I have for such a statement, my answer to
the challenge would be, that at college I had full means and opportunity
to judge from the reading of the students there. They were gathered
from all schools of distinction; and to any one hearing them it was
evident enough that the general delivery at other schools was by no
means superior to that which was allowed, and which prevailed at my
■own. A system this not only most objectionable, and most injurious at
the time even to a just impression of the sense of the passage read, but
also so lasting in its evil consequences, that many never are emancipated
■or escape from them. I say this advisedly; and even those who do
•escape often only escape after many years, and with no little difficulty.
Hence, I believe, originates much of the bad reading which we hear in
public worship. Hence, I believe, originates that monotonous cadence
and drawl, which is so adverse to the due expression by the reader, and
to the due comprehension by the hearer, of any passage read. The ear
may be lulled, but the mind is not reached ; at least, if reached, it is
-reached in spite of the readers’ bad tone and enunciation. And here I
quote the words of one who felt this evil very deeply, and laboured very
constantly for its removal, or, at least, its mitigation—the Rev. C.
Simeon. ‘ How often,’ said he, ‘ are the prayers of the Church spoiled,
and good sermons rendered uninteresting, by bad delivery on the part
of ministers.’ ”
Mr. Trench then proceeds to show in detail how the same lamen
table neglect of the art of reading aloud prevails equally in private
schools, from the highest to the lowest class, and calls attention to the
fact, that even at the time when he was speaking, so glaring was the evil
in our national schools that a circular letter had been sent from Her
Majesty’s Board of the Privy Council to the various inspectors of schools,
stating that “ complaints have been made to their lordships concerning
the very small degree of attention which reading (as part of elocution)
receives in elementary schools, and making it imperative to include an
exercise on the art of reading in the oral part of the next Christmas
examination at the training schools.”
I trust I have said enough to prove how general is the neglect of the
art of reading aloud in our public and private schools. The neglect is,
however, I am strongly disposed to believe, far greater in schools for
boys than“ in schools for girls. As far as my own experience goes, I
�22
A Plea for the Art of Reading Aloud.
know that in London and the suburbs, out of a hundred schools where
elocution is taught, at least three-fourths are ladies’ schools. Hence,
probably, may be found one reason why, as a rule, women read aloud
better than men.
But what is the cause of this admitted neglect of the art of reading
in so many schools and families ? Why is it that elocution has been of
late years so much disregarded as a part of education, and yet music,
singing, drawing, and other accomplishments, have all received their due
share of attention? One reason is, I believe, to be found in the fact that
this very word, elocution, has been made a bugbear of, and has frightened
away many from its study, through a completely erroneous interpretation
of its meaning and character. Do not many persons imagine that the
study of elocution must lead to a pompous, bombastic, stilted, or pedantic
style—a style in which the artificial reigns predominant over everything
that is simple and natural ? I can only say, if elocution meant anything
of the kind I should be the last man to advocate its adoption in schools
or anywhere else. If I am asked to define what I then mean by elocu
tion, I think I should answer—“ That which is the most effective
pronunciation that can be given to words when they are arranged into
sentences and form discourse.” In this, of course, I include the appro
priate inflections and modulations of the voice, the purity of its intona
tion, the clearness of articulation, and, when suitable to the occasion, the
accompaniments of expression of countenance and action. This art of
elocution, then, I may further define as that system of instruction which
enables us to pronounce written or extemporaneous composition with
proper energy, correctness, variety, and personal ease; or, in other
words, it is that style of delivery which not only expresses fully the sense
and the words so as to be thoroughly understood by the hearer, but at
the same time gives the sentence all the power, grace, melody, and
beauty of which it is susceptible.
Is it not strange, let me ask, when we reflect on the marvellous power
which spoken language has to excite the deepest feelings of our common
nature, that the cultivation of the art of speaking which onceTeceived
so much attention, should afterwards and for so long a time have been
almost completely neglected. We know what importance the ancient
orators of Greece and Rome attached to the study of rhetoric. The
prince of them all, Demosthenes, asserted that “Delivery” (under which
term is included everything that relates to the effective management of
voice, look, and gesture) is the first, the second, and the last element of
success in a speaker; and the great Roman orator (Cic. de Orat. lib. i.)
most truly remarks that “ address in speaking is highly ornamental and
useful in private as well as in public life.” And surely this is as true in
our own day as it was in his. For even, assuming that a youth has no
apparent prospect of debating in Parliament, of addressing judges or
juries at the Bar, or appealing on the most solemn and important topics
of all from the pulpit, does it therefore follow that he need bestow no
trouble in learning to speak his native language elegantly and effec
tively ? Will he never have occasion to read aloud in his family circle,
or to a company of friends, some leader from “ The Times ” or other
�A Plea for the Art of Reading Aloud.
newspaper, some chapter from a book, or some verses from a poem ?
And what a difference will there be in the effect produced upon thereader and upon his audience accordingly as this is done well or ill ?•
We are most of us in the present day accustomed to have our sons and
daughters taught dancing, drilling, or calisthenic exercises, that give
strength, flexibility, and elegance to the limbs—and very excellent areall such accomplishments in their way. But after all, the limbs are por
tions of our frames far less noble than the tongue; and yet, while no
gentleman who can afford it hesitates about expending time and money
in sending his son to the fencing, drilling, or dancing master, how few,
comparatively, send as systematically their children to the elocution
master, to be taught the full development of that which is the crowning
glory of man—the divine gift of speech.
I believe firmly that consumption, and many other diseases of the
respiratory organs, which carry off so many thousands amongst us, while
they are in the very spring-time of life, would be greatly lessened in
number, and prevented in development, if the art of reading aloud were
more generally and properly taught and practised. This is not mere
vague assertion. Let me call in support of my statement a high medical
authority, Sir Henry Holland. In Sir Henry Holland’s “Medical
Notes,” at p. 42.2, I read as follows
“ Might not more be done in practice towards the prevention of pul
monary disease, as well as for the general improvement of health by
expressly exercising the organs of respiration—that is by practising accord
ing to method those actions of the body through which the chest is in
part filled or emptied of air ? Though suggestions to this effect occur
in some of our best works on consumption, as well as in the writings of
certain continental physicians, they have hitherto had less than their due
influence, and the principle as such is comparatively little recognised,
or brought into general application. In truth, common usage takes for
the most part a directly opposite course; and under the notion or pre
text of quiet, seeks to repress all direct exercise of this important function
in those who are presumed to have any tendency to pulmonary dis
orders. ... As regards the modes of exercising the function of respi
ration, they should be various, to suit the varying powers and exigencies
of the patient. Reading aloud (clara lectio) is one of very ancient recom
mendation, the good effects of which are not limited to this object alone.
It might indeed be well were the practice of distinct recitation, such as.
implies a certain effort of the organs beyond that of mere ordinary speech,
■more generally used in early life, and continued as a habit, or regular
exercise, but especially by those whose chests are weak, and who cannot
sustain stronger exertions. Even singing may for the same reasons, beallowed in many of such cases, but within much narrower limits, and
under much more cautious notice of the effects than would be requisite
in reading. If such caution be duly used as to posture, articulation, and
the avoidance of all excess, these regular exercises of the voice may be ren
dered as salutary to the organs of respiration as they are agreeable in their
influence on the ordinary voice. The common course of education is much
at fault in this respect. If some small part of the time given to crowd
�24
A Pica for the Art of Reading Aloud.
ing facts on the mind not yet prepared to receive or retain them, were
employed in fashioning and improving the organs of speech under good
tuition, and with suitable subjects for recitation, both mind and body
would often gain materially by the substitution.”
I might quote opinions to precisely the same effect from the works
on consumption and other diseases of the respiratory organs, of Dr.
James Bright, Dr. Godwin Timms, Combe, Mayo, and other eminent
physicians and physiologists, but there is no need to multiply quotations;
suffice it to say that all these high medical authorities concur in the same
opinion, viz., that “reading aloud” is, when conducted on sound
principles, an exercise for the delicate and for the robust, as healthy
and strengthening to the body as it is pleasant and profitable to the
mind.
I am not without strong hope that the whole subject will, in course
of time, meet with the attention it so well deserves. It is now nearly
eight years ago since, with the sanction of the Vice-Chancellor, and the
approval of the Bishop of the diocese, I began my work as a lecturer and
teacher of elocution, in reference to professional and public life, at the
University of Oxford on the same day that my colleague, Mr. D’Orsey,
entered on a similar course at the university of Cambridge; and now we
are associated in the same work, though in different departments, at King’s
College. Our pupils have steadily increased, our services have been
called into requisition at many large schools in the provinces, as well as
in London,°jand I have every reason to believe that a growing interest
in the art of public reading and speaking has been manifested. I only
trust that this interest may extend to all classes—high and low, rich and
poor—and bear substantial and enduring fruit, in the shape of men and
women with sound and healthy lungs, pleasant and agreeably modulated
voices, and clear and effective enunciation.
! The Education Grant.—In the year ending March 31, 1866,
¿£622,730 was expended from the Parliamentary grant in aid of Edu
cation in Great Britain. The amount was thus distributed : In annual
grants to elementary schools in England and Wales, ¿£378,003 for day
scholars, and ¿£10,003 for evening scholars ; ¿£68,034 in annual grants
in Scotland ; ¿£21,040 in building grants ; ¿£69,935 in grants to train
ing colleges; ¿£685 in unexpired pensions ; ¿£75,03° in administration
and inspection. Classified according to the denominations of the re
cipients, the expenditure was as follows :—On schools connected with
the church of England, .£351,498; on schools connected with the
British and Foreign School Society, ¿£58,623 ; Wesleyan Schools,
¿£28,592 ; Roman Catholic Schools in England, ¿£26,084 ; parochial
union schools, ¿£120; schools in Scotland connected with the Es
tablished Church, ¿£46,465 ; the Free Church, ¿£29,297 ; the Episcopal
Church, ¿£4,019; Roman Catholic schools in Scotland, ¿£3,002. *
�25
JOHN STUART MILL ON THE VALUE OF THE ANCIENT
CLASSICAL LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE IN
EDUCATION.
From the Inaugural Address delivered to the University of St. Andrew’s, Feb. ist. 1867. >
NIVERSITIES do enough to facilitate the study of modern
languages, if they give a mastery over that ancient language
which is the foundation of most of them, and the possession
of which makes it easier to learn four or five of the conti
nental languages than it is to learn one of them without it. . . . .
The only languages, then, and the only literature, to which I would
allow a place in the ordinary curriculum, are those of the Greeks and
Romans ; and to these I would preserve the position in it which they
at present occupy. That position is justified, by the great value, in
education, of knowing well some other cultivated language and litera
ture than one’s own, and by the peculiar value of those particular lan
guages and literatures.
There is one purely intellectual benefit from a knowledge of lan
guages, which I am specially desirous to dwell on. Those who have
seriously reflected on the causes of human error, have been deeply im
pressed with the tendency of mankind to mistake words for things.
Without entering into the metaphysics of the subject, we know how
common it is to use words glibly and with apparent propriety, and to
accept them confidently when used by others, without ever having had
any distinct conception of the things denoted by them. To quote again
from Archbishop Whately, it is the habit of mankind to mistake fami
liarity for accurate knowledge. As we seldom think of asking the
meaning of what we see every day, so when our ears are used to the
sound of a word or a phrase, we do not suspect that it conveys no clear
idea to our minds, and that we should have the utmost difficulty in de
fining it, or expressing, in any other words, what we think we understand
by it. Now it is obvious in what manner this bad habit tends to be
corrected by the practice of translating with accuracy from one language
to another, and hunting out the meanings expressed in a vocabulary
with which we have not grown familiar by early and constant use. I
hardly know any greater proof of the extraordinary genius of the
Greeks, than that they were able to make such brilliant achievements in
abstract thought, knowing, as they generally did, no language but their
own. But the Greeks did not escape the effects of this deficiency.
Their greatest intellects, those who laid the foundation of philosophy
and of all our intellectual culture, Plato and Aristotle, are continually
led away by words ; mistaking the accidents of language for real rela
tions in nature, and supposing that things which have the same name in
the Greek tongue must be the same in their own essence. There is a
well-known saying of Hobbes, the far-reaching significance of which you
will more and more appreciate in proportion to the growth of your
own intellect: “ Words are the counters of wise men, but the money of
fools.” With the wise man a word stands for the fact which it repre-
�26
On the Value of the Ancient Classical Languages
sents; to the fool it is itself the fact. To carry on Hobbes’ metaphor,
the counter is far more likely to be taken for merely what it is, by those
who are in the habit of using many different kinds of counters. But
besides the advantage of possessing another cultivated language, there
is a further consideration equally important. Without knowing the lan
guage of a people, we never really know their thoughts, their feelings,
and their type of character: and unless we do possess this knowledge,
of some other people than ourselves, we remain, to the hour of our
death, with our intellects only half expanded. Look at a youth who has
never been out of his family circle: he never dreams of any other
opinions or ways of thinking than those he has been bred up in; or, if
he has heard of any such, attributes them to some moral defect, or in
feriority of nature or education. If his family are Tory, he cannot con
ceive the possibility of being a Liberal; if Liberal, of being a Tory.
What the notions and habits of a single family are to a boy who has had
no intercourse beyond it, the notions and habits of his own country are
to him who is ignorant of every other. Those notions and habits are to
him human nature itself; whatever varies from them is an unaccountable
aberration which he cannot mentally realize: the idea that any other
ways can be right, or as near an approach to right as some of his own,
is inconceivable to him. This does not merely close his eyes to the
many things which every country still has to learn from others : it hin
ders every country from reaching the improvement which it could other
wise attain by itself. We are not likely to correct any of our opinions
or mend any of our ways, unless we begin by conceiving that they are
capable of amendment: but merely to know that foreigners think differ
ently from ourselves, without understanding why they do so, or what
they really do think, does but confirm us in our self-conceit, and connect
our national vanity with the preservation of our own peculiarities. Im
provement consists in bringing our opinions into nearer agreement with
facts; and we shall not be likely to do this while we look at facts only
through glasses coloured by those very opinions. But since we cannot
divest ourselves of preconceived notions, there is no known means of
eliminating their influence but by frequently using the differently coloured
glasses of other people : and those of other nations, as the most different,
are the best.
But if it is so useful, on this account, to know the language and lite
rature Of any other cultivated and civilized people, the most valuable of
all to us in this respect are the languages and literature of the ancients.
No nations of modern and civilized Europe are so unlike one another,
as the Greeks and Romans are unlike all of us; yet without being, as
some remote Orientals are, so totally dissimilar, that the labour of a life
is required to enable us to understand them. Were this the only gain
to be derived from a knowledge of the ancients, it would already place
the study of them in a high rank among enlightening and liberalizing
pursuits. It is of no use saying that we may know them through mo
dern writing. We may know something of them in that way; which is
much better than knowing nothing. But modern books do notteach us
ancient thought; they teach us some modern writer’s notion of ancient
�and Literature in Education.
27
thought. Modern books do not show us the Greeks and Romans ; they
tell us some modern writer’s opinions about the Greeks and Romans.
Translations aré scarcely better. When we want really to know what a
person thinks or says, we seek it at first hand from himself. We do not
trust to another person’s impression of his meaning, given in another
person’s words; we refer to his own. Much more is it necessary to do
so when his words are in one language, and those of his reporter in
another. Modern phraseology never conveys the exact meaning of a
Greek writer; it cannot do so, except by a diffuse explanatory circum
locution which no translator dares use. We must be able, in a certain
degree, to think in Greek, if we would represent to ourselves how a
Greek thought: and this not only in the abstruse region of metaphysics,
but about the political, religious, and even domestic concerns of life. I
will mention a further aspect of this question, which, though I have not
the merit of originating it, I do not remember to have seen noticed in
any book. There is no part of our knowledge which it is more useful to
obtain at first hand—-to go to the fountain head for—than our knowledge
of history. Yet this, in most cases, we hardly ever do. Our concep
tion of the past is not drawn from its own records, but from books
written about it, containing not the facts, but a view of the facts which
has shaped itself in the mind of somebody of our own or a very recent
time. Such books are very instructive and valuable; they help us to
understand history, to interpret history, to draw just conclusions from
it; at the worst, they set us the example of trying to do all this ; but
they are not themselves history. The knowledge they give is upon
trust, and even when they have done their best, it is not only incom
plete, but partial, because confined to what a few modern writers have
seen in the materials, and have thought worth picking out from among
them. How little we learn of our own ancestors from Hume, or Hallam,
or Macaulay, compared with what we know if we add to what these tell
us, even a little reading of cotemporary authors and documents 1 The
most recent historians are so well aware of this, that they fill their pages
with extracts from the original materials, feeling that these extracts are
the real history, and their comments and thread of narrative are only
helps towards understanding it. Now it is part of the great worth to us
of our Greek and Latin studies, that in them we do read history in the
original sources. We are in actual contact with cotemporary minds; we
are not dependent on hearsay; we have something by which we can test
and check the representations and theories of modern historians. It
may be asked, why then not study the original materials of modem his
tory ? I answer, it is highly desirable to do so : and let me remark by
the way, that even this requires a dead language j nearly all the docu
ments prior to the Reformation, and many subsequent to it, being written
in Latin. But the exploration of these documents, though a most use
ful pursuit, cannot be a branch of education. Not to speak of their
vast.extent, and the fragmentary nature of each, the strongest reason is,
that in learning the spirit of our own past ages, until a comparatively
recent period, from cotemporary writers, we learn hardly anything else.
Those.authors, with a few exceptions, are little worth” reading on their
�28
On the Vctlne of the Ancient Classical Languages
own account. . While, in studying the great writers of antiquity, we are
not only learning to understand the ancient mind, but laying in a stock
of wise thought and observation, still valuable to ourselves; and at the
same time making ourselves familiar with a number of the most perfect
and finished literary compositions which the human mind has produced
—compositions which, from the altered conditions of human life, are
likely to be seldom paralleled, in their sustained excellence, by the times
to come.
Even as mere languages, no modern European language is so valuable
a discipline to the intellect as those of Greece and Rome, on account
of their regular and complicated structure. Consider, for a moment,
what grammar is. It is the most elementary part of logic. It is the
beginning of the analysis of the thinking process. The principles and
rules of grammar are the means by which the forms of language are
made to correspond with the universal forms of thought. The distinc
tions between the various parts of speech, between the cases of nouns,
the moods and tenses of verbs, the functions of particles, are distinc
tions in thought, not merely in words. Single nouns and verbs express
objects and events, many of which can be cognized by the senses : but
the modes of putting nouns and verbs together, express the relations of
objects and events, which can be cognized only by the intellect; and
each different mode corresponds to a different relation. The structure
of every sentence is a lesson in logic. The various rules of syntax
oblige us to distinguish between the subject and predicate of a propo
sition, between the agent, the action, and the thing acted upon; to mark
when an idea is intended to modify or qualify, or merely to unite with,
some other idea; what assertions are categorical, what only conditional;
whether the intention is to express similarity or contrast, to make a plu
rality of assertions conjunctively or disjunctively; what portions of a
sentence, though grammatically complete within themselves, are mere
members or subordinate parts of the assertion made by the entire sen
tence. Such things form the subject-matter of universal grammar; and
the languages which teach it best are those which have the most definite
rules, and which provide distinct forms for the greatest number of dis
tinctions in thought, so that if we fail to attend precisely and accurately
to any of these, we cannot avoid committing a solecism in language.
In these qualities the classical languages have an incomparable supe
riority over every modern language, and over all languages, dead or
living, which have a literature worth being generally studied.
But the superiority of the literature itself, for purposes of education,
is still more marked and decisive. Even in the substantial value of the
matter of which it is the vehicle, it is very far from having been super
seded. The discoveries of the ancients in science have been greatly
surpassed, and as much of them as is still valuable loses nothing by
being incorporated in modern treatises : but what does not so well admit
of being transferred bodily, and has been very imperfectly carried off
even piecemeal, is the treasure which they accumulated of what may be
called the wisdom of life: the rich store of experience of human nature
and conduct, which the acute and observing minds of those ages, aided
�and Literature in Education.
29
in their observations by the greater simplicity of manners and life, con
signed to their writings, and most of which retains all its value. The
speeches in Thucydides; the Rhetoric, Ethics, and Politics of Aristotle ;
the Dialogues of Plato; the Orations of Demosthenes; the Satires, and
especially the Epistles of Horace; all the writings of Tacitus; the great
work of Quintilian, a repertory of the best thoughts of the ancient world
on all subjects connected with education ; and, in a less formal manner,
all that is left to us of the ancient historians, orators, philosophers, and
even dramatists, are replete with remarks and maxims of singular good
sense and penetration, applicable both to political and to private life :
and the actual truths we find in them are even surpassed in value by the
encouragement and help they give us in the pursuit of truth. Human
invention has never produced anything so valuable in the way both of
Stimulation and of discipline to the inquiring intellect, as the dialectics
of the ancients, of which many of the works of Aristotle illustrate the
theory, and those of Plato exhibit the practice. No modern writings
come near to these, in teaching, both by precept and example, the way
to investigate truth, on those subjects, so vastly important to us, which
remain matters of controversy from the difficulty or impossibility of
bringing them to a direct experimental test. To question all things;
never to turn away from any difficulty: to accept no doctrine either from
ourselves or from other people without a rigid scrutiny by negative, criti
cism, letting no fallacy, or incoherence, or confusion of thought, slip by
unperceived; above all, to insist upon having the meaning of a word
clearly understood before using it, and the meaning of a proposition.be
fore assenting to it; these are the lessons we learn from the ancient
dialecticians. With all this vigorous management of the negative . ele
ment, they inspire no scepticism about the reality of truth, or indiffer
ence to its pursuit. The noblest enthusiasm, both for the search after
truth and for applying it to its highest uses, pervades these writers, Aris
totle no less than Plato, though Plato has incomparably the greater
power of imparting those feelings to others. In cultivating, therefore,
the ancient languages as our best literary education, we are all the while
laying an admirable foundation for ethical and philosophical culture. In
purely literary excellence—in perfection of form—the pre-eminence of
the ancients is not disputed. In every department which they at
tempted, and they attempted almost all, their composition, like their
sculpture, has been to the greatest modern artists an example to be
' looked up to with hopeless admiration, but of inappreciable value as a
light on high, guiding their own endeavours. In prose and in poetry,
in epic, lyric, or dramatic, as in historical, philosophical, and oratorical
art, the pinnacle on which they, stand is equally eminent. I am now
speaking of the form, the artistic perfection of treatment: for, as regards
substance, I consider modem poetry to be superior to ancient, in the
same manner, though in a less degree, as modern science : it enters
deeper into nature. The feelings of the modern mind are more various,
more complex and manifold, than those of the ancients ever were. The
modem mind is, what the ancient mind was not, brooding and self-con
scious ; and its meditative self-consciousness has discovered depths in
�30
Ou the Value of the Ancient Classical Languages
the human soul which the Greeks and Romans did not dream of, and
would not have understood. But what they had got to express’ they
expressed in a manner which few even of the greatest moderns’ have
seriously attempted to rival. It must be remembered that they had more
time, and that they wrote chiefly for a select class, possessed of leisure.
To us who write in a hurry for people who read in a hurry, the attempt
to give an equal degree of finish would be loss of time. But to be
familiar with perfect models is not the less important to us because the
element in which we work precludes even the effort to equal them.
They shew us at least what excellence is, and make us desire it, and
strive to get as near to it as is within our reach. And this is the value
to us of the ancient writers, all the more emphatically, because their
excellence does not admit of being copied, or directly imitated. It does
not consist in a trick which can be learnt, but in the perfect adaptation
of means to ends. The secret of the style of the great Greek and
Roman authors, is that it is the perfection of good sense. In the first
place, they never use a word -without a meaning, or a. word which adds
nothing to the meaning. They always (to begin with) had a meaning;
they knew what they wanted to say; and their whole purpose was to say
it with the highest degree of exactness and completeness, and bring it
home to the mind with the greatest possible clearness and vividness. It
never entered into their thoughts to conceive of a piece of writing as
beautiful in itself, abstractedly from what it had to express ; its beauty
must all be subservient to the most perfect expression of the sense. The
curiosa felicitas which their critics ascribed in a pre-eminent degree to
Horace, expresses the standard at which they all aimed. Their style is
exactly described by Swift’s definition, li the right words in the right
places.” Look at an oration of Demosthenes; there is nothing in it
which calls attention to itself as style at all: it is only after a close exa
mination we perceive that every word is what it should be, and where it
should be, to lead the hearer smoothly and imperceptibly into the state
of mind which the orator wishes to produce. The perfection of the
workmanship is only visible in the total absence of any blemish or fault,
and of anything which checks the flow of thought and feeling, anything
which even momentarily distracts the mind from the main purpose.
But then (as has been well said) it was not the object of Demosthenes
to make the Athenians cry out “ What a splendid speaker !” but to make
them say “ Let us march against Philip !” It was only in the decline of
ancient literature that ornament began to be cultivated merely as orna
ment. In the time of its maturity, not the merest epithet was put in
because it was thought beautiful in itself; not even for a merely descrip
tive purpose, for epithets purely descriptive were one of the corruptions
of style which abound in Lucan, for example : the word had no busi
ness there unless it brought out some feature which was wanted, and
helped to place the object in the light which the purpose of the com
position required. These conditions being complied with, then indeed
the intrinsic beauty of the means used was a source of additional effect,
of which it behoved them to avail themselves, like rhythm and melody
of versification. But these great writers knew that ornament for the
�and Literature in Education,
i
3*
sake, of ornament, ornament which attracts attention to itself, and shines
by its own beauties, only does so by calling off the mind from the main,
object, and thus not only interferes with the higher purpose of human
discourse, which ought, and generally professes, to have some matter to
communicate, apart from the mere excitement of the moment, but also
spoils the perfection of the composition as a piece of fine art, by de
stroying the unity of effect. This, then, is the first great lesson in com
position to be learnt from the classical authors. The second is., not to
be prolix. In a single paragraph, Thucydides can give a clear and vivid
representation of a battle, such as a reader who has once taken it into
his mind can seldom forget. The most powerful and affecting piece of
narrative, perhaps, in all historical literature, is the account of the
Sicilian catastrophe in his seventh book, yet how few pages does it fill 1
The ancients were concise, because of the extreme pains they took with
their compositions ; almost all modems are prolix, because they do not.
The great ancients could express a thought so perfectly in a few words
or sentences, that they did not need to add any more : the moderns, be
cause they cannot bring it out clearly and completely at once, return
again and again, heaping sentence upon sentence, each adding a little
more elucidation, in hopes that though no single sentence expresses the
full meaning, the whole together may give a sufficient notion of it. In
this respect, I am afraid we are growing worse instead of better, for want
of time and patience, and from the necessity we are in of addressing
almost all writings to a busy and imperfectly prepared public. The de
mands of modern life are such—the work to be done, the mass to be
worked upon, are so vast, that those who have anything particular to say
—who have, as the phrase goes, any message to deliver—cannot afford
to devote their time to the production of masterpieces. But they would
do far worse than they do, if there had never been masterpieces, or if
they had never known them. Early familiarity with the perfect makes
our most imperfect production far less bad than it otherwise would
be. To have a high standard of excellence often makes the whole
difference of rendering our work good when it would otherwise be
mediocre.
For all these reasons, I think it important to retain these two. lan
guages and literatures in the place they occupy, as a part of liberal edu
cation, that is, of the education of all who are not obliged by their
circumstances to discontinue their scholastic studies at a very early age.
But the same reasons which vindicate the place or classical studies in
general education, shew also the proper limitation, of them. They
should be carried as far as is sufficient to enable the pupil, in after life,
to read the great works of ancient literature with ease. Those who have,
leisure and inclination to make scholarship, or ancient history, or gene
ral philology, their pursuit, of course require much more; but there is
no room for more in general education. The laborious idleness in which
the school-time is wasted away in the English classical schools deserves
the severest reprehension. To what purpose should the most precious
years of early life be irreparably squandered in learning to write bad
Latin and Greek verses ? I do not see that we are much the better even
�32
Value of the Ancient Classical Langrtages and Literature.
for those who end by writing good ones. I am often tempted to ask the
favourites of nature and fortune, whether all the serious and important
work of the world is done, that their time and energy can be spared for
these nugce difficiles 1 I am not blind to the utility of composing in a
language, as a means of learning it accurately. I hardly know any
other means equally effectual. But why should not prose composition
suffice? What need is there of original composition at all? if that can
be called original which unfortunate schoolboys, without any thoughts to
express, hammer out on compulsion from mere memory, acquiring the
pernicious habit which a teacher should consider it one of his first duties
to repress, that of merely stringing together borrowed phrases ? The
exercise in composition, most suitable to the requirements of learners, is
that most valuable one, of retranslating from translated passages of a
good author: and to this might be. added, what still exists in many Con
tinental places of education, occasional practice in talking Latin. There
would be something to be said for the time spent in the manufacture of
verses, if such practice were necessary for the enjoyment of ancient
poetry; though it would be better to lose that enjoyment than to pur
chase it at so extravagant a price. But the beauties of a great poet
would be a far poorer thing than they are, if they only impressed us
through a knowledge of the technicalities of his art. The poet needed
those technicalities : they are not necessary to us. They are essential
for criticising a poem, but not for enjoying it. All that is wanted is suf
ficient familiarity with the language, for its meaning to reach us without
any sense of effort, and clothed with the associations on which the poet
counted for producing his effect. Whoever has this familiarity, and a
practised ear, can have as keen a relish of the music of Virgil and
Horace, as of Gray or Bums, or Shelley, though he know not the me
trical rules of a common Sapphic or Alcaic. I do not say that these
rules ought not to be taught, but I would have a class apart for them,
and would make the appropriate exercises an optional, not a compulsory
part of the school teaching.
Science and Art Department,—Nero Minute. — My Lords have
promulgated a new Minute to the effect, that every student in the future
who obtains a first or second class position in the May examination, in
any science subject, may teach, and earn the payments or results, a pri
vilege hitherto confined to certificated teachers. The teachers’ exami
nations for certificates in November are to be abolished. This action
of the Committee of Council assimilates, in this particular, the relation
of science teachers with the lately modified relation of the art teachers
to the Department
"
�33
THE SUPPLEMENTARY MINUTE OF THE REVISED CODE.
BY J. STUART LAURIE, FORMERLY H. M. INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS.
HE reception accorded to the Revised Code four years ago is
still fresh in the memory of every one interested in the ques
tion of popular education. Educational bodies viewed, with
an alarm that amounted almost to a panic, the threatened
demolition of what they had been accustomed for a quarter of a century
to regard as the bulwarks of the system. But all protest was in vain;
and the representatives of the people sanctioned and ratified the official
proposals. Indiscriminate building grants to Primary,’and various grants
to Training, schools were cancelled; pupil-teachers could no longer
claim the enviable title of “pampered recipients of State bounty;”
teachers were constrained to relinquish, suddenly and unexpectedly,
their “ vested interests,” in the shape of the money-value which thencertificates variously represented; and annual grants henceforth took
the simple form of 4s. per head on the average attendance, and 2s. 8d.
per pass in the three fundamental branches of knowledge, Reading,
Writing, wiA Arithmetic. This was aptly termed, “payment for results”
and the practical ring of the phrase doubtless contributed largely to the
success of the measure. The gross result shows an annual “ saving ”
of no less than ^400,000, together with, in Mr. Lowe’s opinion, “in
creased efficiency,” into the bargain 1
But the permanency of that orator’s notable triumph was ever liable
to be endangered by a grave omission in his subversive system of tactics.
He omitted to include Her Majesty’s Inspectors in his taboo. He had at
hand a sufficiently feasible and ready-made plea for their abolition, too ;
seeing that the occupation of those gentlemen was, in a dignified pro
fessional -sense, clearly gone ; while the proposal would have been ably
■seconded by personal predilections, if one may draw an inference
from various acts of scant courtesy, and a uniformly supercilious bearing.
From whatever cause, H. M. Inspectors remained in the field, empowered
to report progress to two successive chiefs, neither of whom was above
lending an ear to deliberate representations, based on the results of
arduous experience acquired at the Queen’s expense.
Excellent a beginning to a scheme of national education as the
Revised Code would unquestionably have been, and admirably fitted as
it even, still is, as a groundwork for a noble superstructure, it has been
ascertained that, as a practical measure, it is capable of improvement:
that, for example (r), small schools—generally the most needy section—
derive but a meagre proportion of pecuniary benefit from the new form
of |rant; that (2), the rate at which pupil teachers are everywhere
diminishing forbodes the steady decay of that key-stone of the system ;
and that (3),the higher, non-paying subjects, such as Geography, Grammar,
and History, are vanishing, or have already vanished, from the common
routine of instruction. With a praiseworthy unanimity, the late VicePresident of the present, and the previous Vice-President of the late,
Government have combined their efforts to supply, at the trifling cost
vol. 1.
3
�34
The Supplementary Minute of the Revised Code.
of
ooo, remedies for the defects alluded to; and, what may be
styled, their joint plan has taken the form of a Supplementary Minute.
*
The title of the new Minute, and Mr. Corry’s early assurance that it
“ did not cancel a single article of the Revised Code]' ought, in all
reason, to have satisfied Mr. Lowe that the latter measure was not
about to be “tinkered” and “tampered with;” and it is therefore
hoped that his menace of “ a speedy and well-merited extinction of the
whole system,” will graciously be allowed to remain in abeyance, until
the country is ripe for a comprehensive, and emphatically national
scheme.
The heads of the Supplementary Minute are briefly as follow:—
I. The payment per pass in reading, writing and arithmetic, respec
tively, is raised from 2s. 8d. to 4s.—up to the maximum of 120 passes;
all in excess of that number being rated as formerly, at 2s. 8d.
The conditions annexed to this additional grant of
are («), that for
all scholars above 25 there be an apprentice for every 40, or an assistant
for every 80 in average attendance; (¿), that the number of passes exceed
200 per cent, of the annual average over six years of age, and, further,
that one fifth part of the whole number of passes fall under Standardsiv. to vi.; and (c), that at least one-fifth of the average over six years of
age pass a satisfactory examination in any specific subject or subjects;
scholars who have already passed in Standard vi. being, on the same
condition, entitled to claim a repetition of the grant.
II. In reference to condition («), the new Minute offers a distinct
aid towards its fulfilment, by means of a prospective bonus to schools of
¿10 and fs respectively, for every male apprentice admitted into a
training school in the first and second class; and the same schools are
further entitled to participate in the success of their former apprentices,
at the rate of
and ¿5 respectively, according to their rank in the
annual students’ examinations.
While no doubt can be entertained of the practical judiciousness of
these provisions, and of their fitness to dovetail into the structure of the
Revised Code, it remains to be seen whether much material advantage will
accrue to the smaller schools, shackled as they are by a too heavy
expenditure, and deplorable irregularity in the attendance ; and whether
the indirect inducements held out to apprentice-recruits will prove equal
to an emergency which want of confidence in the bona fides of the
Government and the large demands of rival labour markets have created.
This at least is certain—that the stimulus now given to the conservation
or restoration of the old scale of indispensable branches—Geography,
Grammar and History (which may be taught singly, or all three succes
sively adjusted to the progress of the several standards), will impart fresh
heart to the teacher; and that the moral intention of the measure will
be accepted by educationalists at large as an earnest that the legislature
did not mean, after all, to throw them eventually on their own, often
sorely overstrained, resources
*
In regard to the historical phases of the question, we seize this op
portunity to disabuse the public mind of the various illusory fictions with
�The Supplementary Minute of the Revised Code.
35
which the results of the “ Government ” scheme anterior to the present
one have been wantonly beset:—
1. “That system, where adequately developed, was not a failure, but
a triumphant success. The teaching was thoroughly good, not superfi
cial and ambitious, but sound and practical.” — (Mr. Fraser, Times,
April 18, and Commissioners’ Report, 1. 308—313.)
2. Where the efficiency was at fault, “ the great source lay in the
want of adequate funds preventing the employment of competent
teachers.”—(Com. Rep. n. 115.)
3. It was, therefore, a physical impossibility for teachers to pay the
requisite attention to the lower classes, especially in cases where pupil
teachers or stipendiary monitors were not procurable. And on the other
hand.
4. The unwise extension of the old capitation grant (for attendance
alone) to towns above 5000 inhabitants, in addition to the somewhat
lavish expenditure on building Primary, and subsidizing Training,
Schools, incited warrantable apprehensions as to the pitch which the
Parliamentary vote would ultimately be required to reach.
5. The unsatisfactory condition of the lower sections, which, how
ever, was greatly exaggerated, and so amplified in argument as to be
made to apply to schools as a -whole, combined with the desirability of
retrenchment to pave the way for a change.
6. Accordingly, when Mr. Lowe propounded the plan of the Revised
Code, professedly based on the conclusions of the Commissioners, and
guaranteed for the measure efficiency coupled with economy, the assent of
the House to the measure was readily given.
7. The new code substituted a simple and palpable, for a cumbrous
and indefinite, machinery, and it therefore displayed, among other
virtues, a captivating fitness for administrative purposes.
8. But, although many educationalists are prepared to acknowledge
its expediency as a basis for a national scheme, those immediately
acquainted with its mode of working, or practically engaged in working
it, object not so much to the limitation of the scale of subjects, as to the
virtual exclusion of education, in the true sense of the term, in connexion
with the instruction. The form of the teaching is now purely mechani
cal ; the memory and manual dexterity are exercised—the understanding
and imagination, not at all. Hence the grave complaint that the
“ tone ” of schools is lowered, a result which could not well be antici
pated by Mr. Lowe, seeing that “tone” is neither a quantititive
element; nor, as he confessed, cognizable by his intelligence. Obviously
it is only by increasing the teaching-power that larger and higher results,
can be secured, and we therefore hail the supplementary Minute as a.
step in the right direction.
3—2
�36
NEW EDUCATIONAL MINUTE.
The following minute by the Lords of the Committee of Council for
Education was adopted on the 20th of February last:—
Their lordships, having considered—1. The present ratio of teachers
to scholars in the elementary day schools under inspection, and the state
of instruction in such schools, as shown by the result of the examinations
under article 48 of the code, and by the reports of Her Majesty s in
spectors ; also, 2. The present supply of candidates qualified for ad
mission into the normal schools for training masters Resolved :
1. To provide in the estimate for public education in England and
Wales, during the financial year 31st March, 1867-8, for an additional
grant of is. 4d. per pass in reading, writing, or arithmetic, up to a sum
not exceeding ^8 for any one school (department), upon the following
conditions beyond those now specified in the articles 38'63
the code,
viz.:—
(«) The number of teachers must have allowed, throughout the
past year (article 17), at least one certificated or one assistant
teacher, fulfilling respectively the condition of articles 67 and
91-3, for every 80 scholars, or one pupil teacher fulfilling the
conditions of articles 81-9 for every 40 scholars after the first
25 of the average number of scholars in attendance.
(3) The number of passes in reading, writing, and arithmetic must 1.
exceed 200 per cent, of the annual average number of scholars
in attendance who are over six years of age. In schools where
the calculation of average attendance is made indiscriminately
upon scholars above and scholars under six years of age, the
school registers of age are to determine in what ratio the aveiage number in attendance is to be divided. 2. Fall under
Standards IV.—VI. to the extent of at least one-fifth part of
the whole number of passes.
(A The time tables of the school, in use throughout the past yeai
(article 17) must have provided for one or more specific sub
jects of secular instruction beyond article 48- The- inspector
must name the specific subject or subjects in his report, and
must state that at least one-fifth part of the average number of
scholars over six years of age have passed a satisfactory exami
nation therein.
.
.
2. To exempt for one year, from the operation of article 46, chil
dren who have already passed in Standard VI., provided they pass a
satisfactory examination in the subjects professed in their school beyon
articles 48 conformably to section (<?) in paragraph. 1 of this minute.
3. To provide in the same estimate for certain new grants to ele
mentary schools wherein it should appear from the inspector s ast
report that the number of teachers throughout the year (article 17) ia
been sufficient to satisfy section (zz) in paragraph 1 of this minute , sue
grants to be at the rate of ^10 for every male pupil teacher admitted
(articles 105-110) from the said elementary schools into any norma
school under inspection from candidates placed by examination m ie
�New Educational Minute.
yj
first class, and ^5 for every male pupil teacher so admitted from candi
dates in the second class.
3. To offer certain further new grants to the same elementary
schools for every male pupil teacher who having been admitted from
them into a normal school under inspection at the examination (articles
103) held in December, 1867, or at any later examination, should at
the end of his first year’s residence, be placed in the first or second
division (articles 119, 121, 1^2); such grants to be at the rate of ^8
for every student placed in the first division, and ^5 for every student
placed in the second division. No grants of this kind can become pay
able before December, 1868, and, therefore, although offered now, they
have no place in the estimate for the financial year March 1867-8.
5. To pay, in the financial year 31st March 1867-8, only so many
twelfth parts of the additional grants offered by this minute as, in the
case of grants under paragraph 1, equal the number of months from
1st April to the end of the school year (article 17), and, in the case of
grants under paragraph 3, equal the number (nine) of months from 1st
April to 31st December (article 81, f. 2.)
THE NEW EDUCATIONAL MINUTE IN THE HOUSE OF
COMMONS.
In the House of Commons on Friday, April 5th, Mr. Lowe, on the
motion for going into Committee of Supply, moved “ That this House
dissents from so much of the minute of the Committee of Council on
Education as provides for an increase of the grants now made to pri
mary schools.” He entered into an elaborate argument to show that in
most cases the money granted under this minute would be wasted, and
that it would do mischief instead of good. He stated that the minute
involved an increased expenditure of ^70,000 a year, and he contended
that this was not justified, considering the steady and satisfactory pro
gress which had been made under the system introduced in 1862.
There had already been an increase in the number of pupils amounting
to
10,000, and a saving of ^400,000, as compared with the expen
diture under the old system.
Mr. Corry defended the minute, and explained that its object was to
give assistance to small schools. He had felt from the representation
made to him that these schools were entitled to aid, and it was upon his
recommendation that the minute had been issued.
After some observations from Mr. P. F. Powell,
Mr. H. A. Bruce said the result of the new system introduced in
1862 was that the schools were receiving two-fifths less than they re
ceived formerly, the sum paid being ^620,000 instead of a million.
As to the minute, his only objection to it was that it was too econo
mical.
Mr. Henley and Mr. Pugh supported the minute.
i Mr. Hadfield denounced all State education whatever.
i. Upon a division Mr. Lowe’s motion was rejected by 203 to 40.
�38
; FORTHCOMING UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONSOXFORD.
Three scholarships of ^70 a year each for three years, having been
founded in Balliol College by Miss Hannah Brackenbury “ for the
encouragement of the study of law and history, and of the study of
natural science, or one of the aforesaid studies, in order to qualify
students for the professions of law and medicine respectively;” there
will be an examination for one Scholarship, in the subject of natural
science, in November next; the precise time and further particulars to
be announced hereafter. Candidates must not have exceeded eight
terms from their matriculation. Papers will be set in the following sub
jects:—1, Mechanical Philosophy and Physics; 2, Chymistry,; 3, Phy
siology; but candidates will not be expected to offer themselves for
examination in one or more of the above subjects, if the Examiners
should consider it expedient.
_
On Saturday, May 4, there will be held an election at Merton College
to—1, One Classical Postmastership, value ^jioo per annum, tenable
for five years; 2, one Mathematical Postmastership, value ^j8o per
annum, tenable for five years; 3, one Classical Postmastership, value
¿£80 per annum, tenable for five years; 4, one National Science Scholar
ship, value £6q per annum, tenable for five years. Candidates for the
above must be under twenty years of age. Also, 5, one Classical Post
mastership, value ^j8o per annum, for five years, open to candidates of
any age; 6, one Exhibition, value ^25, for three years, also with no
limit of age. Candidates for the Natural Science Scholarship will be
examined in the ordinary classical matriculation subjects; viz., a portion
of a Greek and Latin author, Latin writing, grammar, arithmetic, and
algebra; and to those who pass this examination, papers will be offered
in physics, chymistry, and physiology. The examination begun April 30th.
A Fellowship will be filled up at Lincoln College on Tuesday, July
2. Candidates must call on the Rector some time before the 25th of
June. The examination will begin on Tuesday, the 25th of June, at
10 a.m. The Fellowship is open to all members of the University who
have passed all the examinations required for the degree of B.A. The
Fellow elected will be required to reside, and, except under certain con
tingencies, to take Holy Orders, within ten years.
There will be an election at Brasenose College on Friday, May 10, to
(at least) four open Scholarships—viz., three of the value of ¿£80 a
year during residence, and one of the value of ^73 during residence.
One of the former will be awarded for proficiency in mathematics, sub
ject to a pass examination in classics. Candidates, who must produce
evidence of being under 20 years of age, and must bring testimonials of
good conduct from their college or school, are required to present them
selves to the Principal between 8 and 9 p.m. on Monday, May 6, or
between 9 and 10 a.m. on Tuesday, May 7. The examination will
begin at the last-named hour.
_ _
There will be an election to an Open Scholarship in Pembroke Col
lege on Friday, May 17. The Scholarship is worth £72, and is tenable
for five years. An Exhibition, worth ^50, may be filled up at the same
�Forthcoming University Examinations.
39
time. In awarding this, the pecuniary circumstances of candidates will
be taken into account. The examination will commence on Tuesday,
the 14th, at 10 a.m., and candidates must be under 20 years of age.
CAMBRIDGE.
There will be an examination for two Exhibitions at King’s College on
the 12th, 13th, and 14th of June. The Exhibitions will be of the value
of ¿50 per annum, and will be tenable for three years, or until such
time as the student shall succeed in obtaining one of the Open Scholar
ships hereafter to be offered by the College. Candidates must be under
20 years of age, and have not previously entered any other College in
the University. Further information may be obtained from the Rev.
W. R. Chur ton, Tutor of the College..
There will be two minor Scholarships at Clare College open for com
petition to those intending to commence residence in October, of ^60
each, tenable for two and a half years, or till exchanged for a Founda
tion Scholarship. The examination will commence on Wednesday,
June 5, at 9 a.m. These Scholarships will be awarded to deserving
•candidates only. Preference will be given to those who show special
proficiency in either classics or mathematics. Candidates to send in
their names, with testimonials as to character, to the Rev. W. Raynes,
tutor. Subjects for examination:—Latin and Greek translation and
composition; Euclid, plane trigonometry, arithmetic, algebra, geome
trical and analytical conic sections.
An examination for four Minor Scholarships will be held in-Downing
College on Wednesday, the 5 th of June next, and the two following
days, and will begin at 9 a.m. on Wednesday. The examination will be
in Classics and Elementary Mathematics, but some weight will be given
to proficiency in French and German. Two additional papers of an
elementary character will be set, one on Moral Philosophy, .in connexion
with the principles of Jurisprudence, and on International Law; the
other on the Natural Sciences in connexion with Medicine—namely,
Chymistry, including Analysis, Mineralogy, Botany, Comparative
Anatomy, and Physiology: and in awarding two of these Scholarships
•considerable importance will be attached to any special proficiency in
the legal or in the medical subject. Persons who have not been entered
at any College in the University, or who have not resided one entire
term in any such College, are eligible to these Minor Scholarships,
which will be of the value of ^40 per annum, and tenable for two years,
or until their holders are elected to Foundation Scholarships. No one
elected Minor Scholar will receive any emoluments until he has com
menced residence as a student of the College.
The syndicate for conducting the non-gremial examinations at Cam
bridge have just presented a report as to the girls’ examination, which
was originally put forward merely as a' three years’ experiment. They
-state that the scheme has been a complete success, and recommend
that the examination be made a permanency. No lists are to be pub
lished, but each girl who passes is to receive a certificate, and those who
have passed with credit, certificates of honour. The examinations are
�40
Forthcoming University Examinations.
to be at the same times and in the same subjects as those of the boys.
For the junior examination the girls are not to be more than sixteen
years of age, and for the senior examination not more than eighteen
years; all,, except in cases where the parents disapprove, are to be
examined in religious knowledge.
.The Oxford Local Examinations.—The Oxford Local Exami
nations will be held this year at Oxford, London, Bath, Birmingham,
righton, Exeter, Faversham, Finchley, Gloucester, Leeds, Lincoln,
Liverpool, Manchester, Northampton, Nottingham, Southampton,
launton, Truro, West Buckland, Windermere. The examination will
commence in each place on Tuesday, the nth of June, at 9 o’clock, a.m.
The Master and Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford, anxious to encouiage middle-class education, have offered five exhibitions to be com
peted, foi at the Oxford Local Examinations in the present year. These
exhibitions will be of the annual value of ^52 i°s., and will betenable
during residence for four years. They will be offered to those among
the senior candidates who shall obtain the highest places in the first
division of the. general list. The Exhibitioners will be expected to pro
duce testimonials of good conduct, and to commence residence in
January, 1868 ; and will be required to pass the first of their University
Examinations (Responsions) within six months. The Exhibitioners will
have to pay to the University an admission fee of ^2 10s. and an
annual fee of ^1. They will also have to pay to Balliol College the
annual sums of ^22 8s. for tuition, and of ¿"io for furnished lodgings ;
but they will not be subject to any other College charges, and they will
be able to regulate the expense of their own living.
Middle Class Education in the Metropolis. — The second
annual meeting of the Governors of the Corporation lately established
by Charter for the promotion of Middle Class Education in the Metro
polis, was held on Monday, March 18th, in the Mansion House, the
Lord Mayor in the chair. The school in Bath Street, City Road, was
opened at Michaelmas, and the Council congratulated the Governors on
the success which had attended it. During the first quarter there were
518 scholars, there are now 650, with upwards of 200 applicants for
admission, for whom the Council cannot find accommodation in the
present building. They hoped to be able to obtain from the Ecclesias
tical Commissioners, with whom they were in treaty on the subject,
upwards of an acre of freehold ground of the Finsbury estate, on which
a school capable of accommodating 1000 scholars could be built. The
erection of a similar school would shortly be commenced in Southwark.
There was a sum of ^48,412 in hand. The report and statement of
accounts were adopted. Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Aiderman J. Lawrence,
Mr. J. P. Gassiot, Mr. Samuel Morley, Mr. Sheriff Waterlow, and
others, addressed the meeting. Letters were read from Mr. Goschen
and other members of Parliament, regretting their inability to attend.
After the transaction of some formal business, a vote of thanks to the
Lord Mayor closed the proceedings.
�4i
'KING EDWARD’S SCHOOLS, WITLEY, GODALMING.
HE pleasant and healthy neighbourhood of Witley, a village
and railway station on the line from London to Portsmouth,
a few miles beyond Godaiming, has been chosen as the new
site of the above schools, consisting of an Industrial School
for Boys, and a Girl’s School. The schools were formally opened out
Friday, April the 5th.
It is worth while to glance at the history of this foundation. In the
year 1552 the citizens of London presented a supplication to King
Edward VI., “in the name of the poor, and for Jesus Christ’s sake,”
that his Majesty would be pleased to grant them one of his houses,
called the Palace of Bridewell (situated between St. Bride’s Church and
the Fleet, which is now New Bridge Street), for the harbour and lodging,
of the said poor. This request was granted; and while stringent lawswere enacted to put down the social evils of beggary, misery and thievery,
which were then rife in the city of London, it was provided that the
poor-house at Bridewell should be a workhouse, where those who needed
relief at the public cost should be compelled to earn' it by their labour.
But the legislators and social reformers of that day, being wiser, ap-#
parently, than we are now, did not think it was doing enough to deal
with the case of adult pauperism. They sought also to prevent its
growth, by teaching the young to work for an honest living. “And first,”
say.the citizens of London, in their supplication to the King, “we
thought to begin -with the poor child; that he should be harboured, fed
and clothed, and virtuously trained up;” whereupon they proceed to
state their plans for the establishment of the Industrial Schools, or
“ House of Sundry Occupations,” in which a variety of useful trades may
be taught to the boys and girls who would else be running wild and
wicked in the streets. So truly did the benevolence or prudence of the
Londoners, three hundred years ago, anticipate the efforts of the foundersof our modem “Homes” and “Refuges,” which are “supported by
voluntary contributions,” and are confessedly unequal to the wants of
the present time. Bridewell Hospital was intrusted, in 1557, to the
management of the governors of the House of Bethlem, which was then
situated on the north side of the City walls, outside Bishopsgate, and
was afterwards erected in Moorfields. It very naturally came to pass
that, in connection with the relief of the destitute, and with the educa
tion of children at Bridewell, there were cells or prisons for the punish
ment of beggars, prostitutes, and other disorderly persons, as well as of
idle or disobedient apprentices, such as we see in some of Hogarth’s
pictures; this part of the establishment, with the whipping-post and
stocks, being under the magisterial jurisdiction of the Aldermen of the
city of London. In 1831 the Schools and House of Occupations be
longing to Bridewell were removed from New Bridge Street to a site
adjoining the premises now occupied by Bethlem.
The prison and the workhouse have been superseded by the modem
establishment of Houses of Correction in the one case, and by the
�42
King Edward's Schools, Witley, Godalming.
operation of the New Poor Law in the other; but King Edward’s
Schools have continued their useful work. This institution was, for
many years, .to all intents and purposes, a reformatory school for juvenile
criminals; in fact, it might claim the honour of having set the first
example of that great movement which has latterly been carried on by
the reformatory schools established in London and in other parts of the
kingdom. We find it stated in a report by the chaplain, the Rev. E.
Rudge, that, so lately as 1856, nearly one fourth of the inmates of King
Edward’s Schools were convicted criminals, and some of the boys had
been several times in prison. The institution is now placed on quite a
different footing. It has been converted into a school rather for desti
tute than for criminal children. By the existing rules, criminal children
are not to be received, except in special cases, and the proportion of
them is limited to one sixth part of the whole number of inmates; but,
practically, even this proportion has never been reached since the new
scheme came into operation, and there are now only two or three of the
boys who have been convicted of crime. A few destitute cases are
admitted from the city of London on the recommendation of the Aider
men. The number of boys at the end of last year in the schools was
74, and of girls 100; the total number of both sexes from 1830 to 1866
e inclusive having been 3653. Their average age on admission is twelve
or thirteen. Some of the boys are instructed by “ arts-masters ” in such
trades as tailoring and shoemaking, to which gardening will now perhaps
be added; the girls learn needlework, and that of the kitchen and
laundry; the school teaching consists of reading, writing, arithmetic,
English history, geography, singing, and the Church Catechism. Of
those who left the school during the last year, twenty boys entered the
royal navy, eleven entered the army, and others were apprenticed to
trades, or sent home to their friends; the girls were placed in domestic
service. By a wholesome and praiseworthy regulation, 178 boys’and 42
girls, former inmates of the schools, attended before the committee of
governors with certificates of good conduct from their employers, and
received the customary reward of ^1 each, some for the first time,
others for the second or third time; as the governors keep an eye upon
them during three years from their leaving the schools.
University Education-.—The Bill brought in by Mr. Ewart, Mr. Neate, and Mr.
Pollard-Urquhart to extend the benefits of Education in the Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge to students not belonging to any college or hall, provides that, not
withstanding anything contained in any Act of Parliament now in force relating to
either of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, or in statutes, charters, deeds of
composition, or other instruments of foundation, of either of the said Universities,
or of any college or hall within the same, any person may be matriculated without
being entered as a member of any college or hall, and may, if he shall think fit. join
himself to any college or hall, with the consent of the head thereof, but without being
obliged to reside within the same ; and every person so matriculated shall in all re
spects and for all intents or purposes be and be considered as a member of the Uni
versity, and upon joining any college or hall shall in all respects and for all intents or
purposes be and be considered as a member thereof. For the purposes of this Act
the cathedral or house of Christ Church, in Oxford, shall be considered to be to all
intents and purposes a college of the University of Oxford.
�43
’ Mr. Gladstone on Compulsory Education.—Mr. Gladstone has
addressed the following letter to the Rev. J. Oakley .
« ii, Carlton House Terrace, S.W. Feb. 20.
“Rev. and dear Sir—I have read the report of the subcommittee
of the London Diocesan Board of Education with much interest, and it
is from no feeling of indifference or aversion if I decline to take part in
its proceedings on the subject. It is because I make it a rule on all
questions of a nature to come before Parliament for its decision, to
avoid, if possible, taking any part beyond its walls, 111 order that I may
be at liberty to act freely for the best at the proper time.
“ As regards opinion, however, I may say that while I well understand,
or at least appreciate, the grounds of the present movement, and.a“very glad that the clergy, under the bishop, have entered actively into
the matter, I yet see much difficulty in the way of direct compulsory
measures. I have always leaned very much to a scheme, the mam point
of which was, that it should be made penal to employ for wages persons
below a certain age not furnished with certain certificates of education
and attainment.
,
, , • „
“ A plan of this kind was prematurely proposed some years back in a
bill by Mr. Adderley, and was rejected on account of the immature
state of circumstances, which, however, must probably ripen from year
to year. A measure of that nature might be brought into action gra
dually, like the new law of 1834.
.
“ I remain, dear Sir, your very faithful servant,
“Rev. J. Oakley.”
“w- K Gladstone.
NOTICES OF NEW BOOKS.
Calisthenics; or the Elements of Bodily Culture-—On Pestalozzian Prin
ciples, designed for Practical Education in Schools, Colleges, Families,
&c. By Henry de Laspee, 2nd Ed. Griffin & Co.
This work is well known to teachers of Calisthenics, and has been so
often favourably noticed, that we need here merely record the appearance
of a second edition of it. In the preface the author makes the following
TCixi^^ks * —-
,
“In reply to the chief objections raised against my system: First, 'That
it is too scientific and laborious for general use,’ . I can only say, that
having myself been from early youth regularly trained, and being per
fectly well acquainted with all which passed for, and was admitted into
schools as, Physical Education ; it was the inadequacy and inefficiency
as branches of Education, which caused me to deviate from, and re
linquish them, and led me to this system, as more simple and compre
hensive than the others; and which will be found to be so, after a little
study, when it will enable any judicious teacher, governess or mother,
to teach and apply it with good effect. Secondly: 'that I had copied my
work from another abroad,’ is easily answered, when I state, that, even to
�44
Notices of New Books.
this day, there exists not another book on the subject of Physical Edu
cation, like mine: methodically treated as to tendency, from elements
to object. When I resolved and proceeded to commit my system to
writing, it had no precedents, nor were there authorities, which I could
ave consulted, except Pestalozzi’s method, for the treatment of the
subject of Bodily Culture/: Pursuing the same, the course lay already
before me; I was no more my own master, so as to write down, or leave
out,.what I wished; and even what remained of my own prejudices had
to give way, to what method dictated.”
An Elementary Physical Atlas, intended chiefly for Map drawing. By the
Rev. J. P. Faunthorpe, B.A., F.R.G.S., Vice-Principal and Geogra
phical Lecturer of Battersea Training-College.
Map drawing though comparatively a new branch of instruction is
m Middle-Class, as well as Primary Schools, steadily attaining the
prominence it deserves as a mechanical aid towards, and confirmatory
test of, Geographical knowledge. The work before us is the latest, and
one of the most meritorious efforts in this direction; and, as the Batter
sea students have always stood in the first rank in this subject, in con
nexion with the Certificate examinations, the authorship is a satisfactory
guarantee of the practical ability displayed in this compilation. The
maps are severally executed in Mr. Stanford’s well known style ; and the
whole is preceded by concise instructions in letter-press, first, in regard
to the general difficulties, and, secondly, in the form of specific directions
for each map
Questions and Answers on Geography, the Globes and Astronomy with a
short Account of the Winds, Tides, Air, &c. By J. J. Hooke. London :
T. J. Allman.
This new Historical Geography of Mr. J. J. Hooke, supplies a desi
deratum long felt in schools; seeing it contains a large amount of in
formation, interestingly put together, and which is found in no other
book of the same kind. The answers to the questions are not verbose,
nor is there one word de trop; and, therefore, the pupil is not neces
sitated to cull his information from matter which is often made obscure
by a too profuse use of words.
We do not say that Mr. Hooke’s book is superior to other geographies
or even that it is equal to some; but we consider it is free from the
fault which many of them have, viz., of saying too much, and thus
yearying the pupil; or of others, which are too meagre. The subjects
introduced are,. of necessity, numerous, so that the amount of instruc
tion contained in so small a compass is somewhat surprising. A brief
discourse on Astronomy is added ; but no more is said about it than the
youthful mind can readily comprehend. There are also short chapters'
on the Winds, Tides, Air, Eclipses, the Thermometer, and various other
subjects, all explained in as concise a form as possible, and in a manner
capable of being easily understood by the learner.
�45
WORDS.
^Passages from various Writers in illustration of certain words.
words arranged alphabetically.
Abrade (to wear away). “For fifteen
years the treaty of Vienna was observed as
sacredly as if it had been written on the
skies ; and it has taken nearly fifty years
altogether to abrade this mighty land
mark down to the level of history.”
Times.
Absinthe (a narcotic). “The American
Tax Bill adopts all these in an exaggerated
form, and swallows them as a whet, just
as an epicure swallows a taste of absinthe
or an anchovy, or half-a-dozen oysters, to
prepare the appetite.”—Times.
Abstention (?vs/?'«iU). “The dignity
Of France will end by being compromised
and abstention will become a duty.”—
Times.
■ Ab sums (to destroy gradually'). . “ Since
we last mentioned the Pontiff, his patri
mony had absumed away from him like
grease before the fire.”—Temple Bar.
Acclaim (shout ofpraise). ‘“The Liberty
of the Press ; it is the air we breathe, if
we have it not we die
And then what
Stentorian cheering till the walls of the old
Crown and Anchor shook again ; and the
crowds in the Strand took up the acclaim
■—and even sleepy Temple Bar seemed in
clined to make an effort towards an echo.”
—Times.
Acclimatized (inured to a climate).
“ The general good health of sailors in the
Arctic regions proves nothing against the
depressing influence of cold, for these
sailors are picked men, and in the prime
of life. Under such circumstances it may,
perhaps, be possible to become ‘ acclima
tized,’ and to feel the cold less the longer
the exposure to it.”—Times.
Acolyte (boys attendant upon the priest
hood. “ Then comes the bishop in his
mitre, his yellow stole upheld by two prin
cipal priests (the curate and sub-curate),
and to him his acolytes waft incense, as
well as to the huge figure of the Madonna
Which follows.”—Roba de Roma, by W.
Story.
Acumen (quickness of intellect). “In
the north of America the people are all
protectionists, in the south they are all
free-traders,notbecausethe south possesses
any greater amount of logical ACUMEN
The
than the north, but because each acts only
for its own interests.”—Times.
Adhibit (to apply). “ In May, 1830,
George IV. became so greatly debilitated
that it was found inconvenient and painful
for him to sign with his own hand public
documents; a bill was, therefore, passed
allowing the sign manual to be adhibited
by a stamp in his Majesty’s presence.”—
Dr. Farr.
JEgis (a shield).
“But as General
Hunter has friends in the cabinet, and is
supposed to be sheltered under the broad
jEG-is of Mr. Secretary Stanton, to whom
the president defers in military matters, it
is possible that he will be allowed to re
tain his post.”—-Times.
“ Providence has covered you with its
2EGIS, and the country with its acclama
tions.”—Address oe the Legislative
Body to the Emperor Napoleon,
March, 1861.
^Esthetic (the science of our feelings and
emotions.) “ No rich drawing-room could
show more taste in its arrangements, or
have a more soothing effect on a mind to
which the sense of ¿esthetic fitness is its
native element.”—Miss Mulock.
“ A purely painful domestic tragedy in
deed, or a subject calculated merely to
harrow up the feelings of the spectator, or
to excite feelings of horror and disgust
like many of the Spanish pictures of mar
tyrdom, should, in our judgment, be pro
scribed as violating ¿ESTHETIC propriety.”
—Times.
Affluent (flowing). “There is another
word which I have just employed.—
affluent—in the sense of a stream which
does not flow into the sea, but joins a
larger stream; as, for instance—the Isis
is an affluent of the Thames, the Moselle
of the Rhine.”—Dr. Trench.
Agglomerate (to gather up as a ball).
“ The rest of the place and of the inhabi
tants, as I saw it, and them, might be con
sidered as an agglomerate of three or
four sheds, a few long huts, a saw mill,
and some twenty negroes sitting on a log
looking at the trains.”—Times Corre
spondent (Mr. Russell).
Agnatic (a descentfrom the samefather).
�46
Words.
“ The Duchies can, therefore, in no way
pretend that violence has been done to
their rights. Their agnatic succession
has been completely respected, and is now
the law of the whole monarchy. The only
question then, regards the Augustenburg
family.”—Times.
Alembic (a vessel used in distilling).
“ The moment a doctrine is propounded,
hundreds of busy brains are at work to
look at it, from every possible point of
view, to ventilate, to sift, to examine, and
regard it under every conceivable light or
shade. In this fiery alembic truth is
effectually separated from falsehood, and
things are brought down from vague ge
neralities [to practical principles.” —
Times.
“ Cobden’s ideal of universal peace was
not perchance the highest ; but every
thing that was good and noble in his idea
remains with us, and is still a part of our
vital force. Purged of its crudities, in
the sacred alembic of death, it is now of
tenfold worth and purity.” — Tele
graph.
Ambidexter (« double dealer). “ In
comparably more brilliant, more splendid,
eloquent, accomplished, than his rival, the
great St. John could be as selfish as Ox
ford was, and could act the double art as
skilfully as ambidextrous Churchill
(Marlboro).’ ’—Thackeray.
Amenities {agreeableness of situation).
“ I see nothing in the acquirement of a
livelihood by manual labour that degrades
a man of good character. I want to know
why it j is that these amenities of life
should be confined to one class—that the
man that gets his livelihood by mere ma
nual labour should not be as refined as the
greatest man in the land.”—Mr. Roebuck.
Amplify (to enlarge). “ I cannot, how
ever, go along with the honourable mem
ber in thinking that the mere abolition of
passports is a great security for peace be
tween two nations, and I think that in
making such an assertion, the hon. mem
ber rather amplifies a small matter.”—
Lord Palmerston.
Amplitude (largeness, abundance). “Had
Mr. Page only put the public to great in
convenience by pulling down the old
Westminster Bridge, and stopping the
traffic till the new one was thrown open in
all its amplitude of way, what a jubilee
there would have been at its opening.”—
Times.
Anachronism (an error in computing
time). “ And now that Italy has organ
ized herself, and the period of revolution
has passed into that of regular and estab
lished government, the intervention of
France is an anachronism which she her
self ought to be the first to recognize.”—
Times.
“For the ancient history of Egypt, four
authorities; are relied upon; they differ
one from another by hundreds, indeed by
thousands of years. To make Napoleon
the Great the immediate successor of
Charlemagne would not be a greater ana
chronism than is to be found in com
paring the assertions of the four authori
ties in question.”—Examiner.
Ancillary (subservient). “ The mover
and supporters of this bill very fairly avow
that it is the first step towards proposing
the ballot for parliamentary elections.
One honourable member has told us that
it is ancillary and supplementary to a
proposal of vote by ballot.”—Lord Pal
merston.
Angularities (angles or corners). “We
have debated upon public affairs till we
have hardly left to ourselves a substantial
difference of opinion to debate about.-—
We have rounded the corners, and planed
off the angularities, till there is hardly
anything left to lay hold of.”—Times.
Anneal (to temper). “In that case war
would gratify the warlike passions of the
American people, both north and south,
and would tend in popular opinion to
strengthen and anneal the broken links
of their ancient partnership.”—Times. .!
Anomalies (irregularities). “ It is in
evitable that the question should arise—
shall these anomalies be meddled with ?
shall it be attempted to remove them, and
bring writing and speech into harmony
and consent.”—Dr. Trench.
“ The new anomalies which it intro
duces, and the old anomalies which it
spares and re-enacts, are equally mischiev
ous and unmeaning.”—Times.
Anomaly (a deviation). “The Horse
Guards receive three-pence a day—or
twenty-five per cent, more pay than the
Blues. This has gone on for many years
—at last the anomaly struck some medi
tative individual, and he devoted his lei
sure to an. historical inquiry into the
matter.’ ’—Times.
Anonyme (feigned name). “Historicus
in his reply to me yesterday, does himself
great credit as an adroit special pleader,
whatever judgment must be passed upon
that candour which his chosen ANONYME
seems to claim.”—G. N. SAUNDERS.
�THE
AGENCY
DEPARTMENT
In connection with the “ Quarterly Journal" is conducted by Mr. F. S. de
Carteret-Bisson, at 70, Berners Street, Oxford Street, W., to whom all
Communications relating to this Department should be made.
Ko in SCHOOLS FOR SALE.
No. in
Register.
suburb. Held on lease, 14 years unex
281. LONDON.—Superior School for La- pired, at a very low rental. The rent of
dies. Established. 25 years, and situate
the mansion is only £150 (worth £250).
in a favourite suburb of London. Aver
Price for this valuable lease, £550 ; fix
age attendance 30 Boarders : terms 50
tures and fittings at valuation. Full
guineas each, besides extras (day pupils
particulars, with view of house, on ap
easily obtained if desired). A splendid
plication at 70, Berners Street.
detached Mansion, standing in its own 299. MIDDLESEX.—A high class School
grounds, with lawns, croquet ground,
for Gentlemen’s sons ; numbering 75
conservatory, and every convenience.
Boarders. The premises are delightfully
Bent £130. Gross receipts past year
situate not far from Town, and are his
£2,007 7s. Goodwill £650. School
own freehold property, comprising a com
fixtures and furniture at valuation. The
modious house, with dormitories, school
average gross receipts for past 3 years
rooms, out-houses, master’s residence,
are £1.990 6s. 4d. The house and
covered play-ground, fives-court, a
grounds are in every way suited for a
cricket-field of 5 acres, gardens, &c. The
high class school. A bath room and hot
terms for pupils were originally from 60
and cold water for the upper rooms, also
to 80 guineas,but they have been raised
gas has been introduced at the vendor’s
to 80 and 100 guineas. Rent only £200
expense. Books and accounts (clearly
per annum, goodwill £3,000 to be spread
kept) may be seen at Mr. Bisson’s Office,
over a number of years. Furniture at
extending over a period of 10 years.
valuation.
229a. MIDDLESEX.—A Boarding and
Day School for Gentlemen’s sons, situ SCHOOLS AND PARTNERSHIPS
ate in a healthy locality in the N.W.
WANTED.
district of London. A capital house, 3fr. Bisson calls the attention of intending pur
well adapted for school purposes, large chasers to his Bi-monthly List No. 4, issued gratis,
on the 2nd inst. The successful result of a large
playground and garden adjoining, all number of negotiations (see page 8) has reduced the
held upon lease (9 years unexpired) at school properties at present in the market to a very
the low rental of £60. There are 25 small number.
Boarders, averaging from 25 to 40 271. A B.A. of Dublin seeks a partner
ship, £1000 at command.
guineas each, 3 day boarders, and 3 day
pupils, paying good terms. The gross 274. A B.A. of Dublin wants a school
income for past year was £800. Terms
near Town.
for goodwill £200; household furniture 275. A B.A. of Cambridge wishes to join
or part can be taken, if desired, at a
as partner, £500 to invest.
276. An M.A. of Cambridge desires a
valuation.
.
*
295 STAFFORDSHIRE.—ABoarding
partnership.
and Day School for Boys, established 10 281. A B.A. of Cambridge in orders will
years. There are at present 20 board
buy a good-school.
ers. Terms 28 to 30 guineas, with ex 283. A B.A. of Oxford, £300 to invest.
tras, and 50 day pupils, paying £5 and 284. An M.A. of Cambridge (in orders),
£6 a year, besides extras. There is a
£1000 at command.
good play-ground with outbuildings. 285. A Wrangler. Experienced. £300
Rent £60, taxes about £10. The gross
to invest.
receipts the past year were £900. 286. A B.A. of Oxford. £500 to invest.
Terms of sale, goodwill £300, (a year’s 272. A Middle class Boarding and Day
purchase). School and household fur
School wanted.
niture at a valuation.
273. An experienced Tutor (age 24) de
240. MIDDLESEX.—The nucleus of an
sires a partnership.
old established School, with a splendid 276. A B.A. of Oxford wishes to purchase
and commodious Mansion, in thorough
a School. £1000 to invest.
repair, to be obtained on most advanta 277. A Clergyman wishes to purchase a
geous terms. The house is an elegant
good School near London.
building, and can accommodate 50 to 278. A Clergyman (in high honours)
60 Boarders ; it is situate in a favourite
wants a first class School.
Register.
,
�The Agency Department.
Schools, &c., Wanted—continued.
No. in
*
'¡Register
289. An experienced teacher seeks a good
Partnership. Capital to invest, £700.
282. A Clergyman wishes to purchase a
^School in Hants, Bucks, or London.
2/9. An M.A. of Cambridge seeks a good
, opening, Partnership or otherwise.
The following are a few Lady Clients, who
wish to purchase Schools.
-300. A Lady wants a small school, near
London. Capital £150.
No. in
Register.
301. A small preparatory School for Boys.
£250 to invest.
302. A boarding School for Girls. £300
to invest.
303. A School for Ladies, near’ Town.
£500 at command.
300. A boarding and day School. £800
at command.
305. Asmall School. Capital£300 to invest.
306. A good School, near Town. Capital
I to invest, £700.
TUTORS SEEKING APPOINTMENTS AT THE MIDSUMMER
QUARTER, 1867.
arista.
Graduates.
5361. B.A. Oxford, (2nd class Classical
4667. B.A. Oxford (in orders). Classics,
honours). Classics, mathematics, and
mathematics junior, chemistry, French,
English subjects. Age 27, salary £150.
German and English subjects. Age
English Masters.
27, experience 6 years, salary £120.
4738. B.A. Cambridge. Classics, mathe 4710. Classics, moderate mathematics to
quadratics, French gram. English sub
matics, French and English subjects.
jects. Age 22, salary £25.
Age 24, salary £100.
4771. M.A. and B.A. Cambridge. Clas 4883. Classics, mathematics, French and
English subjects. Age 28, salary £60.
sics, mathematics, French, German and
English subjects. Age 30, (in orders), 4897. Drawing, all styles, and English
subjects. _ Age 24, salary £60.
Salary £180.
4778. B.A. Cambridge, (Senior Optime) 4912. Classics, mathematics, drawing
music, and English subjects. Age 21,
Classics, mathematics, French, German,
salary £30.
Drawing and English subjects. Age
5041. Classics, mathematics, French,
24, salary £100.
Drawing and English subjects. Am
■4887. M.A. Dublin. Classics, mathema
36, salary £50.
°
tics, music, organ singing and English
5056. Classics, mathematics, and English
subjects. Age 30, salary, £120.
subjects. Age 21, salary £30.
.5015. B.A. Cambridge (19 Wrangler).
Classics, mathematics, English. A<m 5107. Classics and mathematics, high,
French, German, and English subjects.
22. Salary £150.
°
5059. B.A. Durham (in honours). Clas- ; Age 30, salary £60.
sics, mathematics junior, English sub- I 5114. Classics and mathematics, high, and
jects. Age 25, salary £100.
; English subjects. Age 24, salary £45.
5063. B.A. of Cambridge (Wrangler and 5173. Mathematics, English subjects,
piano, organ, &c. Age 21, salary'£30.
2nd Class Classical Tripos). Age 27,
5309. Classics, mathematics, French,
salary £200.
piano, and English subjects. Age 20,
5074. B.A. Oxford. Classics, mathema
salary £30.
tics, and English. Age 27, salary £120.
5086. B.A. Cambridge (Wrangler). Clas
Foreign Masters.
sics, mathematics, and English sub
136. French and drawing in all styles.
jects. Salary, £150.
Age 30, salary £50.
5135. B.A. Oxford (in orders). Classics,
Mathematics, German and English 315. French, German, drawing. Age 27,
salary £50.
subjects. Age 28, salary £120.
5156. B.A. Cambridge (15 Wrangler). 277. French, German, classics, piano,
organ. Age 29, salary £50.
Classics, mathematics, French and
404. French, German, mathematics,
English. Age 24, salary £150.
drawing. Age 24, salary £40.
5334. M.A. Cambridge. High Second
Classical Tripos. Classics, French, En 416. French, German, drawing, music.
Age 24, salary £50.
glish. Age 27, salary £150.
5316. B.A. Oxford. Classics, mathema 418. French, classics, mathematics, music,
piano, drawing. Salary £60.
tics, French and English. Age 22,
salary £100.
150 numbers omitted for want of space.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The quarterly journal of education, Vol.1 No.1, May 1867
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5681
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: [London?]
Collation: 48 p. ; 21 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
[Unknown]
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
[s.n.]
Subject
The topic of the resource
Education
Women
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br /><span>This work (The quarterly journal of education, Vol.1 No.1, May 1867), identified by </span><span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk">Humanist Library and Archives</a></span><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Conway Tracts
Education of women
Education-Great Britain
Teaching
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/bab84af91b461d1a64506206f26042b2.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=QWhy%7ELH758Xua--w-8l06tjD5ewRSCOSx9LW4bOIDgrJoXigd2WH9i6mmtjrMnJVT-H0mmtGCHTvOM4hZGJZdByTOc7nZccBtVvLaQiaIPzSV%7EGck4bZ25OCyjkdf%7E87XKH1JLT82OK5k0HLcjFH9-9ZfcEZVV2WmUg2Lj9relggQo79ZH58n6ZOeiWL3XMQGmRJja2dWhWvI4r5PWY7Fp9Es4AX5InhtStwck3rx1xxvHRv6t01INUj4I0QGWAeskkGfRmzltAP%7E8XJuyJTnO0zKywOz8kYCI1qfjCf5vUIy5sgcJDqzZVaXTvZwNGMhao%7EO66TwhjPY0cEmOKoEw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
438e3d1bc1f5144ee814659edd9da78a
PDF Text
Text
A WINTRY WALK
AMONG THE MOUNTAINS
WITH SINCEREST APOLOGIES TO THE SHADE OF HIAWATHA.
LONDON:
F. B. KITTO, 5, BISHOPSGATE STREET WITHOUT.
1867.
�EXPLANATORY.
The following lines contain an accurate account of what befel
the writer during a ramble, on May 13th, 1867, over the summit
of Glyder-fach and down by Llyn Bochlwyd to Llyn Idwal,
returning by Twll-du and over Glyder-fawr, to Pen-y-gwryd.
Weather, densely overcast and strong gale from E. ; reached
the clouds and newly-fallen snow at about 2,000 feet above sea
level, and had the company of both to the summit, a further
height of 1,200 feet. The air temperature in the valley had fallen
twenty-five degrees since the evening of the 11th.
From several aneroid readings, the writer suspects Glyderfach, the Lesser Glyder, to be at least equal in height to Glyderfawr, i. e. to rise 3,275 feet or more above sea level; and from
Snowdon the former looks considerably the higher.
H. B. BIDEN.
Witton, Birmingham, '
June, 1867.
�A WINTRY WALK AMONG THE MOUNTAINS.
Scene—The Heart of Snowdonia.
MAY 13th, 1861.
Reader, let a rambler tell you,—
One who oft, the storm defying,
Converse lone has held with Nature
In her grandest, sternest aspect,
'Mid the crags of wild Snowdonia,
Or, with pleasantest companions,
Scaled her lofty peaks and ridges
Oft by roughest, untried circuit,
One incurably afflicted
With ^-oaetyetkes scandendiP'caccreiZu’s —
Though he ne’er beheld the wonders
Of the far-famed Alpine ranges
How, this day, alone, he wandered
O’er the newly snow-crowned mountains—
"Winter’s snows had gone in April*
Spite of Post, Gazette, or Record.
Senseless work, would say the Guide Books,—
Sapient, cockney-followed Guide Books,—
Yet most useful to the novice,
Thus “ without a guide ” (!) to wander,
Courting well deserved destruction !
How he scampered o’er the quagmires,
How he floundered through the Gwryd,
�4
More correctly called the Mymbyr,
Slipping off the treacherous boulders ;
Scrambled up the Lesser Glyder
Spite of clouds, of snow, and easter.
Wind beloved (?) and sung by Kingsley ;
Would that he could thus have felt it
Freezing his poor toes and fingers.
Reached the drifting, level, cloud-roof,
Plunged behind its dim grey curtain
Darkly stretched o’er lakes and valleys,
Blotting out all higher regions,
Hiding every well known landmark;
Reached the eighteen-inch-deep heather
Water-logged with snow half melted,
Half way up the lofty mountain ;
Onward, upward, floundering, scrambling,
Through the fog and furious east wind,
Steering now by faith and compass,
Reached unmitigated winter;
Clambered up by blocks and ledges
O’er the frozen cliffs and boulders ;
Gained a loftier, colder region,
Where the gale made wildest music
Howling o’er the crested ridges,
Through the obelisks and turrets,
Serried battlements and cannons,
Dimly seen through drifting mist wreath,
Outworks of the storm-rent summit:
Wondrous handiwork of Nature,
Nought like this is seen on Snowdon,
Though each scene alike be snowed on !
Reached Castell-y-gwynt, whose crags were
Pointed, edged with fairest frostwork ;
Frozen mist, on blocks and ledges—
Silvery plumage, icy feathers,
Pointed bristling to the tempest;
Hung with icicles of crystal
Glittering bright in rows and clusters
From each point and “ coign of vantage.”
Reached the lofty rock-strewn platform,
Where the snow lay thick around him,
Where the great Stonehenge-like ruins,
Ruins of no human structure,
■
'
�5
Lichen-marbled, sno w-besprinkJed,
Looming spectral through the cloud-rack
In their ever changing groupings,
Stood or leaned in solemn grandeur.
Porphyritic trap their structure ;
Trap indeed the writer found it
Once, too far the crags descending
Northward from the lofty summit
Recking not of cliffs beneath him ;—Novice then at mountaineering,
Yet compelled by his position
Down that wall of rock to scramble
To Cwm Bochlwyd’s deep recesses,—
Down, by clefts and narrowing ledges
Through the haunts of kite and raven.
Reached the pointed sharp-edged cap stone,
Bright with snow and silvery frostwork,
Thickly fringed with icy pendants,
Gleaming through the mist like daggers.
Crossed the rugged pile of “ ruins,”
Summit of the lofty mountain ;
Reached the rocky steep o’erlooking
Tryfan’s cone of blocks and pillars,—
Deep Cwm Bochlwyd’s wild recesses,
All concealed in clouds beneath him :
Whence the ravens’ dismal croaking
Echoed from the crags of Tryfan
O’er the hidden deep abysses
Reached his ear, in sudden chorus
Piercing through the eddying vapour,
IMwf loud in expectation,
Scenting, may be, feast most welcome,
Should the wanderer’s ice-numbed fingers'
Losing hold on crags or boulders,
Send him headlong down among them.
Corresponding members doubtless,
Of that “ Red-tarn Club,” so famous
Once, as holding nightly revel
In the wilds of far Helvellyn,
(Till disturbed by “Mister Wudswuth”)
O’er the bruised and mangled body
Of the luckless Obadiah !
(See Chris. North his “ Recreations.”)
�6
'fc
'fc
5|c
How, his purpose now accomplished,*
O’er the mountain crest returning,
Feet and fingers numbed and senseless
Struggling with the furious easter
And its six degrees of freezing,
Underneath his chin he carried
(Load unwonted for the season,
On this thirteenth day of fifth month)
Frozen mist, an icy burden
Hanging to his draggled whiskers,
Till each patriarchal “ Billy ”
In the depths of lone Cwm Bochlwyd,
In that rugged grey-goat valley,
Might have owned him as a brother ;
But, alas, the goats have vanished !
Passed again the “ Tempest’s Castle,”
Where on high, in snowy mantle,
Fringed and edged with frosted lace work
Stood the “ Sentinel ” gigantic,
Lonely ward and vigil keeping
Through the heats and frosts of ages
By the rugged block-strewn glacis
O’er the lofty Col du Gribin.
Floundered down the narrow couloir,
Waging cool war with the snow drift
By the eastern flank of Gribin,
Whose arête of stony columns,
Though by Ordnance-map constructors
Hardly indicated, rises
Rough with crest of spiny fretwork
(If the fog would let one see it ! )
Gained the scree, so loose and shelving,
Down the rugged steep descending.
Reached Llyn Boehlwyd’s sparkling fountain,
Dripping well of clearest water
Where the crystal streamlets trickle
From the high-ranged porph’ry columns,
From the cliff so grim and barren
Northwest face of Lesser Glyder
Down the screen of richest verdure ;
Golden rod and scented rose root,
Mountain rue, and kidney sorrel,
* Fixing a minimum thermometer among the rocks.
�7
Ladies’ mantle, starry cresses,
&®Men saxifrage, and mosses,
Glancing bright in silvery ripples.
Welcome sight when heats of summer
Parch with thirst the mountain climber ;
Beauteous now witli fairest frost-work
AM enframed in purest snow-wreath ;
Forty-two degrees its waters
Now, as in the heats of August.
Lost at length the whitened snow-field,
Left behind the realm of Winter,
Lost awhile the piercing east wind
In the lee of rugged Tryfan ;
Left above, the drifting vapour ;—
Saw the snow-crowned Carnedd Dafydd
Clear awhile from gloom and tempest;
Saw Llyn Ogwen’s rippling waters
Fifteen hundred feet beneath him ;
Saw the lengthening vale of Francon
Bask awhile in pleasant sunshine ;
Hastened down to ice-ground Bocblwyd
(See Professor Ramsay’s “ Glaciers : ”—
No connexion here writh Murray;
Safe in print the writer had it
In the “ Brum. Gazette ” of August—
Of the twenty-fifth of eighth month—
Eighteen hundred four and sixtyJ
Reached Llyn Bochlwyd’s sheet of silver ;
Stood beside its lonely margin
Sometimes reached by roving angler,
Scarcely known to guide-book maker,
Scene but rarely seen by artist;
Stood awhile, the view surveying.
Wild and gloomy frowned the valley,'
Dark beneath its roof of vapour
Stretched across from peaks to ridges,
From sharp Tryfan’s headless shoulders
To decapitated G ribin ;
While the crags of Lesser Glyder,
Seamed with lines of white, descending
Glacier-like from cloud-hid snow fields,
Closed the darksome rugged picture.
Glorious are these lofty mountains
�8
Scarred with precipice and cavern
In the full revealing sunshine
Of the pleasant days of summer ;
(All untrod by highway tourist
Only bent to “do” the country)
Yet most glorious, when the sunset
Breaking through departing tempest
Floods with sudden, radiant splendour
( Golden lights and ebon shadows )
“ Castle ” pinnacle and “ turret ”
On the lofty crested ridges ;
While the lazy snake-like cloud-wreaths,
Rank by rank in long procession,
Stained throughout with evening’s purple
Crawl athwart their lofty shoulders,
O’er the dim retiring valleys
Grey with cliff-entangled mist beds.
“ Scene of sternest desolation ; ”
Yet, amid its barren grandeur,
Gems of loveliest tint or verd ure
“ Waste on desert air their sweetness.”-—(Reader, please forgive this rendering
Of a somewhat well-worn passage.)
Oft they smile in welcome beauty
On the mountain rambler’s footsteps :—
Parsley fern in ell-broad masses,
Dots the screes with tufted clusters ;
Mountain thrift, the sea-green rose-root,
Gnarly rooted, golden blossomed,
Star, and mossy saxifrages,
Bladder fern in brittle lace-work,
Alchemilla, mountain shield fern,
Oak and beech ferns, stemless catchfly,
Golden rod, the pale green-spleenwort,
Fringe with green the rocks and ledges,
Line the mossy caves and crannies ;
While the bristling, bright fir club moss,
Sturdy little mountain climber,
Though it not disdains the valleys,
Dots with life the loftiest ridges ;
Or its grey-green Alpine cousin
Struggles through the close cropp’d herbage ;
Or vivip’rous Alpine grasses
Wave in air their tufted offspring
�9
Held aloft on wiry foot-stalk ;
Or, in damp and sheltered corners,
Golden saxifrage encases
Rocks and stones with richest carpet:—
“ Common ” plant, but yet how lovely
Glimmering blue-green in the darkness
Deep within some dripping cavern,
Roofed with darker olive fringes
Of the filmy fern of Wilson ;
Chiefly found in wild luxuriance,
In the darksome damp recesses
Of the huge and loose-heaped fragments,
Relics of moraines, dissected
By the hidden, tinkling streamlets ;
Or in more illumined aspect,
Spangled with the snowy blossoms,
Gold besprinkled, emerald tufted,
Of saxífraga stellaris.
(Ending now this long digression,)
On again the rambler started,—
Scrambled down to well known Idwal,
(See Smith’s, Brown’s, or Jones’s guide-books;)
Many a hundred feet descending
To Llyn Idwal’s southern angle ;
Thence by the moraine so rugged
Up the centre of the valley
Tow’rds the distant “ Devil’s Kitchen,”
Gaping high in air before him ;
Onward, upward, climbing, scrambling,
Round or o’er the ice borne fragments.
*
*
*
*
Hark, what sudden, sharp crack-crackling,
Like the sound of rifle volley
Or the snap of closest thunder,
Swelling now to noise “uproarious,”
Echoes round the rock-walled valley ?
Is His Sable Highness cooking
In the gloomy cleft up yonder ?
Has his kitchen Inter busted ?
Whence can come such startling clamour ?
See, from out yon crown of vapour
Resting on the lofty mountain,
�10
Lines of dust, with seeming slowness,
( Strange effect of height and distance,)
Creeping down that steep escarpment,
Glyder-fawr’s north-western angle ;
Gleaming now with sudden radiance
In the level sheet of sunshine
Streaming ’neath the drifting cloud roof,
From Elidyr’s lofty shoulder
O’er the twilight darkening valley ;
See, from out the lowering columns
Right and left, the glancing fragments
Leaping, crashing o’ei’ the ledges,
Hurling down the loosened boulders,
Now with headlong speed descending,
Score the cliff with lines of ruin :
Nearer, sharper, grows the tumult,
Louder, grander, roar the echoes,
Till the rushing, stony torrent
Clattering down by screes and gullies,
Spent and worn, has found its level
All its noisy life departed.
On again the rambler struggled,
Reached at last Twll-du’s dark fissure,
Tempting spot to plant collector-;
(See the trusty “ Guides ” aforesaid.)
Yet one little floral beauty
Well deserves a passing notice ;—
Purple saxifrage ; its blossoms,
Soon as winter’s snows have left it
Rosy-tinting rocks aud boulders
On the old volcanic ash beds;
Loveliest little Alpine creeper,
With its slender thyme-like branches
Threading all the rocks with crimson.
Looked into the “ Devil’s Kitchen,”
Too much water, now, to enter,
Though the writer oft has clambered
Up the fallen blocks and ledges
Ad sanctissimum sanctorum,
Underneath the fallen boulder ;
Whence, on looking back, the landscape,
Lake and mountain, bright in sunshine,
Seen along the darksome crevice,
�11
Framed between its gloomy portals,
Startles with its golden radiance ;
Like the light of moon or planets
Yellow in the midnight darkness.
—Climbed to Llyn-y-cwn’s morasses,
—Saw the dim grey sea horizon
Faintly gleaming o’er Carnarvon,—
O’er the tower of Penrhyn Castle
Down Nant Francon’s long perspective ;
Saw in faintest ghostly outline
Moel Eilio’s grassy summit
O’er the lakes of deep Llanberis ;
All things else in mist were shrouded.
Scrambled on by screes and ledges,
Near a thousand feet ascending
Up the slope of Esgair-felen
To the brow of the Great Glyder.
Reached again the drifting cloud roof,
Reached once more the reign of Winter,
Faced again the piercing easter
With its six degrees of freezing ;
Crunched again the frozen snow sheets,
Half a foot in depth, new-fallen ;
Hastened on again by compass
Through the all-encircling mist wreaths,
(Centre of a faint horizon
Scarce a hundred yards in compass),
Through the gathering shades of evening,
O’er the lofty rock strewn platform ;
O’er a mile of stony desert,
Sharp edged shingle, “ snow-denuded.”
Now, a howling wintry desert,
Tempest-ridden, fog enfolded ;
Yet, in brighter, clearer weather,
Scarce you’ll find a nobler station
Whence to view the lofty Snowdon :
Whence to see the mountain monarch,
Whence to watch the changing colours
On his peaks and winding ridges
In some clear north western sunset
Of the longer days of summer;
Whoa Crib-goch in fiery radiance
Glows along each stony saw crest,
�12
Down each scree, with streams of orange;
While Cwm-glas in deepening shadow
Veiled -with haze of grey and purple
Dimly shews its tiny lakelets
Dark with rock-reflecting shadows
O’er the gorge of deep Llanberis :
And Y Wyddfa, “ the conspicuous,”
Towering high, in gilded outline,
O’er Crib-ddysgyll’s darkening ridges,
Crowns the scene of mountain glory.
Lost in distance man’s “improvements,”
All unseen, those huts unsightly,
Yet most welcome to the climber,
Faint or thirsty with his scramble
Up some rugged mountain buttress :—
Up Cwm-dyli’s “ rush of waters,’*
By the knife-edged crest of Lliwedd,
Up the cliff from Bwlch-y-saethau :—
Up the screes, from Cwm-y-clogwyn,
Up from Cwm-y-llan’s recesses,
To the “ Saddleback’s ” dread (!) shoulder,
Scene of regulation terrors !—
O’er Crib-goch’s spiky ridges,
O’er its wearying screes unstable,
Each loose stone a “ friction-roller”
Set with knives of flinty sharpness,
Roughest peak in all Snowdonia ;
From Cwm-glas’ deep recesses
By the spiny crest of Ddysgyl.
(Routes most dangerous ! most improper ! !
For the guideless mountain rambler.)
Why deform a spot so glorious
As the crested cone of Snowdon
With excrescences so hideous ?
Wooden shanties, roofs of patchwork,
Rusty funnels, empty bottles ;
Why not build in style substantial
Honest stonework, plain yet sightly,
In some neighbouring sheltered hollow ?
Leaving free the narrow summit
For the crowds who come to study
(When the drifting mists allow them)
Scenes of oft recorded beauty.
�13
While (to Glyder fawr returning)
Snowdon’s lengthening three-forked shadow
Leaps Llyn Gwynant’s silvery mirror,
Stalks across the wood crowned valley,
Climbs the slopes of Cerig Cochion.
And the Glyders’ gloomy profiles
Slowly creep up sunlit Siabod.
Stain his golden-glowing shoulders
With their deep embrasured outline.
While the Lesser Glyder’s ridges
Cut the sky with crested ruins.
Wondrous mountain architecture
Shining bright in level sunlight.
Or, perchance, in broken -weather,
-Scenes below, in fitful fragments,
Lake and streamlet, rock and woodland,
Here and there by turns emerging
Lom the snowy, rolling vapour
Shine revealed in sudden clearness :
While the sea-horizon, gleaming
Far and wide in radiant silver
Floods the distant scene with beauty,
Mottled o’er with flying shadows,
Saowy cloudlets, floating islands,
Gliding o’er its shining level.
While, around, the parting mist-wreaths, Lingering yet, in playful wanderings
Race along the rocky desert,
Round its pinnacles and turrets.
Or some sudden pelting shower
Sweeping o’er the lofty ridges
Gilds the scene with new-born lustre
Flashing in the fitful sunshine ;—
Floats away o’er sharp-coned Tryfan—
Wreaths his head with sudden glories,
Radiant circles, full orbed rainbows,
Ro mere lowland “ arch triumphant,”
Each concentric ring, completed
In the yawning depths of Bochlwyd,
Standing forth in fairest colours
From the dark, retreating nimbus.
While old Snowdon’s western shoulder
Ploughing up the sea borne currents
�14
Into higher, colder regions
Forms a train of sweeping cloudlets
Visibly increasing, growing
Out of evening’s purest ether ;
Till the long cascade of vapour
Streaming o’er his pointed summit,
Gliding down Cwm-dyli’s hollow,
Floats across the vale of Gwynant ;
Vainly struggles, hither, thither,
Stands in heaps o’er Pen-y-gwryd,
Tangled in the threefold eddy
Streaming up, from deep Nant Peris,
Round from Gwynant’s curving valley,
O’er the slopes of Gallt-y-wenallt.
Sight of snowy sunlit beauty
To the rambler far above it ;—
Source of discontented grumbling
To the helpless “walking tourist”
Buried ’neath its surging billows,
Coffee room imprisoned, fearful
Of the mountain mist or tempest ;
Weatlier-bound, the silly fellow,
Ignorant of scenes so glorious
On the lofty crests above him.
Thus in plaintive doleful numbers
Pouring forth his lamentation.
�15
LAY OF THE IMPRISONED TOURIST,
AS HE LAY “ USED UP” ON THE SOFA,
Stranger, who by love for mountains
E’er shouldst chance to be allured
To this den of dreary horrors,
Soon your weakness will be cured:
All the skies in cloud extinguished,
All the earth by mist obscured,
Imps cerulean, dismal vapours,
Reign supreme at Pen-y-gwryd !
Here the heavens are ever pouring
Drenching streams from fog-bank lurid :
Tears of sympathy incessant
Angels high in ether pure hid
Weep for us, poor luckless captives,
In this wretched place immured.
Traveller, that’s the reason why it
Always rains at Pen-y-gwryd !
Walker! Mr. Walking-tourist,
Fudge and nonsense, cease your growling ;
Off with those eternal slippers ;
Out, and scramble up the mountains ;
Burn that fossil, last week’s paper,
Last resource of mind most wretched,
Come, and soon will soul and body
Rise superior to the vapours.
Come, and see what glorious pictures
Nature shews, in ceaseless beauty,
To the thoughtful, loving student
Of her ever-changing features,—
Not forgetting Nature’s Author,
’Mid such tokens of His power,
(With all reverence be it spoken),
In whose hands are earth’s deep places,—
Whose, the strength of hills and mountains,—-
�16
Whose the sea is, for He made it,—
Who the outspread land created :—
Whose, are Earth and all her fulness,
Hail and lightning, snow and vapour,
Wind and storm, His word fulfilling,—
Ministers that do His pleasure.
*
*
*
*
4:
Yet what strange ironic contrast
To all sunny recollections
Was the scene, this wintry evening,
On the crest of lofty Glyder !
Howling tempest, whirling vapour,
Piercing frost, and crunching snow-wreath.
Reached at length his eastern shoulder,
Hastened down once more from cloudland ;
Saw the face of Llyn-cwm-ffynnon
Shine like silver far beneath him—
Welcome landmark through the twilight.
Passed the darkened cliff of greenstone,
Reached the doubly ice-grooved platform,
Witness strange, of two-fold glaciers;
Hastened down by roches moutonnees,
’Mid blocs perches by the hundred ;
Passed the spring-fed Llyn-cwm-ffynnon,
Where of late the char have flourished;
Hurried on, well nigh belated,
Scrambled down, in almost darkness,
Gained the road at lone Gorphwysfa,
Pen-y-pass, of late its title ;
Pen-y-“ pass ! ” a mongrel nickname
Cymru should be all ashamed of.
Nothing loth, reached Pen-y-gwryd,
Ever welcome Pen-y-gwryd!
Thus did end an eight hours’ ramble
All alone, across the mountains ;
(No one else wrould face the weather)—
High-away-there ! o’er the Glyders.
WHITE AND PIKE, PRINTERS, BIRMINGHAM.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
A wintry walk among the mountains
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Biden, H.E. [1832-1907]
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London
Collation: 16 p. ; 21 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. "With sincerest apologies to the shade of Hiawatha" [Title page]. "The following lines contain an accurate account of what befell the writer during a ramble on May 18th,1867, over the summit of Glyder-fach and down by Lyn Bochlwyd to LlynIdwal ..." [Author's note].
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
F.B. Kitto
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5312
Subject
The topic of the resource
Poetry
Nature
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (A wintry walk among the mountains), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Conway Tracts
English Poetry
Poetry in English
Sacerdotalism
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/53bfa41313db56eccb63212164c15c29.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=L%7E9fNQwu1mtCXWHNx0Y1CbQG3Z1eqNP1GhpYHqrzRKvASuCwctkBjUYogihG-MoUaDs%7EXxqw3jV%7E5r9KkBliG9nKePBqPcnq2RZX0hsAZJtpZrFEwx5C2V2q3hcFNEgrVGCfrk%7E7bElIkHsZ3ZQR6-hY-SXd%7EDuKXW-l8KWMpkFqSKONFqsFdzisKdMeug6i7OHz0rWqonduDUF0o2S7w39HU0vKg9Azmw-%7EupOUtaAi%7EyZ%7EhKL1XSq%7EsTu5n7VImwCfEngqYA%7EuBwsrTC-HVVoA4K2WYqLSINjrPcW0A9shGBuxm2X4Bm1SotqNE0CRHy6tb2gEPeNEvYnCdAiG4Q__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
69c80e3607ec801e86ef41f04ce465fb
PDF Text
Text
�J
'ML
A
�In establishing a college on the ordinary basis, and with the
ordinary scope, there are few difficulties which earnest men and
moderate means will not readily surmount. The course required
is simple and single; the equipment is compact; instructors are
readily found for every department; precedents at every point are
abundant.
But the work committed to the Trustees of the Cornell Univer-.
sity is far larger, far more complicated. In most cases it has few
available precedents, in many it has none. The committee upon
organization, therefore, cannot hope to present a plan which shall
cover every point likely to arise in carrying on the institution
now to be commenced; but they hope to present a plan which
shall aid in setting the University in operation, and to suggest
ideas which will aid it in developing healthfully and largely.
Theory
of the
Plan
of
Organization.
The theory on which the committee have based their plan is
that throughout the national and State legislation preparatory to
the establishment of the institution, and also throughout the ideas
of the founder of the Cornell University, as explained to us by
himself, are two leading convictions as to the educational needs
of the country, and two corresponding ideas as to meeting these
needs.
Each of these convictions, and its corresponding idea, is sepa
rate and distinct, yet each is necessary to the other.
The first of these convictions is that there exists a necessity
never yet fully met, for thorough education in various special
departments, and, among them, the science and practice of Agri
culture, Industrial Mechanics, and kindred departments of thought
and action. The corresponding practical idea is that institutions
be founded where such instruction can be conducted with every
appliance necessary in discovering truth and in diffusing truth;
that such instruction be not subordinated to any other; that the
agricultural and industrial professions be regarded as the peers ’of
�every other; that access to these departments be opened as widely
as possible, and progress in them be pushed as far as possible.
The second of these convictions is that the system of collegiate
instruction now dominant leaves unsatisfied the wants of a very
large number, and perhaps the majority of those who desire an
advanced general education; that although there are great num
bers of noble men doing noble work in the existing system, it has
devoted its strength and machinery mainly to a single combination
of studies, into which comparatively few enter heartily; that where
more latitude in study has been provided for, all courses outside
the single traditional course have been considered to imply a
lower caste in those taking them; that the higher general educa
tion has therefore lost its hold upon the majority of the trusted
leaders of society, that it has therefore become under-estimated
and distrusted by a majority of the people at large, and that there
fore it is neglected by a majority of our young men of energy
and ability.
The corresponding practical idea is that colleges of wider scope
be founded; that no single course be insisted upon for all alike;
that various combinations of studies be provided to meet various
minds and different plans; thus presenting a general course to
meet that general want which existing colleges fail to satisfy.
Fundamental Plan of Instruction.
The labor imposed upon us then is two-fold.
First, we are to make provision for special courses—special
instruction in the departments of agriculture, mechanic arts, &c.
Secondly, we are to provide a general course—a general course
in which such instruction and culture be afforded as shall be de
manded by the young men who come to group themselves in the
different special courses.
Even if it should be claimed that the whole effort of the trus
tees ought to be devoted to agriculture and the mechanic arts
alone; even if we were to construe away the plain words of the
original act of Congress, which speaks of “other scientific and
classical branches ” as part of the object of the government grant
of lands, still the oft-repeated declaration of our founder that he
“ wishes to make such provision that every person can find oppor
tunity here to pursue any study he desires,” would be our suffi
cient warrant in using at least his munificent gift in supplementing
�5
the special instruction with general instruction, and rounding it
out into the proportions of an university.
•
Again, even were we to found merely technical schools, giving
instruction merely in special departments, the committee believe
that we should be very soon obliged to supplement these special
courses with a general course. Common sense, as well as general
experience teaches that there must be some variation in mental
labor. With rare exceptions, any man who pursues one science
or art alone, devoting his mind entirely to that, though he may at
first progress rapidly, soon shows that such progress is not normal.
It is very firmly believed that the great majority of men who
wish to attain a high place in any science or art, can rise higher,
even in that, by enlarging the mind by some parallel studies,
than by narrowing the mind constantly to their single pursuit.
Such contracted study gives facility and accuracy, but it is too
often fatal to the qualities which ensure eminence.
Your committee are therefore of the opinion that there should
be two great divisions of the university.
The first division should comprise the separate departments
devoted each to a special science and art. The second division
should comprise the department of Science, Literature and the
Arts in general.
In accordance with this division is presented the following plan:
Organization of Instruction.
I. Division of Special Sciences and Arts.
1. Department of Agriculture.
2. Department of Mechanic Arts.
3. Department of Civil Engineering.
4. Department of Commerce and Trade.
5. Department of Mining.
6. Department of Medicine and Surgery.
7. Department of Law.
8. Department of Jurisprudence, Political Science and History,
9. Department of Education.
II. Division of Science, Literature and the Arts in General.
1. 1st General Course.
2. 2d General Course.
3. 3d General Course.
4. Scientific Course.
5. Optional Course.
�6
The character of each of the departments named in the first
division is in the main, sufficiently explained by its title. Details
of courses of instruction in each cannot well be arranged until, the
trustees shall have consulted with the faculty, and it is recom
mended that at periods previous to the commencement of active
instruction, the Academic Senate be requested to convene for the
purpose of discussing.this subject and presenting plans.
But there is one department, regarding which, perhaps, some
explanation is needed here : the department of Jurisprudence—
Political and Social Science, and History.
We believe that although there will be some attention to these
subjects in the general course, there is need of a separate depart
ment devoted to a study of them, wider and deeper. We
believe too, that such a department should be established so soon
as we approximate a full corps of professors.
In various connections with institutions of learning, and in
various public employments, the committee have been convinced:
First—That great numbers of the most active young men long
for such a department, would work vigorously in it, and would
secure good discipline by it, and that these young men are many
of them not attracted to the existing colleges.
o
o
Secondly.—We believe that the State and nation are constantly
injured by their chosen servants, who lack the simplest rudiments
of knowledge which such a department could supply. No one
can stand in any legislative position and not be struck with the
frequent want in men otherwise strong and keen, of the simplest
knowledge of principles essential to public welfare. Of technical
knowledge of law, and of practical acquaintance with business,
the supply is always plentiful, but it is very common that in
leciding great public questions, exploded errors in political and
social science are revamped, fundamental principles of law disre
garded, and the plainest teachings of history ignored.
In any republic, and especially in this, the most frequent ambi
tion among young men will be to rise to positions in the public
service, and the committee think it well at least to attempt to
provide a department in view of the wants of these; a depart
ment where there should be something more than a mere glance
over one or two superseded text books,—where there should be
large and hearty study and comparison of the views and methods
of Guizot, and Mill, and Lieber, and Woolsey, and Bastiat, and
Carey, and Mayne, and others.
�There are among you, gentlemen of the board of trustees,
representatives of every walk in life, of every important profes
sion, of every party. There are among you, representatives of
the highest state and national employments, and we appeal to you
for corroboration of the statement, that whatever may be the
opinion of cloistered men, the opinion of men active in the world
at large, is decided, that there is a great branch of instruction
here, for which the existing colleges make no adequate provision.
It may be said that the function of colleges is to give discipline,
that knowledge is subordinate. We answer that they should give
both, and that as a rule, the attempt to give mental discipline by
studies which the mind does not desire, is as unwise as to attempt
to give physical nourishment by food which the body does not desire.
Discipline comes not by studies which are “droned over.”
Again, we believe that the knowledge given, is far more
important than many would have us think. The main stock in
political economy and history of most of our educated public men,
is what they learned before they studied for their professions.
Many an absurdity uncorrected at college has been wrought into
the constitutions and statutes of our great commonwealths, and
when we consider that constitution making for new states and old,
is to be the great work in this country, of this and succeeding
generations, surely, we do well to attempt more thorough instruc
tion of those on whom the work is likely to fall.
. One other department, needs, perhaps a few words of explan
ation—that of Commerce and Trade. Throughout the country
have sprung up schools known as “commercial colleges.” The
number of persons attending them is such as to show that they
meet a want widely felt, and the idea has suggested itself that at
some future day it might be well to try the experiment of a
department under the above name, in which a more thorough and
large instruction could be given, than in those at present so
numerous. Anything which will bring some university culture
to bear upon those preparing to lead in commerce and trade, will
be a benefit to the country. How far it can be done your com
mittee will not venture to say. At least one great European uni
versity has kept up a course of this sort for many years.
In the second division, it is necessary to give a more detailed
explanation of courses, and ideas upon which the courses are
based.
�8
The 11 First General Course ” comprises a combination of studies
mainly like the classical course at the existing colleges.
The “ Second General Course,” comprises a combination of
studies like the first, with the substitution of the German lano-uao’o
for the Greek. Giving, as such a course would, the two great
elements of our language, the Romanic and the Teutonic, it is
believed that it would be received with great favor by many of
the best minds dissatisfied with the existing college courses.
The “Third General Course,” comprises the same studies as the
previous courses, except that the two languages studied are French
and German.
The “ Scientific Course'' is combined in view of the wants of
those who intend devoting themselves wholly or mainly to the
natural sciences.
The “ Optional Course" is one in which the student is required
to choose three subjects of study from all those pursued in the
University, and to pass examination therein. This it is believed,
will add greatly to the efficiency of the institution. It is a course
permitted in some of the great universities of continental Europe,
and with excellent results. It has been tried thoroughly at the
State University of Michigan, and to nothing in its organization
is that institution more indebted for its acknowledged efficiency.
It is not recommended that all these departments be established
at once. The Cornell University must have a development—a
growth, though it is believed that its growth may be very rapid.
But your committee do not hesitate to declare their belief that
neither of these departments will attain full efficiency until all are
established. They believe that each additional department and
additional course will strengthen every other, by attracting more
and more earnest minds among teachers and taught; by stimula
ting emulation among professors and students: by throwing light
upon each science and art from every other; by presenting every
element of the best culture.
The committee, however, recommend the immediate establish
ment only of so much of the first division as is embraced in the
departments of Agriculture, the Mechanic Arts, Civil Engineer
ing and Mining.
o
o
They recommend the immediate establishment of so many
courses in the second division as shall be found necessary to meet
the wants of the students presenting themselves at the beginning
of the first term.
�9
In the second division it seems advisable to present some ideas
which have influenced them in determining the courses into which
the division is separated.
University Liberty
in
Choice
of
Studies.
The first question which arises in arranging general plans of
instruction is as to the amount of liberty to be allowed the student
in selecting his course.
On one hand are they who declare that students at the usual age
of entering college are unfit to select a course, and that it must be
chosen for them. Of those taking this view are some men held
in deserved honor throughout the country.
Ou the other hand are they who declare that the usual imposi
tion of a single, fixed course is fatal to any true university spirit in
this country; that it cramps colleges and men; that it has much
to do with that strange anomaly under the existing system—
scholars stepping out of the highest scholastic positions in college
classes into nonentity in active life; that it has been the main agent
in bringing about that relaxation of the hold which colleges once
had upon the nation, which all thoughtful men deplore.
The committee see much truth in the latter view. They think
that the first view contains a fallacy in the virtual assumption that
because a young student is not aperfect judge regarding his com
plete wants, therefore he is no judge at all, and shall have others
to choose for him; and but one course opened to their choice.
We hold, indeed, that most students need advice as to details
of study, and that probably none could construct the best possible
course of study; but we also hold that an overwhelming majority
of students are competent to choose between different courses of
study, carefully balanced and arranged by men who have brought
thought and experience to the work. By the aid of older friends,
and the faculty of the university, a young man ought to be able to
make a choice based upon his previous education and means of
future education—-upon his tastes, position and ambition. Cer
tainly the results could not be more wretched under such a sys
tem than under the existing system, even by the confession of its
most earnest advocates.
The committee have carried out these views by naming different
courses, so that while the student may have the benefit of the ex
perience of men older than himself, he may have some liberty of
choice; and they have added one course, giving to more mature
students complete freedom of choice.
�10
.
Leading Disciplinary Studies
in a
General Course.
The next question which arises regarding a general course, is as
to the classes of studies to be relied upon for mental discipline,
fundamental knowledge and general culture.
A large party unhesitatingly declare for the Greek and Latin
classics. They believe that nothing else gives so valuable a disci
pline or so perfect a culture.
The committee declare here their belief in the great value of
classical studies. They do not hesitate to advise those who have
time and taste for them to study them—the Greek for its wonder
ful perfection—the Latin for its great practical value as a key to
modern languages and to the nomenclature of modern sciences—
and both Greek and Latin for their value in the cultivation of
judgment. But while it is believed that these studies ought to
hold an honored place, the committee are strongly opposed to the
attempt to fetter all students to them, if for no other reason be
cause this would be to defeat the plain intentions of those who
framed the act of Congress to which the establishment of the uni
versity is due.
In the courses provided, the modern languages most in use, and
the sciences which in theory and practice have in latter years
attained such great importance, must be recognized at their full
value in imparting instruction, and in securing mental discipline.
The committee cannot forbear noticing here a fallacy regarding
mental discipline which they will endeavor to avoid in presenting
courses of study.
That fallacy consists in the idea that the only mental discipline
is that which promotes a certain keenness and precision of mind.
We believe that there is another kind of mental discipline quite
as valuable—discipline for breadth of mind. For the former, such
studies as mathematics and philology are urged; for the latter,
such studies as history and literature. To say that the latter are
not disciplinary is to ignore, perhaps, the most important part of
mental discipline. In American life there will always be enough
keenness and sharpness of mind. But the danger is that there will
be neglect of those noble studies which enlarge the mental horizon
and increase mental powers in reaching out toward it—studies
which give material for thought and suggestions for thought upon
the great field of the history of civilization.
Happily no studies are more enjoyed by the best American stu
dents than those which give this mental breadth—historical and
�11
political studies. This being the case, there need be no fears as
to their value in mental discipline, for discipline comes by studies
which are loved, not by studies which are loathed. There is no
discipline to be obtained in droning over studies. Vigorous,
energetic study, prompted by enthusiasm or a high sense of the
value of the subject, is the only kind of study not positively hurt
ful to mental power. Hence the great evil of insisting on the
same curriculum for all students, regardless of their tastes or plans.
Combination and Separation of Professorships.
In making provision for these different departments it will be
seen that they interpenetrate each other, one professorship
frequently extending through two or three departments.
So frequently is this the case, that it will be seen to be impos
sible to provide professors fully for any one department without
at the same time, making almost sufficient provision for the others.
Of the professorships to be filled at an early day, we would
present the following schedule :—
1st.
2d.
3d.
4th.
5th.
6th.
7th.
8th.
9tb.
I. Department of Agriculture.
Professor of the Theory and Practice of Agriculture.
Professor of Agricultural Chemistry.
Professor of General and Analytical Chemistry.
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy.
Professor of Zoology and comparative anatomy.
Professor of Botany.
Professor of Civil Engineering.
Professor of Veterinary Surgery and Breeding of Animals.
Physiology, Hygiene, and Physical Culture.
1st.
2d.
3d.
4th.
5th.
6th.
II. Department of Mechanics.
Professor of Physics and Industrial Mechanics.
Professor of Civil Engineering.
Professor of Architecture.
Professor of General and Analytical Chemistry.
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy.
Professor of Mathematics.
III. Department of Civil Engineering.
1st. Professor of Civil Engineering.
2d. Professor of Architecture.
�12
3d. Professor of Physics and Industrial Mechanics.
4th. Professor of Geology and Mineralogy.
5th. Professor of Mathematics.
1st.
2d.
3d.
4th.
Professor
Professor
Professor
Professor
IV. Department of Mining.
of Mining and Metallurgy.
of Civil Engineering.
of Geology and Mineralogy.
of General and Analytical Chemistry.
V. Department of Science, Literature, and the Arts.
1st. Professor of Moral and Mental Philosophy.
2d. Professor of History.
3d. Professor of Political Economy.
4th. Professor of Municipal Law.
5th. Professor of Constitutional Law.
6th. Professor of Ancient Languages.
7th. Professor of French and South European Languages.
8th. Professor of German and North European Languages.
9th. Professor of English Language and Literature.
10th. Professor of Rhetoric, Oratory and Vocal Culture.
11th. Professor of Mathematics.
12 th. Professor of Astronomy.
13th. Professor of Physics and Industrial Mechanics.
14th. Professor of Geology and Mineralogy.
15th. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy.
16th. Professor of Botany.
17th. Professor of Physiology, Hygiene and Physical Culture.
18th. Professor of Chemistry, General and Analytical.
19th. Professor of ^Esthetics, and the History of the Fine Arts.
20th. Professor of Architecture.
21st. Professor of Military Tactics.
22d. Professor of Physical Geography and Meteorology.
The entire university, therefore, would comprise the following
professorships:—
1. Theory and Practice of Agriculture.
2. Agricultural Chemistry.
3. Veterinary Surgery and the Breeding of Animals.
4. General and Analytical Chemistry.
5. Botany.
�13
6. Zoology and Comparative Anatomy.
7. Geology and Mineralogy.
8. Physics and Industrial Mechanics.
9. Mathematics.
10. Astronomy.
11. Civil Engineering.
12. Physiology, Hygiene and Physical Culture.
13. Moral and Physical Culture.
14. History.
15. Political Economy.
16. Municipal Law.
17. Constitutional Law.
18. Rhetoric, Oratory and Vocal Culture.
19. English Language and Literature.
20. French, and South European Languages.
21. German, and North European Languages.
22. Ancient Languages.*
23. ./Esthetics, and History of the Fine Arts.
24. Architecture.
25. Military Tactics and Engineering.
26. Physical Geography and Meteorology.
It will be seen, therefore, that there are twenty-six professor
ships needed at an early day. But it is not thought that it will
be necessary to have so many separate professorships at once, nor
to place all upon the same basis. Some professors must, to be
efficient, reside permanently at the seat of the university, giving
daily recitations or lectures, and conducting daily experiments.
Some will be perfectly efficient by a temporary residence,
during which recitations are heard, or lectures given. Hence
occurs at once, another division of a kind very different from any
we have previously made—the division into resident and non
resident professors.
Having in view this division, the committee present the follow
ing schedule:—
1.
2.
3.
4.
Resident Professors.
Theory and Practice of Agriculture
Agricultural Chemistry.
General and Analytical Chemistry.
Botany.
■To be separated into two or more professorships when circumstances shall demand it.
�14
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy.
Geology and Mineralogy.
Physics and Industrial Mechanics.
Mathematics.
Astronomy.
Civil Engineering.
Moral and Mental Philosophy.
History.
Rhetoric, Oratory and Vocal Culture.
French, and South European Languages.
German, and North European Languages.
Ancient Languages.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Non-Resident Professors.
Veterinary Surgery and the Breeding of Animals.
Physiology, Hygiene and Physical Culture.
Political Economy.
Municipal Law.
Constitutional Law.
English Language and Literature.
^Esthetics and the History of the Fine Arts.
Architecture.
Military Tactics and Engineering.
Physical Geography and Meteorology.
Temporary Modifications of the Plan.
The question now arises, how much of this plan can be made
practical during the first year—how many of th3se professors
can we employ to advantage while the university is beginning its
operations?
Two plans suggest themselves. The first is to fill all these
chairs immediately, to make a beginning which shall give us a
reputation at once, to strike public attention on the first day of
the first term, by a large programme fully carried out.
The second plan is to hold during the first year, some professor
ships in abeyance, and of the remaining departments to combine
temporarily, several in one, thus commencing in a manner less
striking, feeling our way somewhat at first, finding gradually
what are the departments most needed.
The committee pronounce for the latter method. The policy
of the Cornell University has not been to make much proclamation
�15
of great purposes. Its founder has steadily gone on, always
performing more than his promises, and there are goodly signs
that the university authorities have caught his spirit. Two of
the noblest buildings for university purposes in the United States
have been reared; but there has been no pompous laying of corner
stones, no loud proclamations of new discoveries in the theory
and practice of education, no publication of programmes out of
all proportion to revenues, and it is to be hoped that we shall not
begin an ad captandum policy now. The only question worthy of
us is: What does the university practically need the first year?
It is believed that the duties may be so arranged that during the
first year eight or ten professors will be sufficient.
Possible Modifications of the Plan in Future.
Such is a general scheme offered as a point of departure in
arranging professorships. The committee know well that in
details it must often be departed from. The peculiar talents of a
valuable member of the faculty, have much to do with the final
shaping of the list of professorships. The demands made by stu
dents have also very much to do with it. A great demand upon
the professorship of Physiology, Hygiene and Physical Culture,
would make it necessary to change it from the non-resident to the
resident list, and so with others.
The number of students too, must have a very great influence
on this matter. As numbers increase, professorships must be sub
divided. Thus, until the numbers are large, the professor of
Physics can discharge the duties of professor of Industrial
Mechanics, but afterwards the latter department would probably
be detached.
As numbers increase, too, some departments will require
assistants. In some departments one system must be pursued and
the responsibility fixed on one man; it cannot therefore be divided.
But when numbers are greatly increased, it will probably be
necessary to appoint an assistant professor or instructor, who
should be subject as regards their plan of instruction, to the head
of the department. As any department developes also, it will be
necessary to subdivide it, and increase the number of professor
ships in it. Thus, for example, the department of Civil Engineer
ing, would be separated into three or four new departments, each
devoted to a special part of the work, and then must be added
instructors in geometrical and topographical drawing, &c.
�Non-resident Professors
for short
terms, or
University
Lecturers.
But there is a feature in the full organization which the
committee ask the trustees to consider especially. It is one which
several educators have in the recent years arrived at independ
ently of each other. It is one promising great results, but
demanding great care. This is the establishment of a system of
non-resident, short term professors, or university lecturers. The
plan is as follows : Have the full equipment of full term profes
sors above given, let the trustees elect each year a small number
of short-term professors or lecturers, from among the most distin
guished in their several departments, in this or other states;
let no general rule as to term of service, number of lecturers or
compensation be laid down, but let such special agreement be
made between each person thus called and the trustees, as shall
best secure the object desired.
Let the professors thus selected be either persons who are
accepted as authorities regarding matters upon which they
discourse, or persons whose talents, acquirements and reputations
are of the highest. Let them deliver, each, a certain number of
lectures, representing in a form and style as nearly suited to their
audiences as possible, what they themselves, consider the highest
results, or a summary of the main results of their labors. Let
their course of lectures be fully announced in the public prints to
the country at large. The advantage of such an addition to the
regular means of instruction, are believed to be very great.
First, great good would doubtless result to the Resident Faculty.
The great difficulty with bodies of professors remote from great
cities, and centres of thought and action is, that they lose connec
tion with the world at large, save through books; they become
provincial in spirit ; they lose that enthusiasm which contact
with other leading minds in the same pursuits would arouse;
they “ breed in and in;” their whole range of thought becomes
inevitably narrow. But, under this system now proposed, there
would be a constant influx of light and life from the great centres
of thought and action. The resident professors would be thrown
into close relations at once, with the special professors thus called.
Their views would be enlarged, their efforts stimulated, their
whole life quickened.
Secondly, great good would result to students in regular attend
ance. A great difficulty among students assembled in college is
�17
a regularity in routine, a dullness, a listlessness, a want of enthu
siasm. The general result of this, as regards study, is that it is
done mechanically; that most of the scholarly work is poor in
quality and small in quantity. The general result as regards conduct, is that too often, in a spirit of reaction against this listless
ness, the energies which would do great things if directed to study,
are directed to dissipation. It is believed by your committee that
if these special professors were men of the greatest ability and
eminence, an enthusiasm might be aroused among the students in
regard to various departments of knowledge, which would direct
their energies mainly into channels of study and thought.
The objection has indeed been made that these special courses
might cause confusion and dissipation in the minds of the students.
It is believed, however, that this will be the result with compara
tively few students, and even with these but temporarily. It is
believed that in the great majority of cases, the enthusiasm created
will far outweigh in good effects any evil effects arising from the
disturbance of the regular routine.
Thirdly, great good would result to large portions of the pub
lic in general, which under ordinary circumstances would not avail
itself of the ordinary privileges of the University. It is believed
that such special courses of lectures by distinguished men would
attract large numbers of citizens for brief terms, resulting in good
to them and to society at large, by an immediate extension of the
activity of the University among the matured minds and men
already in active life.
Fourthly, great good would result to the University itself. It
would enable the University to make a division of labor, selecting
members of the Resident Faculty, for their energy and working
ability, selecting men who have a name to make and ability to
make it, and not selecting men for the resident professors—for the
hard work of the University—who have attained eminence and so
outlived their willingness to do hard work.
Again, it would greatly strengthen the University as to reputa
tion. Let there be widely published each year, in leading jour
nals, in addition to a meritorious Resident Faculty, a number of
special professors or lecturers, whose ability in research, or in
presenting the results of research, is acknowledged, and the insti
tution would arrive in a very short time at a height of reputation
which other institutions have failed to achieve during long years
of ordinary administration.
2
�Again, the system thus proposed would strengthen the Univer* sity by attracting great numbers of students. The same simple
reasoning which we have used to show that this system would
give the University efficiency and power, also shows that it would
draw great numbers of students.
Nor would such a result be merely gratifying to pride. There
is an educating force of no mean value in the presence of a very
large body of students—a means of education through large
acquaintance, and through wide observation of character—a stimu
lus to effort through emulation, which in a small group can hardly
be attained.
Character
of
Scholarship in Professors.
The question next arises, what manner of men shall these pro
fessors be?
To maintain the efficiency and reputation of the University, its
faculty must constantly keep in view two great objects: first,-the
discovery of truth; secondly, the diffusion of truth.
By a certain class of men deservedly in high repute, there has
been fostered a spirit which tends not to the undue exaltation of
the discovery of new truth in science, for that cannot be unduly
exalted, but to the undue depreciation of the diffusion of scientific
truth.
Your committee believe that in the selection of a faculty, neither
of these two great functions of every professor should be exalted
at the expense of the other. It is not doubted that in the largest
minds devoted to science, the power of discovering truth and the
power of imparting it, are almost invariably found together. Men
should be sought for the faculty who can go on discovering truth
and imparting it. But it should not be forgotten that in an insti
tution of learning, facility and power in imparting truth are even
more necessary than in discovering it.
Where can these Professors be Found?
Many persons of high standing have answered this question
much as follows: “Your endowment is large: select the greatest
men in this country and other countries. Have perhaps fewer
professors, but range the country through and take from the lead
ing institutions their leading men, the men who give standing to
science, literature and art in America. Have the best.”
Other persons thoughtfully considering this problem have ans
�19
wered the question in a very different way: “ Your endowment is
indeed large, but it has to cover an immense field. The most effi
cient men for professorships are by no means necessarily those
most frequently paraded in newspapers. Often a hard working
man, who has never arrived at more than a local reputation, or a
young man who has not arrived at any reputation at all, is practi
cally better than men whose reputation is made, and who have out
lived the necessity of hard thought and work.”
There are important elements of truth in both these responses;
but your committee would answer this question as follows:
The division of the instructing body into the three great classes
of resident, non-resident and special professors or lecturers, already
recommended, suggests a solution of the problem.
To bring the University to the highest standard in science, lite
rature and the arts, at once,—to get such general advantages as
come from distinguished men and great names,—have a careful
eye to the selection of special lecturers; secure men for courses of
twelve or fifteen or twenty lectures, who, while they could not at
any sum be engaged permanently, can be secured for so short a
term by liberal compensation and the display of a promising field
of labor.
If it be said that such instruction will be fragmentary and super
ficial, we answer, that we believe such an assertion to be a great
mistake. The greatest course of lectures ever delivered before
an University,—the one which remodeled the science of history,
and which is felt to-day in every historical treatise of repute, con
sisted of but fifteen lectures. We refer to Guizot’s renowned
lectures on civilization ; and there are multitudes of similar exam
ples.
But for the steady hard work of the regular resident faculty, it
would be vain to seek such eminent men. It would cost immense
sums to take even a few of them out of the high places into which
they have climbed ; to tear them from the associations of a life
time ; to take them from the midst of their assistants, and to put
them again into a fresh field to begin their life-work anew.
To take Agassiz permanently from Cambridge, we must outbid
the Emperor of the French, who has already offered the most
tempting prizes in vain.
To take Dana permanently from Yale, or Dwight or Lieber from
Columbia, Guyot from Princeton, or Park from Andover, would
require our whole income ; and it is even then doubtful whether
�20
these men would do our work well as resident professors, building
up a new institution.
The opinion of the committee is, that the better course for filling
the resident body is to find out the names and characteristics of
of the most promising young men, who, under these distinguished
professors, have already commenced a career. Select those who
have a name to make, and who can make it. We can thus secure
enthusiasm, energy, ambition, willingness to work, and without
paying enormous salaries.
We do not, indeed, advise making up the faculty entirely of
such young men. It would be judicious to select from the most
successful instructors in the existing schools and colleges, men of
more experience to give the faculty steadiness ; but as a rule, the
committee believe that for a time, at least, the University must
rely upon young men for the hard work in building up this great
benefaction to the State and Naticn.
General Culture
of
Professors.
But while the first thing to be sought in professors is ability to
discover truth and to impart it, there is another requirement of
hardly less importance—general good culture and manliness.
If, to secure some great genius in any special department, we
have to bear with some lack of general culture, we ought perhaps
to sacrifice the lower qualifications for the higher ; but nothing
short of such extreme necessity should lead us to place men of a
low grade, as to general culture, among young men whose habits
of thinking and living are just receiving the form and impress
which they are to bear during life.
This University must not only make scholars : it has a higher
duty ; it must make men—men manly, earnest, and of good gen
eral culture. We must not make the mistake so common in older
colleges—in selecting to govern and guide bright, high-spirited
young men, tutors who do not and cannot know anything of the
world and of what the world is thinking,—instructors who lead
students to associate learning with boorishness or clownishness.
We must make no man an instructor simply because he is poor or
pious or a “squatter” on the college domain. We must have
men who are what we would have our sons be, and we must have
them at any cost.
And here the committee desire to say, that for instruction in
modern languages, as a rule, our best course is to secure Amcri-
�21
cans. The slight advantage in correct accent possessed by an
instructor from a foreign country is almost always too dearly pur
chased by sacrifice of the qualities which ensure success in lectures
or recitations. This suggestion is not made, of course, in any
narrow spirit of dislike for men of foreign birth, but under the
certainty that teaching American young men by foreigners has
almost universally proved a failure, both as to instruction and
discipline.
Methods
of bringing the General Culture of
BEAR UPON THE STUDENTS.
Professors
to
One of the saddest deficiencies in existing colleges is want of
free intercourse, and even of acquaintance, between professors and
students. In most of the larger colleges the great mass of stu
dents know really nothing of either President or Professors. They
are generally strangers, or worse than strangers. They have met
in lecture rooms or recitation rooms, but they have met as natural
enemies. Their only conversation outside the lecture room has
been when the student made excuses, or the professor gave re
proofs ’ and in these the student is normally a culprit, and the
professor a detective.
It seems all the more strange that such want of intercourse
should exist under a system which deifies classic culture, when the
Athenian ideal of that culture was obtained by frank, full, genial
conversation between teacher and taught.
It seems all the more sad, when every reflecting man knows
that hearty, manly sympathy in studies and pursuits established
between a young man and a man of thought, learning, character
and experience, is worth more than all educational programmes
and machinery.
In excuse for this it is asserted that the number of students in
college classes is generally so large that professors cannot know
them. It is believed by your committee, that this difficulty is
by no means insuperable. It has from time to time been over
come at various large colleges, and it is worth our trouble to try
some experiments at least in bringing students within range of
the general culture of professors, and keeping them within it.
- It is therefore recommended that the duty of acquaintance and
social intercourse with students be impressed upon the faculty,
and that additions be made to professors’ salaries expressly as an
indemnity or provision for such social privileges to students. The
�22
same principle which has led wise governments to make extra
allowances to ambassadors, for the express purpose of keeping up
genial social relations with the people among whom they are sent,
is the basis of the experiment now suggested. The experiment
can be tried, either by moderate additions to salary or deductions
from rents of University houses.
It is also suggested that some provision be made for weekly or
fortnightly reunions of faculty and students ; that at an early day
pleasant rooms be allotted for that purpose, and that some small
expenditure be made to render such gatherings attractive and pro
fitable. Even if some little time is taken from the ordinary rou
tine, the experiment is well worth trying.
Relations
of
Professors to Each Other.
The committee desire to impress here an idea which they con
ceive most essential to the success of the University ; simply this :
The University will tolerate no feuds in the faculty.
It may seem strange that this should be alluded to ; but in view
of the fact that more than one American college has been ruined
by such feuds, and that very many have been crippled ; in view
of the cognate fact that the odium theologicum seems now outdone
by hates between scientific cliques and dogmas ; that as a rule it
is now impossible to secure an impartial opinion from one scien
tific man regarding another; and that these gentlemen, in their
jealousies and bickerings, are evidently only awaiting some one
with a spark of the Moliere genius to cover them before the country
with ridicule and contempt, we do not think that the Board is
likely to give too much importance to this.
We advise that in the common law of the University it be a
fundamental principle, that harmony and hearty co-operation in
the work here are far more essential than any one or any half
dozen professors, and that in case feuds and quarrels arise, every
professor concerned be at once requested to resign, unless the dis
turbing person can be identified beyond a reasonable doubt ; that
if ever a general want of harmony be observed, and a rapid adjust
ment is impossible, the Gordian knot be cut, and that all con
cerned be replaced by others who can work together. Better to
have science taught less brilliantly, than to have it rendered con
temptible.
�23
How shall Professors be Found ?
Various methods of securing the best mon have been resorted
to, in the institutions already established.
One method is, to give notice quietly that a position is vacant;
to receive testimonials regarding candidates, consisting of their
own statements and the written recommendations of their friends :
and to select the person whose recommendations are the most
numerous or laudatory.
We believe such a method wretchedly delusive. A sad sort of
common law obtains in our country, by which a candidate for any
place has a right to demand that his townsman, neighbor or friend
shall put his name to any statement necessary to secure an elec
tion. No man of recent experience can doubt that an immense
array of petitions could be obtained for the rebuilding of the
Tower of Babel, and that an immense array of testimonials could
be obtained, attesting the fitness of the most knavish contractor
to build it.
Considering this facility with which recommendations are ob
tained, they ought never to be considered final, though they ought
always to be demanded.
It should also be laid down at the outset, as a fundamental law,
that no testimonials are to have any weight, no matter how great
the abilities of the giver, except as they are statements upon im
portant qualifications from persons who are unquestionable authothorities upon these particular qualifications. It ought to be fully
understood that the vague testimony of the foremost lawyer in
the State, as to attainments in organic chemistry or microscopic
anatomy, or other branches of science in which the legal gentle
man is not an expert, pass with this Board as so much blank paper.
Another method sometimes resorted to in Great Britain is, to
advertise for candidates—stating duties, salary, with testimonials
or tests. This has some advantages ; but after correspondence
regarding this plan, with some leading men who have thought and
wrought much for higher education, we do not recommend it.
The only safe method would seem that, by committee or other
wise, we make investigations for ourselves ; to obtain confidential
statements as to the abilities of candidates—statements sud sigillo
confessionis from those who desire our success and the promotion
of the most worthy, and who can give us real information and not
conventional praise.
It has happened that the papers of candidates have been thus
�24
far referred to this committee, and so far as possible, in the
absence of full powers, we have acted upon the plan here sug
gested. We recommend that some existing committee or some
new committee be authorized to receive the testimonials of candi
dates ] to make the investigations required, and to report to the
Board at a very early day.
The Administering Body.
Thus far the committee have occupied themselves with the
Instructing Body. They now turn to the question of the Admin
istering Body.
The immediate administering or governing body, subject to the
trustees, is naturally, as regards discipline, details of instruction,
&c., the Faculty. At the head of the Faculty should stand a Pre
sident, and in so large an institution there are reasons why it might
be well to name a Vice-President. These, while taking part in
the instruction, should take the lead'in the administration. The
experience of all institutions of learning puts it beyond a doubt
that such headship is necessary. The single attempt to dispense
with it, is one of the most wretched failures in the educational
history of this country.
The committee recommend that there be elected at an early
day a President of the University.
Method
of
Administration.
The question now arises, how shall the government or adminis
tration by the Faculty be conducted ?
Two methods have been in existence :
First. The discipline of students, and, indeed, the great mass
of ordinary business of the institution, is committed to the Presi
dent. The Faculty, in this plan, merely, as a rule, present reports
and give advice, leaving the initiation of measures and the final
decision and action upon them, to the head of the instructing body,
This is the method practiced in many colleges of New England,
and generally, it is believed, in those of New York.
According to the other method, the Faculty occupy altogether
a different position. They are not merely advisors, but legisla
tors. They cannot throw the responsibility upon the head of the
institution; they must take part in it themselves. This is the
system adopted in a few of the American colleges, and, among
them, in the State University of Michigan.
�25
Your committee are decidedly in favor of the latter method.
They believe that to the looseness of method incident to the
former system, are due many of the difficulties which disgrace
Faculties, and much of the bad discipline which ruins students.
Your committee recommend, therefore, that in each department
of the University, the Faculty belonging to that department form
a legislative body, with sittings at regular and short intervals,
presided over by the President, Vice-President, or a Dean elected
for that purpose ; that rules of order be observed ; that in cases
of discipline, or conferring degrees, every resident and non-resi
dent professor have a vote, and that such vote be by ballot.
The committee recommend that the combined Faculty of the
whole University also have stated meetings at regular intervals not
greater than once a month, presided over by the President, VicePresident, or a President pro tempore, for the purpose of conduct
ing the general administration of the institution and memorializing
the trustees ; discussing general questions of educational policy ;
presenting papers upon special subjects in literature, science and
the arts ;—that this body be known as the Academic Senate ; that
its proceedings be conducted according to rules of order; that
every person engaged in instruction, whether resident professors,
non-resident professors, lecturers or instructors, have permission
to speak, but that the right of voting be confined to the resident,
non-resident professors, and to assistant professors representing
complete departments in which no professor is appointed.
Official Term
of
Professors.
As regards the term of office of professors, the committee ask
your attention to the following considerations :
The usual, in fact the universal plan hitherto has been, to elect
professors to serve indefinitely. The power of removal in such
cases remains in the trustees ; but practically it has been found
difficult to exercise it, even where there has been great reason for
it. In his work on University Education, Dr. Wayland alludes
to the great difficulty under the existing system of removing
incompetent or superannuated professors. It has been a great
difficulty. Hardly a college which has not suffered from retaining
men not sufficiently capable, because it required positive action to
remove them, which action no one wished to initiate.
On the other hand, it is a matter of difficulty to engage good
men for short terms of service in a Faculty. The acquirements
�of a professor are not like those of a lawyer or physician, whichs
if not appreciated in one town, can be exercised in the next. His
fields of labor are comparatively few, and he naturally hesitates
greatly to commit himself to the chance of being cast out in a few
years. He will be very likely, under such circumstances, to prefer
a place of less honor and more permanence. To overcome this
feeling, salaries would have to be much larger than under the
usual system.
Again : It is not improbable that such reelections might lead to
cabals and intrigue, thus distracting the institution, defiling it,
and thwarting the purposes of this provision.
The advantages of engaging professors for short terms are appa
rent. Incompetent men would easily drop out at the end of six
years, if not before. Such a system, too, would probably inspire
every member of the Faculty to constant exertion. It is a ques
tion, however, whether his exertion would be mainly directed to
retaining his professorship by energy in instruction, or energy in
intrigue.
Your committee are not prepared to make any recommendation
regarding the term of service of the Faculty, leaving it entirely
to the future discussions of the Board.
Salaries of Professors.
Another question arises, of much immediate importance, regard
ing the salaries of the Faculty.
Professors’ salaries in the United States vary greatly. The sala
ries at Columbia College are generally about four to five thousand
dollars per annum; at Brown University, Providence, they are
fixed at about twenty-five hundred dollars ; at Yale College, at
about twenty-three hundred dollars ; at Union College, at about
eighteen hundred to two thousand dollars ; at Hamilton College,
at about twelve hundred dollars ; at Hobart College, at about one
thousand to fourteen hundred dollars; at the University of
Michigan, at about seventeen hundred dollars.
Your committee would be glad to see their way clearly to a
recommendation that each professor be paid according to an agree
ment with the trustees, having in view the value of services ; but
practically, they fear, this would be a matter of great difficulty.
The main value of one professor consists in his earnestness ; of
another, in his quickness ; of another, in his eloquence; of ano
ther, in his reputation. The value of one professor is determined
�27
by many hours, every day, of hard labor; the value of another,
by a single hour, every day, of brilliant labor. To balance the
claims of these is very difficult. To do it at all, without arousing
jealousies which would be likely to interfere with the easy work
ing of the institution, your committee fear would be impossible.
The committee, however, recommend for trial, that grades of
salary be established for resident professors and assistant profess
ors, which grades, however, shall make no difference in the stand
ing of such professors or assistant professors. The grade shall be
determined in each case at the election of the professor, and the
grade may be raised at any time by a vote of the trustees, regard
being had to the amount and value of services rendered, or to the
experience of the persons rendering them. Tn this view, they
present the following
Schedule of Salaries.
I. Resident Professors.
x
1st grade_________________________ _____ ___ $2,250
2d grade........ . ............. . ..................... ..... ................. 2,000
3d grade____ __________ _________ ______ ___
1,750
II. Resident Assistant Professors.
1st grade........ . ..................... ............. ......................... $1,750
2d grade___________________________ _______
1,500
3d grade............ ........... ......... ................... ............... .. 1,200
4th grade_____________ _____ ______ _________
1,000
The compensation of the non-resident professors, special pro
fessors and lecturers should be arranged by special agreement in
each case.
In addition to the officers already named for administrative pur
poses, will be required a Steward, who should occupy an office'
upon the grounds, keep close watch of the grounds and buildings,
superintend repairs, present certificates, receive dues, keep books,
etc., etc. His salary also should be matter of agreement.
Modification
in the
Official Term of Trustees.
In considering the arrangement of the governing body, the com
mittee cannot forbear to make a suggestion as to a modification of
the present charter. By that, the Board of Trustees are a selfperpetuating body; each trustee elected for life, and the whole
body form a close corporation. None can deny that while such
�28
an organization lias advantages as regards stability, it has disad
vantages as regards progress and activity. Your committee be
lieve that the history of great educational institutions, when fully
written, will show that this method of electing trustees is the
great cause why institutions of learning have so often been
dragged on behind the age, instead of being recognized as leaders
of the age. We are not prepared to present in all its details a
plan for the change desired ; but we recommend that as soon as it
shall be deemed expedient, some legislation be had by which the
term of office for trustees shall be six years; that the elected
trustees be classified by lot, and that a certain number of trustees
be elected each year. The committee would suggest that each
year, three new members be elected into the Board by the trus
tees, to take the places of three who annually leave it. They
recommend that this continue until such time as the graduates of
the University shall number one hundred ; that thereafter two
persons be elected annually into the Board by the Trustees, and
one be elected by the graduates. They also recommend that the
elections of the Board of Trustees be conducted in every case by
ballot, and that it require a two-thirds vote of the electing body
to re-elect a former trustee.
The advantages of this plan in general are evident. First, it
secures an influx of new life into the Board. Secondly, it does
this without any jar or disturbance of harmony. - Thirdly, it
recognizes the fact that the alumni of the institution never lose
their vital connection with it. Fourthly, it prompts every alumnus
to maintain a deep interest in the institution.
The committee recommend that by the same legislation, the
number of absences from meetings of the Board allowed by the
Revised Statutes, be diminished. It is surely not too much to ask
that men having the honor of a position in a Board of Trustees
like this, should discharge the duties, or that if they cannot dis
charge them, they give place to those who can. On a full attend
ance upon the meetings of the Board, depends in a great measuie
the success of this noble enterprise.
The Equipment
and
Illustrative Collections.
The next point to which the committee would call attention, is
the Equipment.
For the department of Agriculture there are two sorts of equip
ments. First, some farm buildings and tools are necessary at an
�29
/
early day to meet the demands of simple practical instruction.
Secondly, to give the department the character and efficiency it
deserves, there must be begun and carried on as rapidly as pos
sible, a Museum of Agriculture, embracing collections of imple
ments, productions, and matters generally relating to the depart
ment, in character similar to the State Agricultural collection at
Albany.
In the department of the Mechanic Arts, your committee believe
that the order of equipment needed is exactly the reverse; that
whereas in the Agricultural department an experimental farm is
first needed and the illustrative collection is secondary, in the
department of Mechanics the illustrative collection is first needed,
and the model workshop is secondary.
The reasons for this belief are as follows:
For the experiments in agriculture one farm is sufficient; the
main outlines of procedure in practical culture and experiments
are simple ; a small range of implements is sufficient for the whole
work.
To cover an equally extensive field in the mechanic arts would
necessitate a very great number of shops, with scores of processes
entirely dissimilar, with an immense range of machines and tools.
In agriculture one field will answer for nearly all the different
processes and experiments ; in mechanics, as a rule, one workshop
will only answer for each single branch to which it is devoted.
But, in addition to this great difference between the two depart
ments, in the ease of simple instruction in elementary practice,
your committee conceive there is a radical difference between the
necessities of the two departments. Scientific agriculture depends
largely on experiments. Whatever may be the results of strictly
scientific deductions, these results are not to be accepted until
experiment has proved them useful. Thus, agricultural chemistry
alone,, as a science coming out of the laboratory, is inadequate.
Its results must be submitted to practice on the farm. In actual
practice a great number of elements constantly arise to disturb
theoretical results.
In the department of Mechanic Arts, on the other hand, the
results of strict scientific investigation are seldom modified by
practice. Every calculation given by mathematical theory will be
found to work in practice.
In machines, theoretical calculations of power, modified by cal
culations of friction will, as a general rule, express practical
�30
results. There is, then, no such need of experimental workshops
in this department as of experimental farms in the other.
There are other reasons which might be adduced, but the com
mittee would pass them, and recommend at an early day that there
be commenced in this department a general collection, embracing
drawings, casts, sectional and working models, in general character
like the “Conservatory of Arts and Trades” at Paris.
They also recommend that the Board take into consideration the
establishment of a workshop, where young men may be employed
in making sundry implements and machines for the agricultural
department, and models for the collections illustrating various
other departments.
In the department of Engineering, collections are necessary of
drawings, engravings, models, casts, &c., in general scope like
that at Union College ; and among these the committee recom
mend at an early day, in the department of Mathematics, the
acquisition of a collection of the Olivier models, similar to those
at the Paris Conservatory, and at Union, Harvard and Columbia
Colleges, and at the Military Academy at West Point.
In the division of Science, Literature, and the Arts in general,
various collections are necessary. Of these, collections in Geology.
Mineralogy, Zoology, Comparative Anatomy and Botany, are those
most immediately needed. The University, by the munificence
of its founder, possesses already one of the finest collections extant
in Geology, only needing small additions in Lithology to make it
sufficient. It is here submitted that much might be done in build
ing up the collections, by employing active students in the work
of collecting specimens most accessible, and in conducting ex
changes. At the same time it will probably be advantageous to
keep watch of the collections which are from time to time offered
for sale in this country and in Europe, and thus secure, at comparativelv small cost, such collections as the Ward collection at
Rochester; the Lederer collection at Ann Arbor, and the Gibbs
collection at New Haven.
Philosophical Apparatus.
Another very important part of the equipment of any institution
of a high class is its collection of Philosophical Apparatus. It
is undoubtedly true that a skillful professor, with little apparatus,
is better than a bungler with much ; yet as it is our ambition to
have not only the best instructors, but also the best means of illus
�31
tration, it is our duty to look carefully to this portion of the
equipment, and to decide upon a policy regarding it.
The committee believe that the trustees should make every effort
to have the best; and that our policy should be two-fold : First,
the professors in the department of General Chemistry, Physics,
and kindred departments, should be furnished with the means of
illustrating the latest results of research and initiating new re
searches. Secondly, they should have the means of publicly illus
trating these brilliantly. We therefore hope to see, at an early
day, in the collections of the University, such comparatively rare
pieces of apparatus as that of Bianchi or Thilorier for the solidi
fication of carbonic acid ; the English apparatus for the direct
generation on a large scale of electricity from steam; the Boston
modification of Ruhmkorf’s coil for presenting on a large scale the
effects of electricity induced by the Galvanic current; the new
French apparatus for experimenting upon light; and in general
those aids to instruction and illustration proper to an institution
which we hope to place among the first of this country.
The earlier the philosophical apparatus is put on this footing,
the better; and while the committee do not urge an immediate
outlay sufficient to compass all that these departments should con
tain, they earnestly recommend at an early day a liberal expendi
ture toward a worthy beginning.
Collections Illustrative
of
Art.
The University can never attain to the proportions we hope for
it, without some collections illustrative of the great Arts of Architecture, Sculpture and Painting.
While galleries of statues and paintings by artists just now in
fashion, are too expensive to be thought of, art-collections of far
greater educational value can be formed at an outlay compara
tively trifling.
The collections of casts at the German University at Bonn, and
in the institutions at Boston, Ann Arbor and Toronto • the collec
tions of photographs and medallions illustrating architecture and
sculpture, and the collection of engravings illustrating the History
of Painting, now forming at the University of Michigan, furnish
examples of the equipment which ought ere long to be given to
this department.
�32
The Observatory.
In the ordinary working of an ordinary college, an observatory
can be dispensed with. But when an institution is to be made a
centre for men of the highest intellect,—when it is sought to in
crease knowledge,—when the aim is to bring every appliance to
bear in revealing the power of God and in developing the power
of man,—those in charge will naturally think of the establishment
of an observatory. So it has been almost without exception in
the great universities of the old world. So it has been at Har
vard College, at Yale, at the, University of Michigan, at the Uni
versity at Chicago, at the University of Alabama, at Hamilton Col
lege, and at Vassar College, in our own country.
It may be said that an observatory gives no part of what is
known as practical instruction. Even if it did not, the investi
gations which it aids are so noble, that the most severely practical
men have always held them in honor. But every man at all ac
quainted with higher education, will declare that the observatory
does promote practical education. From the observatories have
come some of the most practical benefactois of the race, and among
them, Newton, LaPlace, Lalande, Oersted, Arago, Mitchell. No
observatory was ever planned in a collegiate town, without stimu
lating greatly the study of the exact sciences, and thus promoting
progress and achievement in the departments where the exact
sciences bear practically upon the welfare of mankind.
We are sure that all the trustees join in our hope to see, at no
distant day, standing upon our grounds, an observatory which
shall be an honor to the State and Nation. No better gift could
be made by any of our wealthy citizens, and no nobler monument
could be reared by those who long to live in the memories of their
fellow men.
The cost of a suitable observatory varies. To erect a building
and place in it a telescope, meridian circle, astronomical clock, and
chronograph, wrould cost from forty thousand to eighty thousand
dollars, according to the size and perfection of the instruments.
The committee urge that this part of the equipment be not lost
sight of, though at present they do not recommend any applica
tion of funds for it.
�33
The Library.
The part of the equipment to which the committee would call
attention, finally, is the library. It is the culmination of all
touching all departments—meeting the needs of teachers and
taught. In it all Sciences and Arts meet; from it they draw a
vast part of their sustenance. We believe that, from the first, the
building up of a library suited to the wants of the institution, and
worthy of its aims, should be steadily kept in view. A large
library is absolutely necessary to the efficiency of the various de
partments. Without it, our men of the highest ability will be
frequently plodding in old circles and stumbling into old errors.
Say what we may of the necessity of original investigation, the
fact remains that science has never made great achievements save
when its votaries have had a plentiful supply of books wherein
to find necessary information and hints as to studies and investiga
tions. The history of the progress of modern science is the history
of development and accretion—development out of previous
thought and work—accretion upon previous thought and work.
The great progress in modern science is, to a very small degree,
the result of the original investigations of men removed from
access to the recorded labors of their predecessors.
This is the case with every science. To attempt either -of the
great functions of an university—the discovery of truth, or the
diffusion of truth, regarding the two main branches of our in
struction, Agriculture and Mechanics—without a liberal library,
would be to cripple these departments ; and to continue instruc
tion long in the departments generally without an ample library,
would be a farce, were it not so sad to see a body of professors,
ambitious to render services to science and to the institutions with
which they are connected, crippled by want of books.
What should be the character of the books ? It has been su<rgested that a library should be of the newest and best; that it
need only present the latest works as embodying the highest
results of thought. There is a germ of truth in this, which ought
to be borne in mind ; yet it should not be forgotten that there is
not a science or an art in which there are not some old investio-ations never superseded or surpassed.
There are multitudes of old works which must be within reach,
in order to an understanding of almost any science or art. The
general rule is, that a worthy library should possess the works of
every man who has made his mark in literature, science or the
3
�arts. This is true of different sciences and arts in different de
grees, but it is sufficiently true even of the most recent sciences
and arts, to show that no talk about old books and musty tomes
should for a moment delude us.
How should these books be obtained ?
Three methods suggest themselves : First, the different mem
bers of the Faculty might present lists of works in their several
departments, with indication of those most needed, and after a
collation of these lists by a committee, and a classification accord
ing to comparative necessity, purchases might be made from year
to year. This is an approved practical method, and is recom
mended.
But this does not cover the whole want of the institution. There
must be a reserved force of books. Very often a book necessary
to the success of an important investigation is not thought of until
the moment it is wanted. Very often a professor of great acquire
ments does not know where to find the record of an experiment;
and that hint at a method or fact of immense value to him, he
must seek in a full collection of works in his department, many
of which he would not think of naming as those most immediately
necessary.
The successful use of recent books, too, necessitates a large col
lection of those partially superseded. Partial quotations must
often be known wholly; doubtful quotations must often be verified.
A collection is needed as a centre to which men in all grades in
every kind of investigation may gather.
This can only be obtained by other methods. One of these is,
to take the catalogues of leading publishers and booksellers, and
having marked their valuable works, receive proposals for their
purchase. This is often a useful way, and is also recommended.
Another method of use in beginning a library, is the purchase
wholly, or in part, of carefully gathered special collections of
private individuals. Thus the University of Rochester purchased
the Neander Library, and Yale College the Thilo Library.
When and how can this be done ? Not in this country to any
extent, for nowhere in the world are valuable books sought so
eagerly and held so tenaciously. It is in foreign cities, and espe
cially in London, that collections of works in every department,
made by the most distinguished scholars, are brought under the
hammer of the auctioneer. Hardly a number of the London
Atheneeum is issued without advertisements of such collections.
�35
Within a very few years, the private library of Buckle, so full in
all its departments ; the private library of Lord Macaulay, con
taining vast stores in English history; the library of Humboldt,
containing the accumulations of his life ; and scores of others even
more important, have been thus broken up in the London market.
Your committee find that the prices of books thus disposed of
in mass are very low, except in the case of rarities competed for by
bibliomaniacs, and these are the very things for which the Univer
sity cares little or nothing. The solid material of a large library
*—the standard authorities and works of reference—the sets of
lieviews, periodicals and Journals of Societies, with few excep
tions, go at low prices. The committee are assured by one of its
members, who has himself frequented, and bought largely in these
sales, that collections of vast value, selected during a lifetime by
the most eminent scholars in various branched, and enriched often
with their notes, references and corrections, are constantly sold at
prices astonishingly low.
The committee, therefore, without recommending any hasty
action, would suggest that an eye be kept upon these frequent
sales, and that at the earliest convenient season an attempt be
made to avail ourselves of them.
It is also recommended that steps be taken to obtain for the
library certain valuable works published by foreign governments;
such as the wonderful Monographs upon the European Rural Popu
lation, by LePlay, published by the French government; and,
above all, in the department of Industrial Mechanics, the great
series of Patent Reports published by the English government,
copies of which are in the State Library at Albany, in the Astor
Library at New York, and in the Public Library at Boston. It
is believed that a copy can be obtained ot the English government
at the mere cost of mounting the plates and binding the several
volumes. A more valuable and appropriate work for that depart
ment could hardly be designated.
Preparation
of a
Code for
the
University.
To this committee was entrusted the preparation of a code of
laws for the government of the University. A large collection
of the statutes of different colleges has been made, but at the out
set a question meets us : What shall be the theory of discipline in
the institution ? Shall it be after the military pattern ; shall it be
the oidinaiy collegiate discipline which has been in part inherited
�36
from England ; shall it be an adaptation of the free university
system of continental Europe, where comparatively little is done
by college police, and much is left to the students themselves ? It
will be seen at once that this question must be decided before any
body of statutes is framed; for the radical difference between
these fundamental systems involves an entire difference between
the codes which express them. The first, the military system, has
undoubted advantages. It puts all students upon an equality in
mere outward advantages of dress, style and living ; it subjects
students to a more perfect control; it gives from among the stu
dents, officers to aid in enforcing rigid discipline. On the other
hand, the uniformity in dress, which is admired by some as con
tributing to equality, deprives the professor of one of his best
means of knowing who are before him in the lecture room,—how
he shall deal with individuals, and what allowances are to be made.
None acquainted with the best American colleges, will hesitate to
declare that, as a rule, no student loses anything among his pro
fessors or his fellow students, by clothing indicating poverty
and frugality. It is only in after life that this makes an impor
tant difference. In no community on earth is man estimated so
exactly by what is supposed to be his real worth, as in a commu
nity of college students. No collections of men were ever more
democratic. The rigid military government, it is believed, could
not possibly be applied to the whole University: for, by the fun
damental theory of the institution, there will be students of a great
number of different grades,—some attending merely courses of
lectures for a single season; some in regular courses of several
years ; some men not far from middle age ; some far below their
majority • some residing in the college building; some residing
in the town. While, therefore, military instruction must always
form part of the courses, it is not recommended that the govern
ment be military, except, perhaps, in some single departments,
where efficiency may be promoted by military forms.
As to the next system, the ordinary collegiate plan, although
to a certain extent it may have to be adopted on account of our
partial resort to dormitories, yet the system as a finality is not
favored by the committee.
The system of university freedom of government is believed by
the committee to be our best government. In this system laws
are few but speedily executed, and the University is regarded
neither as an asylum nor a reform school. Much is trusted to the
�manliness of the students. The attempt is to teach the students
to govern themselves, and to cultivate acquaintance and confidence
between Faculty and students. This the committee believe is pos
sible. They believe that by rigid execution of a few disciplinary
laws • by promotion of pleasant, extra-official intercourse between
teachers and taught, in ways hereafter to be specified ■ by placing
professors over students, not as police, but as a body of friends,
this government may be made to work better than any other. The
boundaries between government of students by university autho
rities and government by town authorities, will be discussed else
where.
The committee will, on a future day, recommend a simple pledge
and ceremony of matriculation, having in view self-governmenf by
the students.
Having thus given a basis for a code, we think it best to defer
details until a future report. The necessity for by-laws is not im
mediate, and much light can, it is believed, be gained from the
Faculty about to be chosen.
Remunerative Manual Labor
by
Students.
One of the most interesting questions which arises in the estab
lishment of our departments of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts,
regards the experiment of employing students at manual labor
during a portion of the day.
The argument generally used of late against this experiment is,
that it has been tried several times unsuccessfully.
This argument would have more force were it shown that the
institutions where the manual labor system has failed, have had
the means of trying the experiments fully and fairly. It is be
lieved that such has not been the case, and that our country has
seen no institution having such ample means of trying this experi
ment as has the Cornell University. Nor is it true, as is often
loosely stated, that this experiment has uniformly failed. The
reports of the State Agricultural College of Michigan, at Lansing,
show that its success there, if not brilliant, is substantial. Several
young men have supported themselves entirely, paying their fee
of tuition, room rent, board, fuel, washing, clothing, books and
traveling expenses out of their earnings upon the college pro
perty ; and a very large number in the same way have paid their
expenses partially.
Your committee are satisfied that the University ought to try
�38
this experiment. We are not, however, prepared to recommend
that every student in the University be required to do a certain
amount of manual labor. This we think would impose fetters
upon the student body, very dangerous to that character of
breadth and freedom which we hope to establish.
If, as is certain to be frequently the case, a student advanced
in years considerably beyond the usual student age, and who
already has labored and accumulated means to defray his expenses,
presents himself and wishes, in the shortest time possible, to tit
himself for a place as engineer, superintendent of chemical works,
or scientific miner, it would seem doubtful policy to force him
to give those hours which he desires to crowd with study, to
manual labor in which he has had full experience, and remunera
tion which he does not need.
True, it is often urged that the student can do more and better
mental work, with deduction of two or three hours of physical
labor, than without it. Though not one man in a million among
men at large acts upon this belief, it may be so among students.
But, until this theory proves itself by practice, we believe that it
would be a great mistake to attempt to place the entire University
rigidly upon this basis. When, in our progress here, this theory
shall be substantiated, there will be ample opportunity to enforce
this system in all the departments.
Again : Your committee are by no means certain that physical
labor among young men can be made to take wholly the place of
athletic sports and gymnastic exercises in giving restoration from
mental labor. Even if it keep up bodily strength, it seems hardly
possible that the minds of young men could be kept fresh, elastic
and energetic, when the only relief from tension is the change
from one form of labor to another.
We understand that even in manual labor schools it has been
found necessary to give some time to free, manly sports and games.
But there is one practical objection which will doubtless be
conclusive, even if theoretical objections are not.
If any such number of students as we expect, enter the Univer
sity, we could not provide labor for all of them.
The State University of Michigan, with far less attractions than
we hope to present, has fifteen hundred (1500) students. At two
hours a day of manual labor by each student,—and this is an hour
less than the usual allowance,—granting that the different divi
sions of working students succeed each other with perfect preci
�39
sion, one corps taking up the tools the instant the previous corps
throws them down, there would be a constant force to be profitably
employed and paid, equivalent to three hundred (300) laborers,
and the University cannot employ any such force with profit for
any long time.
But while we do not recommend general compulsory labor, we
are in favor of organizing corps of laboring students, and holding
out every inducement to join them ; and we are not prepared to
say that it may not be necessary to require manual labor from all
the students in some special departments.
We believe that a system of manual labor, rightly organized,
will work to the mutual advantage of the University and the stu
dents. There is a large amount of labor required at once upon
the ornamental grounds and the farm. There are trees to be
felled, roads and paths to be cut, depressions to be filled, eleva
tions to be graded down. There will be much work requiring
mere physical ability, and there will be much requiring the scien
tific guidance of the Professors of Agriculture, of LandscapeGardening and Engineering.
It will also be of use to the students in their muscular develop
ment, and we believe can be made to give substantial aid to many
pecuniarily.
Physical Culture.
Many plans of education have given goodly place to Physical
Culture in theory ; very few have given any adequate place to it
in practice.
No mistake could be more unfortunate. Better the mere rudi
ments of knowledge with a body sound, firm and strong, than the
best culture of the schools with a body permanently emaciated and
debilitated.
It is one of the strange things in the history of education, that
American votaries of classical scholarship have been so neglectful
of that bodily culture which, in the ancient civilization they justly
honor, was the main culture.
We cannot insist upon this part of an education too strongly.
As long as highly educated men are dyspeptics, so long will they
be deprived of their supremacy in society by uneducated eupevand so it ought to be.
We recommend: First, that in all, except the Optional Course,
attendance be required on a plain series of lectures upon Anatomy,
Physiology and Hygiene.
�40
Secondly, that there be provided, at the opening of the Univer
sity, a well-equipped Gymnasium, and that training in it, or equi
valent training in manual labor or exercises in the open air, be
obligatory upon all.
Thirdly, that an instructor in Gymnastics be appointed, who
shall conduct exercises at the gymnasium under some careful pro
gressive system, with as much regularity and under as stringent
rules regarding attendance and decorum, as are observed in any
college exercise whatever.
Fourthly, that in arranging hours for study, recitations or lec
tures, physical training be regarded as equally entitled to conside
ration with mental training, and that a regular and sufficient time
be always allowed for that purpose.
Fifthly, that grounds be set apart for the national game of base
ball, and that the formation of clubs be encouraged; also that
encouragement be given to the formation of clubs for boating upon
Lake Cayuga.
Sixthly, that the experiment be tried of framing an university
statute to the effect that deterioration in physical culture will be
held in the same category with want of progress in mental cul
ture, and that either will subject the delinquent to deprivation of
university privileges.
Seventhly, in view of the importance and practical novelty of
this whole subject, it is recommended that to the regular standing
committees of the Board of Trustees there be added a “ Committee
upon Physical Culture.”
Military Education.
It is recommended that the requirements of the congressional
law be met by careful provisions for teaching Military Engineer
ing and Tactics, and that the Board of Trustees at an early day
adopt some plan for encouraging military drill, or for making it
obligatory.
Actual Commencement of Instruction.
4
The committee would also report as to the actual commencement of instruction,—the practical beginning of general university
operations.
A sufficient number of professors having been secured, it is
recommended that at least three (3) months before the opening
of the University, an advertisement be inserted in papers of wide
�41
circulation, stating concisely the day when the examinations for
admissions begin, the courses of instruction, the professors and
their departments, the charges for instruction, the approximate
charges for board and lodging, the number and character of free
Scholarships, the duties of school commissioners in examining can
didates for them under the charter, and the names of persons to
■whom applications may be made for further details.
The University Year.
It is recommended that there be two terms in the University
year ; the first commencing on the second Thursday of September
and ending on the third week-day preceding Christmas ; the
second term commencing on the third week-day following New
Year’s day, and ending upon the third Thursday in June, when
shall be held the annual Commencement.
In order, however, to commemorate an event which the insti
tution ought ever to hold in remembrance, and, incidentally, to
give some intermission in the second term, which is much longer
than the first, it is recommended that the ordinary exercises be
Suspended on the fourteenth day of May, the day wThen the act
incorporating the University was passed, and that that day be
forever known as Founder’s Day, and that exercises be then held
expressive of gratitude to the benefactors of the University, and
to renew the memory of their benefactions.
It is recommended that some inaugural exercises be held at or
near the beginning of the first term.
Fees.
In nothing do American institutions of learning vary more than
in the fees required of students. At Yale College the charges
are as follows :
For tuition .................
$45
rent and care of one-half* room, average_________ 20
expenses of public rooms, repairs, &c._______ ___ 10
use of gymnasium_____ ______ _________ ____
4
society tax________________ ____ ____
g
Besides these, there are charges at graduation amounting to
average price of board, $5.50.
I11 the Massachusetts Institute of' Technology, at Boston, the
�42
fees in the first year arc $100; second year, $125; third and
fourth, $150 each.
At Harvard College the fees are as follows :
Instruction, library and lecture rooms, and gymnasium___ $104
Rent and care of room, &c._________________________
28
Special repairs_________ _______ ______________ ____
1
$133
Board is said to range from $4.50 to $7 per week.
In the Lawrence Scientific School, at Cambridge, the student
taking the courses of chemistry, engineering, botany, &c., pays in
regular fees each year, from $250 to $300.
In the Cambridge School of Mines, the fees are, for the first
year, $150, and $200 for each succeeding year.
At the State University of Michigan, by the catalogue of 1866,
any student from without the State pays a matriculation fee of
$20, and an annual fee of $-5.
At Dartmouth College, tuition in the Scientific School is, per
annum, $36 in the third and fourth, and $42 per annum in the
first and second years. In the College proper, the fees are :
For tuition.........................
$51
room rent from $6 to------------- ----------------------- 12
$57 to $63
At Hamilton College the tuition is .................
$45
Room rent........ ............
9
Sweeping and contingencies--------------- ------------------ 21
$75
At the State Agricultural College of Michigan, at Lansing,
tuition to students from that State is free, but from all other
States, per annum, $20 ; room rent, $4 ; matriculation fee, $5.
From this great diversity no rule can be deduced. After con
sideration, the committee, although there are one hundred and
twenty-eight (128) free scholarships already provided by law, and
although it is believed that instruction of the very best kind will
be furnished, have concluded to suggest that the charges for the
first year be very low, and they present the following schedule :
Matriculation fee------------------ --------------------------- - $15
Annual fees at $10 per term........................................... 20
$35
�43
For room rent they have based their calculations upon the per
centage which the dormitories ought to contribute upon the outlay
for them, arranging the rents so as to give a return of seven (7)
per cent per annum. The rent of a full suite of rooms in the main
building would be 55 cents, 73 cents, 109 cents per week for each
student, according as they have four, three or two occupants.
Arranging rents so as to bring a return of four per cent per
annum, the charges would be 32 cents, 42 cents, 63 cents per
week, according as the suites of rooms are occupied by four, three
or two persons.
But it is not expected that any large number of the students
can be accommodated in the University dormitories. There are
provided in the first building, accommodations for from sixtv-four
to one hundred and twenty-eight students. But it is believed
that these will fall short of the accommodations required.
It is not doubted that the citizens of Ithaca will do their utmost,
even subjecting themselves to inconvenience, in providing rooms
for students. And it is believed that they will do this at the
lowest terms possible ; for nothing could be more unfortunate for
the town and University than at the outset to have the impression
gain ground that student lodgings in Ithaca are costly.
Board.
In regard to board, the committee are decidedly .of the opinion
that the trustees should have nothing to do with furnishing it,
unless events force them to do so. For this the citizens of Ithaca
must be relied upon entirely. The same necessity for liberal
treatment and low prices obtains in regard to board as in regard
to lodgings. And in view of the great importance of a right
beginning in this matter, it is recommended that the President of
the Board designate a committee of the citizens of Ithaca, who
shall bring the matter before their fellow citizens and obtain assur
ances which shall enable the trustees in their first announcement
to offer, with the other attractions of the institution, the very
decided one of cheap rates of lodgings and board.
The same citizen’s committee should also be relied upon to fur
nish the University steward with names of persons willing to
accommodate students, and with lists of prices, so as to provide
at once for students on their arrival.
If, however, such appeal be unsuccessful, which is not believed
possible, it is recommended that the executive committee be em
�44
powered to lease in the town, or erect upon the college grounds,
a dining hall and kitchen, with the full understanding, however,
that the University shall not undertake to manage it further than
to lease it to the students. The students thus leasing it, shall
choose their own stewards, employ their own servants, purchase
their own provisions, and manage it in their own way, except that
the trustees may vote to advance money to the clubs thus formed,
to purchase leading articles of supply at wholesale, according to
the system recently established in the Yale College dining clubs ;
and the University authorities shall take measures, in case of need,
to preserve general decency and order.
Fuel.
It is strongly recommended that the University purchase fuel
at wholesale, to be retailed to the students at cost. This plan is
found to work beneficially at Yale, Harvard and many other
colleges.
The Dormitory System.
Two radically different ideas as to the function of an Univer
sity have produced two different systems of lodging students and
of supervision of them while not engaged in public exercises.
Under the first, the student is lodged in a dormitory and kept,
or rather supposed to be kept, under surveillance of the Univer
sity authorities. Under the second, lodging and any other than
general surveillance are looked upon as outside the proper
function of an University, and the student left to make arrange
ment for his lodging as any other person coming for a time into
the town would do, subject to certain general regulations by the
University. Care of him as a citizen is left to the town authori
ties ■ care of him as a member of a family, to the household with
which he is lodged—the University, of course, reserving the right
to inflict penalties for offences against University common law and
statutes.
The committee believe the latter system the more sound in
theory and the more satisfactory in practice. Large bodies of
students collected in dormitories often arrive at a degree of tur
bulence which small parties, gathered in the houses of citizens,
seldom if ever reach. No private citizen, who lets rooms in his
own house to four or six students, would tolerate for an hour the
anarchy which most tutors in charge of college dormitories are
compelled to overlook.
�45
But even were the discipline of dormitories thoroughly en
forced; the system tends to put the professorial corps in the atti
tude of policemen. And the situation is made all the worse by
the fact that the professor is armed with no authority under the
law of the land, and so comes to be regarded not even as a police
man, but as a spy—not as a judge, but as an inquisitor. Nothing
could be more fatal to hearty, kindly relations between teachers
and taught.
The dormitory system, as it has existed at Oxford and Cam
bridge, has been carried out logically in the construction of quad
rangles—great enclosures from which egress at unsuitable hours
is supposed to be rendered difficult, and in which good order can
be more easily maintained. That even this most costly plan has
failed every one knows, who has at all looked into the subject;
blit even the poor merit of the English system seems wanting
among ns,
The reasons for adopting even temporarily any modification of
the dormitory system in a new institution like ours, are two :
First, the necessity of some check upon persons disposed to ask
too large a price for student lodgings. Secondly, the necessity
of observations, experiments and work upon the college land by
large numbers of students. Of these reasons the first weighs
little ; the second, it is hoped, will weigh less and less as the
village of Ithaca is extended nearer and nearer to the University
domain ;—but they have been strong enough to induce the Board
of Trustees to erect a dormitory in which are provided tasteful
and well-ventilated study and sleeping rooms for from sixty-four
to ninety-six students. It is believed that no better accommoda
tions are afforded in any college within the United States.
It is recommended, however, that at the outset the policy of
tbe trustees be declared to be in favor of making residence in the
college buildings a reward of good work and conduct, and that
good order in every student hall be entrusted to the self-govern
ing powers of the students residing in it, with a full understanding
that the University authorities will enter into no inquisitorial pro
cess to discover the authors of disorder, but that if the tenants are
not able to maintain good order, they must give place en masse
to those who can. If this does not accomplish the purpose, the
hall should be closed altogether.
It is hoped that ere many years accommodations for students
may be mainly provided among citizens residing in neat, tidy
�46
dwellings bordering upon the University property. In these a|
kindly, restraining family influence would be exercised upon stu-|nja^|ofi(|#1 1
dents, never found in the prevalent poor imitation of the EnglisMaH^ifeEW
semi-monastic system.
1
The committee are decidedly opposed to any large adoption ofl
a dormitory system.
Relations between the Cornell University and other Insti-I
tutions of Learning in the State.
It is believed that the institution now to be founded can be
brought into perfect harmony with the sister institutions of the hl
State, While we hope for large numbers of students, it is highly fmmiQi,
4-1------------------ K---------- . .U„
-ly
[ij
improbable that the number at the .a.._ collegeswill 1be any M*
other
smaller than at present. Facilities for education, like facilities'!
for travel, increase the number of those using them. In this great,
commonwealth of four million souls, there is work for all.
.[Ji
So far from injuring the existing colleges, it is hoped that we s*'
can benefit them in one way at least most gratifying to their officers. In the Faculties of these colleges are some of the best^W Wp
minds in the country—some of the noblest men.' They are to-dayj
almost without exception, kept upon salaries wretchedly inadequate, and to a number of students far less than ought to enjdJ^MjW^W
the benefit of their teachings.
By our plan of Non-resident Professors, we can avail ourselvew
of the talents of these men—can give them a larger field and
newer, and can add to their salaries sums which will enable them |i
to work more freely in the colleges with which they are immediately connected. This plan also offers an incentive to every active
professor in every college, to distinguish himself as an investigatoiwO^bsfci
or instructor in some department, and thus will benefit science amH
education at large.
•
a
Relations
of the
a
University with the School System of the !
State.
The provisions of the charter of the Cornell University show k
that its promoters recognized the necessity of a vital connection
with the school system of the State. As that system is the sulm
stratum of all we hope to build, it cannot be left out of sight. It
ought never to be forgotten that we arc to draw life from it, and
that we must return life into it. No scholastic traditions should jWfemi.-fi
lead us to slight or undervalue this relation. It will be a greatj
�47
honor to us if we knit our work as an esteemed part, into the fabric
of education for a commonwealth of four millions of people.
Pains have been taken to establish a relation such as has never
existed between the system and any existing college. The Super
intendent of Public Instruction is ex officio a trustee, and thus
forms a vital link in the connection. The provision in the act of
incorporation regarding the choice of students to scholarships in
the different assembly districts, brings us directly into relations
with the whole body of school commissioners throughout the
State. Our labor should be to strengthen the ties thus established.
Entering heartily into this vast educational work, so cherished by
the people of this State, we are strong—holding ourselves aloof
from it, we are weak indeed.
irrnt
-»q
fonii
arm!
>" 9flt
itav<
iufeH
A Special Test in our Work.
In the arrangement of departments and in provision for them,
there is one test very simple and very effectual—the original Law
of Congress. That law we must neither wrest nor warp. We
f^iica must satisfy its requirements without mental reservation. We
must never lose sight of that great body of men to whose mental
needs the act makes special reference, and of whom it speaks as
the “ industrial classes.’7
ff. p The munificence of our founder does, indeed, enable us to add
to this provision; but nothing can allow us to take from it.
The monstrous perversion of trusts recently revealed by the
il'is^l Parliamentary Commission on Collegiate Education in England,
fguig must find no parallel here.
iiT 5
That original law will not fetter us in our endeavors to give the
qoaq people of this State the most advanced university privileges.
irrsq Having guarded us from a common error, and secured certain
faoT •;reat branches of practical education, it gives us by express declaroiii; ations the largest university scope—only insisting that we keep
n view the real wants of this land and people.
bl J
[tT J
The General Test
in
University Education.
The committee have now considered the practical questions
most likely to arise at the beginning of our work. That all such
questions have been met, is not claimed. In regard, however,
Ito those which may hereafter arise, we desire in conclusion to
present a general principle, fundamental and formative—a prin
ciple to serve as a test and guide ;—it is the principle so admirably
T
�enunciated by Wilhelm von Humboldt, and elaborated by John
Stuart Mill: “ The. great and leading principle is the absolute and
essential importance of human development in its richest diversity.”
This we conceive to express the object of any really great institu
tion of learning; this our founder proclaimed in his declaration
already cited.
This principle we believe can only be made operative through
the greatest freedom in study consistent with an University organ
ization—freedom in choice of studies—freedom in range of studies.
Development under this principle—moral, intellectual and phy
sical—Can only be normal and healthful in an atmosphere of love
of truth, beauty and goodness,’and adoration of the Centre of
truth, beauty and goodness.
We have under our charter no right to favor any sect or to pro
mote any creed. No one can be accepted or rejected as trustee,
professor or student, because of any opinions and theories which
he may or may not hold. On that point our charter is most care
fully guarded, and made to conform to the fundamental ideas of
our Republic—ideas which too many institutions of learning have
forgotten. Fervor, valor and strength in labors for truth, goodness and beauty, are the qualities to be sought in those who are
to work here; and if we secure men of this fervor, valor and
strength, we may be sure that, whatever their individual theories
on this or that dogma, their joint labors will be for the glory of
God and the elevation of man.
Upon the members of the Board the committee desire to im
press the necessity of earnest thought and energetic action. A
trusteeship of this University will be no sinecure. Never was a
nobler trust confided to any body of men. May we all feel our
great responsibilities in this matter, and work earnestly to dis
charge them; and in laying these foundations may we have the
blessing of Heaven, that all may be fitly builded.
ANDREW D. WHITE,
(Signed.)
Tor the Committee on Organization.
1
I
���
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Report of the Committee on Organization, presented to the trustees of the Cornell University, October 21st 1866
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Cornell University
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: Albany, USA
Collation: 48 p. ; 24 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
[s.n.]
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5690
Subject
The topic of the resource
Education
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br /><span>This work (Report of the Committee on Organization, presented to the trustees of the Cornell University, October 21st 1866), identified by </span><span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk">Humanist Library and Archives</a></span><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Conway Tracts
Cornell University
Education-United States
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/69a8e8ee0199fd4a1e450565ddb0f348.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=Hd8fRQni9AfzMRcLQCOc7SwJcziW2SSmFVq4U6P66UNmEcG7OZ-fA-3tmVHXcQGpZwFVrOWf-ul3S2lmhAPTN634JM5MWtonw9hPD0yukoxISOVRDZOYMjCRUyfFDMh7bWEc%7EYub9XJLmf75HkOdM7U8QnuUgm-gUAiqw7mls8x-OhF7BAgMZn5vQ0-qC05JvorByjkzHllk9miCYf%7E5%7EmIyVUQKg57K7iqm4T5Z69Qz6sDSdjL7-I7LPtpKYIDM2PjFwn1YzM%7EkVpICuszhNqCCUs1vNhgjeKPft0roTOaIEThuuzb1799MqfQSU7RaLMWFL2WnGU%7E8WSgcBWLiwQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
cb6b0294ff256618e6b9c4b7f78b3d76
PDF Text
Text
ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
A
E
LECT
DELIVERED AT THE BRISTOL INSTITUTION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. LITERATURE
AND THE ARTS, Mauch 4th, 1867,
BY
»
W.
F. N. NEWMAN,
Emeritus Professor of Univ. Coll., London; formerly Fellow of
Balliol College, Oxford.
7
U.V
LONDON:
TRUBNER & Co., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW,
BRISTOL :
T, KERSLAKE & Co., PARK STREET.
1867.
i
PRICE SIXPENCE.
♦
♦
�HUMU
�THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
It is rash to give a name to a lecture before it is prepared ;
but I was forced to do so, in order that it might be adver
tised. I now fear that the title may suggest something
erroneous. The popular classification of forms of government
does not profess to be philosophical, but it is not on that
account wrong. I do not wish to supersede it, nor to super
impose any ready-made system on other minds, but only to
stimulate thought and inquiry.
The popular classification, modified from that of the old
Greeks, divides governments into royalties and republics;
subdivides royalty on the one hand into elective and here
ditary, on the other into despotic and constitutional. Re
publics are subdivided into aristocracies and democracies ;
and perhaps aristocracies again into close or oligarchical,
and open or liberal. Some such nomenclature we must use
for conciseness, although we may be thoroughly aware of its
insufficiency. That governments bearing the same name
often differ widely, must be notorious even to those who are
not students of history. A superficial acquaintance with the
newspaper must make us aware that constitutional royalty is
not quite the same in Spain as in England. But to know
that there are differences is one thing, and to know whither
to look for the causes of difference, for the active forces, is
another thing. To give some aid in this research, is my
present object.
�4
Let me begin with Monarchy.
Consider the position of an Arab chieftain. Whether
his descent from a previous chieftain is or is not a decisive
weight in accepting him as chief, yet, as he holds his post for
life, he is really a king; a regulus, as Latins would say, if not
a rex. His functions are, to be judge, and captain in war,
and to guide the movements of the tribe for pasture, and for
occasional agriculture or traffic. A boy or a woman or a
weak man would not suit; hence the succession cannot be
fixed ; the elective principle must have some play. Towards
the foreigner he is supreme, and his decisions are unques
tioned. Even at home his rule might seem arbitrary, no
written limitations or coronation oath being thought of, and
no organs having been invented to check or punish tyranny.
But his people are armed, they are homogeneous, and they
are few. They are known to one another, they have close
mutual sympathies. In such a condition, the tyranny of a
chief against one is keenly resented by all. Old custom gives
them an idea of notorious right. All feel themselves under
the rule of law, and not of caprice; and for military necessity
are willing that the law should be very severe. Thus they
have as full a sense of internal freedom and of manliness as
we can have; and it is seldom that any real tyranny of a
chief can last long, since his whole power depends on the
good will of his tribe.
But let that happen, which has been commoner among
Tartars than Arabs. Let one tribe conquer other tribes; let
the conquering chieftain or his son and grandson become lord
of many tribes, little known to one another, and having but
feeble mutual sympathy. The pride of the monarch is
swollen by the wide extent of his sway. The severities of
war, necessary to constrain submission and retain conquest,
habituate the conquering tribe to commit ruthless deeds
without criticism or scruple. The restraints against injustice
�5
and tyranny are thrown down, as regards a majority of the
subjects. Ere long, when a new generation has grown up
under vassalage, the king finds that he could, if the occasion
arose, arm them against his own tribe ; nor can his power to
do this remain a secret. In this way a real despotism grows
up, even though all the subjects be armed warriors, with no
other home than a camp. Want of homogeneity in the sub’
ject races is here the cardinal point which has elevated the
ruler above law and turned the people into mere vassals.
If this simple case be clearly understood, and duly fixed
in the mind, it will furnish us with an easy key to the action
of institutions far more complicated. In this connection I
may observe, that there is a stone with which Englishmen
often pelt the French. We say, that “they love equality
more than freedom.” I am not about to applaud the theory,
which bids us long for a judicious despot; but I would
suggest, that the phenomenon criticised by us in the French
admits of another interpretation. To define political freedom
is very hard, and therefore it is so hard to combine the efforts
of multitudes for its. attainment; but to suppress privilege
is an idea distinct and intelligible, and the suppression is
sometimes either a useful step towards freedom or an im
portant instalment. Legislators cannot always go right; but
the surest way to take the sting out of bad laws, is to insist
that the mischief shall be universal. When their sting is
felt by the legislators themselves, relief is not far distant.
But let me appeal to a case nearer home than France. When
William the Norman, having stept into the place of King of
England, irritated the English into local revolts and conquered
them in detail by his foreign troops, the Saxons were largely
dispossessed and degraded, and could form no organization
able to throw off their conqueror. The first relief came from
quarrels between Norman princes, who were driven to bid for
Saxon support; but no firm liberty was possible, until the
�*6
Normans felt the King’s power very painfully, and fused their
own cause into that of the Saxons. To make Norman and
Saxon equal before the law was a first necessary step towards
freedom. First, it saved the Saxon from much oppression in
detail; next, it produced a homogeneous nation, all equally
interested to resist encroachments of the King. To aim at
equality as the first object in order of time, was consistent
with esteeming freedom as higher in importance.
From the Norman and Saxon era, let us pass to the
Ottoman empire. The Ottomans were a Turkoman or Tartar
people, who, after conquering the area which we now call
Turkey, took up all Mussulmans into the ruling race, but
gave to Christians toleration only, and refused to them the
right to carry arms. Being exempted from military service,
and not severely taxed by the imperial government, the
Christians might seem to have some advantage over the
Mussulman. All such reasoning proceeds on happy ignorance
of suffering under despotism. Except under ferocious mad
men, such as history teaches us to have sometimes disgraced
thrones and appalled mankind, the chief sufferings come to a
subject people, not from the intended injustice of the supreme
despot, but from the underlings of despotism, or from unequal
law, and still more from the haughtiness of a favoured race.
Where the superior race or order carries arms in daily life,
and the inferior orders are forbidden to carry arms, the whole
country is, as it were, permanently pressed down under an
army of occupation. An armed race, under no military
responsibility, thinks it has a natural right to command, to be
insolent, and if insolently answered, to repay words with
blows; and as the courts of law are sure to be in the exclusive
possession of the ruling race, redress can only in very extreme
cases be attained for the violences of arrogance. The subject
race is hereby perpetually humiliated, perpetually reminded
of its subjugation. To overthrow the privilege of the.superiorj
�order, to introduce practical equality, is in itself of greater
moment than to lessen the imperial despotism: nay, it may
even be strictly beneficial to the subject races to intensify that
despotism, if this be an essential prerequisite for crushing the
privileges of an order. The Sultan’s best intended edicts
have hitherto proved ineffectual, because he cannot enforce
them upon the Ottomans.
This will suffice to indicate how very much more com
plicated are the existing constitutions of the world than our
nomenclature expresses. Where a people is not homogeneous,
but is divided into castes or orders, two or three constitutions
may co-exist. The rule of an old Egyptian king over the
Warrior caste was comparable to that of our Henry II. over
his barons great and small. The relations of the same King
to the priestly or literary caste was perhaps not unlike that
of William III. of England to his Parliament. But the
lower castes were under threefold despotism,—the despotism
of a king, the despotism of an army, and the despotism of
an aristocracy. Only it was softened by the fact of being a
native despotism, and we may-presume that hereditary reli
gious law secured to the lowest people their scanty but wellunderstood rights.
A topic which cannot come forward at all in a very
small state, whatever its organic name, is of the utmost
importance in a large state or rather empire; I mean the
extent to which the management of revenue is centralized.
The empires of the ancient Persians and of the modern
Ottomans, with huge faults, had the merit of often leaving large
local self-government to subject populations, either placing
natives in authority over them, or leaving them to construct
their own organization. To gratify the conquered by respect
ing their manners, laws and innocent habits, is of course
good; but to reserve funds, sacred to the locality, for the
repair of roads and bridges, aqueducts, canals and tanks, is
�even of vital importance. When an Indian community is
annexed to the English dominion, and in consequence its
upper classes are forthwith ejected in mass from high office,
perhaps into beggary, this is hard to endure; but far harder is
it to be deprived of a local treasury, so as to lose all power to
keep up the machinery of their daily food. If, in conse
quence, the canals and roads fall out of repair, and the people
suffer such famine as they could not suffer under a native
tyrant, whose all they are, it matters little to them whether
a Company or a Viceroy and his Council, an Empress or a
Parliament, rule at the distant seat of Government. An
English Parliament, to whom lies the appeal of Indian sub
jects against the British Executive, is not likely to lose a
wink of sleep because a hundred thousand Indians are starved
to death; and, in fact, it only learns of the danger when
remedy is too late. No form of government, no good will, no
energy in the central administration, can compensate for the
frightful blunder of fusing the local revenues of an empire
into one treasury.
Conquest naturally draws after it temporary distinctions
of political right. A conquered people are seldom at once
admitted into posts of power and trust. Even when disaffec
tion is no longer feared, differences of language, of sentiment,
or of moral character, may interpose difficulty, and generally
make men timid as to imparting power. We cannot criticise
a ruling race while its exclusions are strictly temporary; that
is, while it opens a door of access to power, and proposes
equality of right as the early goal. Yet the bolder course has
ere now proved itself the wiser. Admitted equality soon
soothes the pang of defeat, and the vanquished become proud
of belonging to a greater community. Even rude barbarian
leagues have often swelled rapidly into astonishing power by
adopting into absolute equality and cordial citizenship all
whom they conquer, and all the discontented or aspiring who
�9:
will join them. Thus the rude JEtolians of declining Greece
displayed suddenly a strength unsuspected. Thus league
after league of the wild Germans became formidable to the
Roman empire. To the same principle, intensified by a
fanatical impulse, must be ascribed the Mohammedan con
quests of old on the area of Asia and North Africa, in more
recent times over Central Africa. All who join them and
accept the religion are at once themselves accepted as com
rades and equals : this is the magic charm which welds
together heterogeneous natures and wild men.
Transition is certainly apt to be difficult. To aid the
transition from conquest into equality, the process followed
by ancient Rome was notoriously so effectual that one or
other modern nation might have been expected to follow it,
especially England in her Indian empire. The Romans recog
nized several degrees of civil status. The highest, of course,
was the Roman franchise; next to this, the Latin franchise;
below this, the Italian franchise and that of the extra Italian
provincials; then there was the right of the freedmen; and
lowest of all, the wholly disfranchised slaves. There was a
time when it would have been liberal and praiseworthy,
perhaps expedient, to introduce on the area of British India a
legal distinction between British nnd Indian citizenship, if,
simultaneously, select persons or classes of the natives had
been adopted into the British franchise, and a general method
of entrance, with reasonable conditions, had been opened to
personal merit and ostensible loyalty. But the English Par
liament, against the will of the East India Company, preferred
to proclaim in 1833 the principle of legal equality. If this
be real, it is certainly the grander, wiser and nobler method ;
but if it remain a mere name, it does but insult and irritate;
it brands the ruling power with hypocrisy, and would make
the wisest administration impotent to pacify discontent.
If we turn to the greatest monarchy and oldest society in
�10
the world, that of China, there we see a' wholly homogeneous
people, although of several languages, not only without caste,
but without an order of nobility, as nobility is understood by
us. Office alone there gives nobility, and the office is attained
by merit, according to their estimate of merit. My present
business is to point out the great diversity between monarchy
and monarchy, between despotism and despotism. First let
us contrast China with Turkey. In both the monarch will be
called by Europeans a despot; yet in both the despotism is
sharply checked by antique precedent at least as effectually
as under our Plantagenets and Tudors. The monarch may
deal rudely, or perhaps cruelly, with individuals, but cannot
with impunity attack the public. And this is true of all
homogeneous masses, as of France ever since the privileges of
nobility have been overthrown. But while China and Turkey
have so much in common, if we think only of the Sultan’s
rule over Mussulmans; the two powers are seen to be in
tensely different as soon as the relations of Mussulmans to
Christians are comprehended.
Contrast despotic China with despotic Russia, and a
totally new point of diversity appears. In Russia there is a
nobility, possessed of vast masses of land. This is a point of
which hitherto I have purposely said nothing. It is one of
the greatest elements in politics, and is generally regarded as
the foundation of aristocracy; yet so far is it from being in
any opposition to monarchy, that it is very hard for it to
exist except under the shadow of monarchy. It may indeed
continue after monarchy has been destroyed ; as happened in
ancient Greece, in ancient Italy, and in the Southern States
of the great American republic : and when it exists in a
republic, as in early Rome, it may propagate itself by con
quest. Notwithstanding these exceptions, aristocracy based
on great landed estates, in the general history of the world,
has little permanence except in conjunction with a monarchy
�11
which fosters it, and is fostered by it in turn. They cohere
like a double star, and make a system essentially different
from either separately. The difficulty which aristocracy has
of existing without monarchy is in fact denoted by the
modern acceptation of the term republic, which is practically
identified with democracy. Aristocratic republics are so rare,
that we almost forget their possibility.
Land being the element on which our life is passed, as
well as the mine out of which our food is extracted, he who
can controul the land cultivated by others, and the land on
which others dwell, wields a political power; and when the
estate is large, we may call it a regal power : nor, except as
the delegation of a regal power, does it seem possible to find
a legal origin for large estates. Evidently an order of great
proprietors has preoccupied a large fraction both of the royal
power and of the national revenues. In siding with the
people, it will be a most effectual check on the Crown, and
may establish the public liberties, as it did against our
^Plantagenets; or in siding with the Crown against the people,
as more often happens, it will press very heavily on a nation.
Indeed the rights over land claimed and exercised by land
lords are generally greater than those which the purest
despotic power dares to exercise against a homogeneous
people. In Russia, with which I am comparing China, we
find a very paradoxical phenomenon. A monarch able to
follow a policy of his own, is generally disposed to raise up
the commonalty as a balance against a powerful nobility.
But the Russian Czars, without any necessity, under no con
straint from the nobles,—of their own free motion, as far as
I have been able to learn,—by a series of edicts called ukases,
in the course of several centuries, gradually depressed the
cultivators of the soil from freemen into serfs, and from serfs
into slaves. The process was so gradual and stealthy, that
the victims never understood it; and while groaning under
�12
the tyranny of their masters, looked fondly to the Czar as
their only protector, not knowing that the edicts of the Czars
alone had put them under that tyranny. By this strange
process, probably without foreseeing how it would act, the
despotic power of the Russian Emperor became too great for
any thing but assassination to controul: for the nobles could
never dare to arm their dependents against him. The two
elements, territorial nobility and peasant serfdom, in Russia (I
mean in Russia as she was, before our Russian war taught
the Emperor the necessity of a free peasantry) gave to the
monarchy a moral aspect quite different from that of China
or of Turkey.
I proceed to show how Aristocracy changes its mean
ing and its practical workings while retaining its name. No
better illustration can be wished than the old Roman republic
will furnish. On the expulsion of Tarquin the proud, the
patrician aristocracy became supreme, and the plebeians
found themselves without legal organs and wholly defence
less. Being themselves the army of the State, they were not
only formidable, but, when united and resolute, irresistible.
Hence in a series of years they extorted concession after
concession; yet found themselves still oppressed, still miser
able, even when they could by an effort of will controul the
legislation. In 130 years they discovered that the thing
needful was, to secure half of the supreme Executive for
their own order; and from the day that this was attained,
the whole history of Rome changed its course. This first
period of the republic is that of noxious aristocracy, while the
patricians, however often outvoted in the Legislature, kept
the supreme Executive to themselves.—The second period, to
speak roughly and avoid unnecessary detail, is that during
which the Senate was elected by merit. This was the prime,
the only flourishing period of Rome as a nation. It lasted
less than a century and a half. Aristocracy then answered
�13
to its real name. It was not an order basing its power on
land, but it was the “ government of the best.” Sismondi, a
historian of a temperament nowise democratic, declares as a
historical fact, that every aristocracy degenerates from the
day that it becomes hereditary. It is hardly too much to
say, that hereditary aristocracies are saved from contempt and
ruin only by new creations. The Roman aristocracy in its
prime was elective, not hereditary; yet the sons of nobles,
emulating the industry and public spirit of their sires, were
generally elected, and many a great family stood firmly aloft
in successive generations,—quite as many in Rome as in
modern England, if you compare their thousands to our
millions.—But (you may ask) how was this selection of merit
managed? Were the centurions and tribunes of the army
forced to undergo a literary examination, in order to discover
their patriotism, their public spirit, their promptitude, their
justice, their freedom from class-prejudice, or their moral
courage ? Did examiners allot to them 100 marks for skill
in the Oscan language, 150 for the Etruscan literature, and
300 for scanning and interpreting the songs of the Salian
priests ? Not at all. The Romans of that age went to work
in a ruder way; but it proved effectual. A plebeian law,
called the Ovinia tribunicia, was passed, without asking leave
of the Senate, by which the Censors were to elect into the
Senate men out of every rank (of officers), under oath* that
they would pick out the best men they could find. Under
* It is disagreeable to have to confess, that the passage of Festus is
corrupt, from which alone we here derive our knowledge. The important
word jurati (on oath) is obtained only by an emendation of curiati. Although
the correction is conjectural, it carries conviction with it. In the edition of
O. Muller, the words of Festus are
“ Donee Ovinia tribunicia intervenit, qua sanctum est ut censores ex
omni ordine optimum quemque curiati in senatu legerent.” Read, “jurati in
senatum legerent.” The correction jurati was suggested first by Meyer. It
is regarded as certain by Bellermann, and is in harmony with the oath which,
Zonaras says, was imposed on the Censors.
�14
this regulation, the Roman Senate soon contained (as virtue
was then understood) whatever of highest virtue the nation
could furnish. The Senate commanded the absolute confi
dence of the nation; it claimed the most heroic sacrifices,
and was promptly obeyed. Concord (with few exceptions)
and energy reigned through the whole State, and Rome soon
(alas!) became too powerful for all her neighbours. In the
first period, aristocracy certainly rested on hereditary landed
rights or claims, obscurely as we understand them. In the
second period, the aristocracy was one of merit. It was a
distinction for life, open to every deserving citizen. Utterly
diverse as were these two systems, their diversity has no
other titles than Close and Open Aristocracy. Under each
system, the popular assembly was nominally supreme, and
its “ command” was law.
That great and terrible enemy of Rome, the Carthaginian
Hannibal, on the field of Cannae slew not only 40,000 Roman
commoners, 2,500 knights, and more than 90 senators; he
slew also the Roman constitution. At least, it is clear, that
from this era the Censors ceased to interpret their oath as
binding them to choose the best man, but followed a principle
of routine which did not give at all the same results. To
supply the huge gap made by Hannibal in the Senate a
special dictator was created, who had not moral courage or
consciousness of knowledge adequate to his difficult task.
With the high approbation of the public, says Livy, he
elected 177 persons to fill the empty benches, by a mere
mechanical examination of the names in the public books.
Henceforth merit was interpreted to mean, the having held
certain high offices, without any inquiry how they had been
filled. The tumultuous populace, who under very various
influences voted young soldiers into their first civil office,
henceforth virtually elected them into the Senate. The
aristocracy was still elective ; yet from this day it was
�15
morally different. In fact, from this era the aristocracy
tended once more to become practically close. Very few men
of new families were henceforth elected. Nearly all the
senatorial contemporaries of Cicero dated their family great
ness as high as the second Punic war, and it was very hard
for a Marius or even a Cicero to rise, against the efforts of
the new nobility.
At the same time I must not conceal, that soon after the
overthrow of Hannibal a cause of degeneracy set in, so
powerful, that it must probably in every case have over
whelmed all constitutional check. Roman general^ carrying
armies into Asia, assumed a right (“in the public interest,”
of course it was said) of making wars at their own discretion ;
and as the general was sure to enrich himself and his friends
by it, the Romans (as Gibbon satirically puts it) conquered
the world in self-defence. The plebeians at first seldom
relished it; but the spirit which is called patriotism cried
out, “ Now that we are in for the war, we must go through
with it.” In consequence, to borrow Michelet’s emphatic
words, the bones of the Roman plebeians whitened every
shore of the Mediterranean, and the sons of the men whom
they conquered stepped into their places with the name of
citizens, while really clients of a princely oligarchy bloated
with the plunder of prostrate nations. "What shall we call
the Government of Rome in this third era ?
An Aristotle might reply, it is evidently an oligarchy,
the perverted form of aristocracy. Yet the most beggarly of
the citizens had equal votes with the highest and noblest, and
their vote was supreme, whether to pass laws, or to elect
magistrates up to the highest, and by such elections fill the
Senate ; also to declare war or peace, and dispose of the entire
fortunes of the provincials : nay, says Polybius, by Jupiter !
the vote of the common people can lessen the private fortune
of senators. Thus the State was in theory under the rule of
�16
perverted democracy, and in fact was swayed by an imperial
aristocracy verging ever to oligarchy.
If time allowed, and we were able to go into the history
of Venice, an entirely new phase of aristocracy would there
open itself. But I hasten to a very few remarks on
democracy. As conceived of by the ancients, a democracy
could not act except on a small scale. In fact, Aristotle says
that a polity (or organised constitution) cannot have so few as
ten citizens, or so many as a hundred thousand. A democracy
formed in a single city, where the poorest citizens assemble in
folkmote to settle the highest affairs of State, at home and
abroad, is very different from the more complicated organiza
tion which we see in Switzerland, with confederated cantons
and representative government. Much more does it differ
from the massive institutions of the great American republic,
Which is probably the most complicated political mechanism
in the whole world. To secure a voice and a hearing for
every interest, to obtain tranquil deliberation after hearing
and before judgment, is the aim of the highest and best
democracies. If this end be attained, the rights and the
interests of the many are established, and from this the rich,
the learned, the able, are in no danger of suffering. But
when, as in the past has generally happened, the rich and the
able (or, perhaps I ought to say, the crafty) do their utmost
to corrupt democracy, by bribery and by drink, by hired
ruffians and by intrigue; if democracies could not be crushed
by violence, they might be expected to perish by contempt.
Their vices are almost always chargeable on the cabals of
oligarchs.
Time reminds me that I must pass to an important topic
not yet touched on,—a topic essentially affecting every form
of Government, yet not hinted at in their names. I refer to
the existence of great colonies, as parts of an imperial polity.
When colonies are formed over a continuous continental area,
�17
the problem of colonial organization is comparatively easy.
It was pretty well solved by the Romans : it has been far
more completely solved by the United States of America.
The object is, to effect a real adherence and ultimate consoli
dation of every colony with the mother state, who supports
the colony in infancy, imparts rights as fast as they can be
used, and exacts duty as early as it can be fulfilled ; until the
colony, fully grown, is adopted into absolute equality and is
finally incorporated with the mother. When the imperial
institutions are so impartial and so flexible as to fulfil these
conditions, the machinery suffers no strain, and the moral
character of the government remains unchanged. But the
case is widely different when the colonies are separated from
the mother country or from the imperial centre by wide tracts
of sea, and incorporation is difficult or impossible. Such
were the colonies of Tyre and ancient Athens; such also those
of Portugal, of Spain, of Holland and of England. Athens,
with certain exceptions, left her colonies to shift for them
selves from the beginning, neither giving protection nor ex
pecting allegiance. Whatever grave objections may be urged
against this, it at least did not derange or burden the mother
city. But the conduct of modern Europe towards her trans
marine colonies has been in every respect the opposite.
Allegiance over them has been claimed, protection has been
given, and with the protection a jealous exclusionism has
been enforced. In fact, so soon as any country fell into a
colonial position, by the absenteeship of its central executive,
it has been liable to suffer a frightful drain of capital, together
with the crippling of industry and other colonial degradation.
The false political economy of past centuries taught that the
use of extra European colonies was, to swell the mercantile
navy and enhance the mercantile profits of the mother country.
I have read that when the merchants of Cadiz complained to
the Spanish Government that their wines were falling in
�18
j
demand, the Government replied by sending out an order to
Mexico to root up all the vines in that colony. Our own
Lord Chatham, who stood forth as champion of our American
colonies and condemned the attempts of the English Parlia
ment to tax them, declared that he would not consent to the
colonists manufacturing for themselves so much as a horse
shoe nail. To cripple their marine, under the idea that this
would enlarge our own, was a fixed object of policy with
English ministers of every school. Under the blighting
influence of the commercial theories then prevalent, most
European colonies felt bitterly aggrieved. So too Sicily, first
under Spain, then under Naples, not as a conquered province,
but as a royal inheritance, yet suffered under the blight of
absenteeship. Time forbids me to press the still more strik
ing case of Hungary under her Austrian dynasty. I may
barely allude to the colonial position of Ireland, and to the
avowed policy of William the Third’s English Parliament to
cripple the manufactures of Ireland by way of benefit to the
manufactures of England. My sole object in these references
is, to insist that colonies are apt to break up the unity of a
nation exactly as do foreign conquests: and that if our
nomenclature were philosophical and perfect, it would take
cognizance of the change. If it cannot, we must beware of
fine names, as liable to hide fallacies; and remember that
Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Government may
mean one thing to one part of an empire, and a very different
thing to another.
But you may think it full time to ask me, on what more
philosophical principle national constitutions can possibly be
classified. I will sketch certain outlines in reply. The first
class of organised communities is that in which personal will
rules. This is the barbaric stage of crude despotism. It has
nevertheless been perpetuated into civilized regions and ages
by unhappy contingencies; as in despotic France, Spam and
�19
Russia ; on a smaller scale in Italian princedoms ; and worst
of all, in systems of slavery. In contrast to the Rule of
Personal Will is the Rule of Law. When law is righteous, to
be subject to it is our highest benefit, our highest glory ; and
while we suppose it to be righteous, subjection to it nurtures
our manliness, and in many respects trains us virtuously.
But nations which profess subjection to law split here into
two classes. The one class holds the law to be unchangeable,
as having come down from the obscure and distant past.
Such were the old theocracies; such the Turkish rule in
modern days; such also the Chinese institutions, although
not ostensibly religious. If the unchangeable law be ample,
and no great interests uncontemplated by it have arisen, the
nation neither needs nor can admit legislative organs : at most
it has doctors of law, whose duty it is to report traditional
judgments or to interpret a received code. This I hold to be
the second class of states. When the law has been skilfully
adapted to the people (and this is sufficiently proved by their
steady adherence to it from a distant past), it ensures for them
a certain amount of well-being, so long as foreign nations let
them alone, and while they do not try their own hand at con
quest. It is by an instinct of self-defence that China and
Japan have repelled the intrusion of Europeans. The Otto
mans, living by themselves, would have been frugal and
virtuous; but their institutions could not be so modified as to
embrace Christians into equal citizenship. By conquering,
they spoiled their own position. Institutions belonging to
this second class, having an unchangeable law, pay the
penalty of being inflexible. In long time they fall out of
harmony with the changed circumstances of mankind. In
the third class of institutions it is pronounced that law ought
indeed to be righteous and sacred, but is in fact only that
approximation to right which fallible men have attained.
Therefore it must not be unchangeable, but it must be sus-
�20
ceptible of repeal or addition under strictly formal regulations.
This is the reign of Secular, as opposed to Theocratic Law!
We find Theocracies chiefly in Asia.
Through deficiency of historical knowledge, we can
scarcely go higher into antiquity than the free States of
Greece for examples of legislation by deliberations and solemn
voting; yet this very thing seems natural to Europe, and
therefore to man : for it grew up among the rude Italians, the
ruder Gauls, the very barbarous Germans; and we find it in
the Slavonic Bohemians and Sarmatian Magyars. Man, says
Aristotle, is a political animal: and in the rudest tribes we
often find germs of the highest political developments.
We are now apt to think of the theocratic or unchange
able system of law as belonging only to ages long past. Yet
it avails but little to admit in the abstract that law is change
able, if in practice a large and cardinal part of the law is
withdrawn from criticism, and is avowed to be unchangeable,
just because it is very old. If a community has undergone
but little internal change, even its oldest laws may still be
very suitable; but if the condition of the people has largely
changed, then the age of a law is no recommendation. Insti
tutions expedient to guard against the despotism of a warrior
king, while a nobility was struggling for the public liberties
together with its own, may become noxious in a totally new
conjuncture of affairs. Claims over land which are endurable
where land is plentiful and people few, may be unendurable
where people are numerous and land scarce. Exceptional
privileges, established in an era at which some worse dangers
had to be repelled, may be manifestly indefensible when those
dangers are past. A state in which there are privileged
orders, whose privileges are treated as inviolable and as
closed against inquiry and legislation, can hardly be referred
to the third or European class : it rather belongs to the
Asiatic, Chinese or Theocratic class, which attributes a divine
�21
sacredness to its oldest, and perhaps to its most mischievous
institutions.
But, however important the enacting of good law, the
impartial enforcement of law is more vital still. To gain fair
ness and intelligence in the tribunals is perhaps, of all the
items which make up freedom, the hardest. The English
have aimed at it through their jury-system. Yet through
many a dreary page of English history the juries have been
so put under terror and the judges so bent upon conviction,
that the tribunals have been stigmatised as dens of murderers.
Hitherto it would seem, that no human institution equals a
free jury for defending the innocent. It is by no means so
efficient for punishing the guilty. But with some diffidence
I suggest, that we know almost nothing of a constitution,
until we know what are its provisions for the administration
of justice.
At the same time, equality before the tribunals is essential
foi all justice, and it is extremely difficult to attain this
equality for social rights, if there be not full political equality.
On this rock all systems which admit diversities of franchise
are apt to founder. Exclusion of a race, a class, or a sex
from political power appears inevitably to entail an inability
to defend itself from social injustices. This it is which forces
philanthropy to put on the garb of political partizanship, and
claim power for the weaker classes of society, as for the negro
freedmen of the United States, or for intelligent and delicate
Indians of Bengal. This consideration probably decided our
great Reform ministry of 1833 to insist upon the absolute
political equality of Indians to English, excluding the Indians
from only tye two high offices of Governor-General and
Commander-in-Chief.
Again, in the study of a national constitution we do not
know much of its practical working, until we learn what are
�22
i
its laws of land, in what masses land is held by individuals,
and what powers landholders have to legislate landed rights
to themselves. Sometimes to know these things may at once
pour a flood of light over the state of affairs. If we were to
discover that in Japan the great nobility, holding the land in
large masses, had for six centuries wielded decisive uncontroulable power over legislation, while the cultivators had not
even had a voice in the legislative assembly, much less a vote,
we should at once confidently infer that the interests both of
the peasants and of the public had been unscrupulously sacri
ficed. The unseen and unheard are sure to suffer, and the
more gradual the enactments which confiscate their right, the
more subtle and the more permanent is the mischief. It is
not the powerful, but the weak, who most need legislative
protection.
I have already alluded to the vital importance of in
violable local treasuries, so that the moneys gathered for road
tolls or works of irrigation should not be spent in war or
wasted in court-display. This is in fact but one illustration
of a great principle, which my limits forbid me to develop.
An empire ought not to be like a sensitive animal body of
the highest class, which is killed at once by a wound in the
heart or brain. Every part should be ordinarily self-support
ing, with life and strength to spare ; though each is reinforced
by the common life of the system. Such an empire is rather
like an Indian banyan, in which every great branch throws
its own separate stem into the earth ; and there striking root,
draws for itself an independent nourishment, without in
terrupting its vital relations with the parent stock. It has
been said by some, that each part of an empire should exhibit
the central institutions in miniature. If this be impossible,
yet at least every part should have an active political life,
competent for self-support.
�23
But it is time for me to sum up.
Assuming the rule of personal will to be left behind in
the past, the topics to be primarily studied in a national con
stitution, as of far higher importance than any of the current
names, are :—1. The bona fide openness of the institutions to
legislative correction.
2. The apparatus for correcting
defective law. 3. The equality of all persons before the
tribunals. 4. The securities taken for the impartiality of the
tribunals. 5. The laws of land. 6. The extent to which
every locality has a self-sufficiency to sustain its own existence; to suppress violence and maintain its needful supplies.
To tell us how many of these problems are well solved in
a particular constitution, is to give us very valuable know
ledge concerning it; but to tell us that it is a royalty or a
republic, that it is Christian or Pagan, is almost to tell us
nothing at all.
,
At the same time, historical experience hitherto con
verges to the belief that none of these important topics can
be permanently well treated without freedom of speech and
press, free juries, and representative institutions ; and that at
the bottom of all must rest homogeneous political right.
For justice internally, for strength externally, for patriot
ism and national spirit, evidently the shell of a constitution is
of less importance than that common interest which equality
of right gives and exceptional privilege tends to destroy.
France is a powerful country, under whatever government
and cannot be greatly misgoverned, because she is inwardly
homogeneous, and conscious of a single nationality. Russia,
though embarrassed by Poland, imperfectly emancipated
herself, and not clear of difficulties from the Cossack Church,
is tending rapidly to a condition of homogeneity on a still
grander scale. The United States, if they successfully sur
mount the still contested struggle, and establish the coloured
races in absolute equality with the white, will become greater
�24
than Russia and by far the first community in the world.
But, for the fate of empires which are not homogeneous, we
have but to recall such names as Assyria and Babylon, Persia
and Macedonia; in which a dominant race enforced temporary
supremacy over reluctant subjects, whom it never adopted
into equality. Imperial Rome was wiser, though far from
wholly wise, and never really large hearted ; yet she secured
powerful support in every conquered country by her bestowal
of the Roman franchise. Very imperfect as was the liberality,
and terrible the serfdom and slavery, yet even so, she earned
by it an astonishing cohesion in spite of feeble Emperors. In
contrast we have recently seen how Austria,—from the hetero
geneousness of her dominion and the ingenious folly by which
she forfeited affection and all moral claims to allegiance,—
crumbled ^before foreign attack. When an imperial bubble
bursts, many will moralise, more will triumph, a few will
pity; but their pity comes to the fallen with all the force of
insult.
. ' .
‘
• ’ .■■rtfaMT lol ,V •.
,
J 1O
»'•' '
ARROWSMITH PRINTER, QUAY STREET, BRISTOL,
"*•
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
On the philosophical classification of national institutions.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Newman, Francis William [1805-1897.]
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London; Bristol
Collation: 24 p. ; 21 cm.
Notes: : A lecture delivered at the Bristol Institution for the Advancement of Science, Literature and the Arts, March 4th, 1867. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. The title page cites the author as F.N. Newman which has been corrected to a W in ink by (presumably) Conway. Printed by Arrowmsith, Quay Street, Bristol.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Trubner & Co. ; T. Kerslake & Co.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5211
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (On the philosophical classification of national institutions.), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Subject
The topic of the resource
Political Science
Conway Tracts
Political Science
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/fe1ca365d1b5084c16119d7e6ad8ff32.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=H9sITCL2ComTktjp36h2oeFeir-eTGY8eRmWMWlhDuwtwbnsC1HAPkPC0Av35tLFR1YzlyXdJXpL0R6knFKAPKexWi1o5MYZ-YPHS7hQt7T4pHQ8p9kQfTzaQto%7Ee3sDo7oLbOJIa3jAp7mfP%7EmGcPJgjsfPwVBueivjo73pgXhsObfgu3dfp0pFAQ9CFq2oHIK4GIKVYRJSPKRl2q3U8bviV8RkTMTJsJ27BqrlztYaVDF3HuzaIk5-QHBEG4cWrn4iy2gho-SsFz4yr9DwkM47p0FM08lmRyg7gK1i7pWt91CLGR%7E7dwPofpM3KD-rpFkb8zdWTLZZUdMF1M8ugw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
c70a395d22df8d194aad16e34dafd641
PDF Text
Text
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF
MRS. F. W. LANDER,
FORMERLY
MISS JEAN M. DAVENPORT,
TZRTLG-ZEZDIZEZTZLTIE,
WITH CRITICISMS OF THE PRESS ON HER RENDITION OF
ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND.
Mrs. Lander will commence a brief engagement at the French Theatre, (Fourteen th St.
and Sixth Avenue, New York,) on the 19th of August, with a Company of
Ladies and Gentlemen of her own selection.
THE LANDER HISTRIONIC COMPANY,
T.
E.
EULG-II,
M-ALLA-G-EK,.
PHILADELPHIA:
1S67.
�Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867,
By T. B. PUGH,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
�BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF
MRS. F. W. LANDER,
(formerly
miss jean m. davenport,)
TRAGEDIENNE.
The profound impresssion which the genius of this great artist has created in the mind
of the intelligent and cultured public of America since her return to the stage in 1865,
and particularly by her impersonation of the character of Elizabeth, has had no counter
part since Rachel gave her last performance in this country. Public feeling has been so
greatly aroused regarding her, that the antecedents and facts of her life have been eagerly
sought for, and whatever is known of them have been the most engaging themes of refined
society. We purpose, herewith, to present such authenticated facts of her remarkable
career as an artiste as have come within our knowledge, and which go to show her excel
lence not only as an actress, but as a pure, elevated, and gentle woman.
Her father, an English gentleman, received a liberal education and practiced law in
Edinburg, in which pursuit he was eminently successful, when his attention was first
attracted to the stage by witnessing the acting of the elder Kean.
Mr. Davenport succeeded Mr. Kean in the management of the Richmond Theatre, and
it was here that the marvellous talents of his young daughter were discovered. Mr.
Davenport not being disposed to permit his child to adopt the stage as a profession, dis
couraged her youthful attempts, but at even so early an age, she discovered such ample
fitness for it, and her predilections were so strongly bent in that way, that her family did
not consider it advisable to further oppose her inclination or to debar the public from the
pleasure her rising genius would undoubtedly bestow. She accordingly made her first
appearance on the stage, at the age of seven years, at the Richmond Theatre, in the
character of Little Pickle in the “ Spoiled Child.” Her debut was artistically and pecu
niarily a success, and directed by the judicious advice of friends she immediately essayed
othei and more pretentious parts, in which the same triumphant success crowned her
efforts.
After playing protracted engagements in all the principal cities of England and Scotland
to large and enthusiastic audiences, she crossed over into Ireland, and in the city of Dub
lin each night of her performance was an ovation to her genius such as only the impulsive,
sympathetic Irish Nation could bestow. From Dublin without previous preparation or
long fore-heralding she sailed for America, where her eminent services were immediately
secured by that grand old artist Mr. James Wallack, who was at the time manager of the
�4
old National Theatre in New York. The fair young face he looked into glowed with beauty,
genius and strength, and in the rare sweetness of her voice, her natural grace of form and
manner, he, the great artist, recognized the woman who ere long would adequately repre
sent the heroines of the Drama; heroines which for so long had had no representative.
Mr. Wallack was not disappointed in his predictions, her career of twelve nights at his
theatre was one continued triumph, and this grand old veteran of the stage lived long
enough to see his protege, the foremost actress of them all.
Wherever she appeared the same admiring multitudes crowded the theatre, the same
cordial greetings met her, the same hearty, earnest welcomes were accorded her, and
which so impressed her mind that she resolved to make America her home.
From that day of her infantile successes until the present, as an actress of certain
great parts Mrs. Lander has stood alone upon our stage, without a single rival to dispute
her right. She is indeed, (although still (young and in the very zenith of her superb
powers) the founder of the American School of Acting. Not of that new sensational,
tawdry, tinselled school, which substitutes liberal display of person, stilted declamation
and startling pose in the absence of genius to conceive and mind to execute, but of that
older method which is distinguished by its superlative finish, a high and conscientious
regard for the dignity and honor of the drama, by simple grace and generous culture, by
profound feeling, judgment and emotion. Mrs. Lander’s genius cannot stoop to tawdry
trickery to catch the momentary applause, it is pure, noble as her woman’s nature is, as
her beautiful life has ever been, and only in pure conceptions and in noble actions can it
find expression. It is broad and generous as the air, not hampered by any musty tradi
tions of the theatre, but fresh, strong, original; it is always correct, repressed, classical,
yet it ever glows with a tropical warmth; it is not confined within any narrow limits, but
it embraces all the great parts of the Masters of Comedy and Tragedy alike. There are
upon the American stage but few capable representatives of those profoundly charming
creations, the women of Shakspere ; there is not one who approaches Mrs. Lander in por
traying the graceful, elevated natures of these characters. From her genius they have
caught a suppler grace and a more tender beauty of person and mind. Her own subtle
spirit, dainty, pure and simple as Ariel’s, infuses itself into them and they become to her
audience real and true as any living creature among them all, gliding before them in a
halo of impassioned splendor. Mrs. Lander’s exquisite taste, her great culture and her
delicately refined instinct, all contribute to render her performances rarely beautiful and
satisfying.
But'however ample her reputation had grown through her artistic elimination of the
more ordinary characters of the drama, it was not until the last year that the full breadth
and extent of her genius were developed. As the impassioned Adrienne Le Couvreur, Mrs.
Lander was only distanced by the sublime genius of Rachel, whose fiery spirit seemed to
enter into and inspire it, and Mrs. Lander’s delineation was so little behind that of her
imperial French rival, that although Ristori essayed the part, it was confessed by her
friends that the American artiste still held the second place. But the very height and cul
mination of her talents, were only reached when she within the last few months produced
her great part of Elizabeth. Ristori, the wonderfully gifted Italian artiste had excited the
furor of eager audiences to witness her impersonation of this character. On one occasion
Mrs. Lander was among the audience, and she then and there resolved to play the part.
She felt that to do it properly, required a nature that could, through its sympathies and
traditions, come closer to that great Elizabeth of Shakspere’s age and country than any
foreigner, however richly endowed, could do. These two great artistes are of different
methods, widely dissimilar in many things, yet it is not unfair to either to place their
works side by side and say which is best done. They each gave to the elimination of the
character of Elizabeth their best of genius, talents and study, and when the pictures were
satisfactorily completed to their own senses, they invited the public to see, to criticise.
�5
Where Ristori, girded about and held down by the old palsied traditions of the Italian
stage was icily cold, unimpassioned, yet sublimely classical, Mrs. Lander was profoundly
emotional, equally classical, but portraying every phase of feeling, suffering and hatred with
a sun-like warmth and glow. Just here the Italian might by a rare flash of her native
spirit, or just there by some powerfully conceived device strongly impress the minds of
her auditors, but the charm of Mrs. Lander’s portrayal of the part is, that it appeals no
less to the heart than to the mind; that it is of an even excellence, a beautiful whole,
composed of a succession and combination of beauties following each other in perfect
harmony. The tender womanly feeling, the hatred, engendered by jealousy, the cruel
hypocrisy, the pathos and pain of the character, were all rendered with such exquisite
judgment, repressed power and profound art, that those who had seen Ristori in the part,
felt that here was her master in their own fair countrywoman.
With Mrs. Lander the production of Elizabeth was not a sudden impulse, prematurely
developed. For many months she gave to the character the closest thought, the sincerest
study, and it was not until she felt that she had mastered it in all its subtle details of
thought, feeling and passion, that she ventured to produce it. The superb dresses which
she wears, were made in Paris from historical studies made in London and at Windsor, and
not only their correctness of detail but their great elegance excited the admiration of all
who have been so happy as to see them worn by this great artiste.
Thus far Mrs. Lander has had but limited opportunities of presenting Elizabeth to the
public. In the city of Washington, during a prolonged engagement, she performed the
part every night to increasing audiences, composed of the best minds of the nation, gathered
together at the Capital during a late session of Congress. In the city of Philadelphia, after
performing the part for eight nights at the Walnut Street Theatre, that spacious house was
found inadequate to accommodate the immense crowds which, each night of the perfor
mance, clamored for admittance; and in consequence the play was transferred to the stage
of the Academy of Music, the largest building in America devoted to theatrical represen
tations. The wonderful beauty of the delineation, and the marvellous powers of the act
ress, here attracted for six nights the largest audiences ever assembled in the Academy;
and if Mrs. Lander had not been compelled, by previous engagements, to discontinue the
production of Elizabeth in Philadelphia, her success would have continued to an indefinite
period. Wherever, in fact, Elizabeth has been performed by her, the public, press, and her
vast audiences, have vied with each other in attempts to properly characterize their appre
ciation of the grandeur of this latest and maturest effort of her genius. In it she has
created a greater and more enduring impression than any similar theatrical triumph than
the public has been called upon to assist at for many years.
Not only as the inspired and impassioned artiste does Mrs. Lander challenge our admi
ration and regard. Her wonderful genius is but one of the great charms of her mind and
person. She possesses all the elements of character which fit her for the adornment of
society or the delight of home. In personating the cultured, graceful and beautiful hero
ines of the Drama, she acts no alien part; she has simply to be herself; her pure, natural
self, in whom beauty of form, feature and mind are exquisitely blended and combined.
To express the emotion, humor or pathos of the characters she represents, she simply occu
pies their positions, and thereby excites our admiration, laughter or pity. All the grace
and charm of perfect womanhood, enhanced by cultivation, profound study and art, are
her’s; and these she uses right royally as a beautiful, refined and noble lady should do, for
the benefit of her elevating Art and the pleasure of an intelligent public.
Whatever her hands have been put to do they have done well. As an actress she has
no peer, as a woman her life has been characterized by purity, gentleness and humanity.
Previous to the war of the rebellion, she retired from the stage with the determination, as
she believed, never again to return to it, to become the wife of Colonel (afterwards General)
Lander, who early in the struggle lost his life, leaving his young wife alone with her loss
�6
and pain. Her noble nature scorned to sit down in idle grief, and almost at once she
began her humane services as Chief Matron in the hospitals, organizing corps of nurses,
going day by day, night after night, to the couches of the wounded, sick and dying,
bestowing cheering words to some, here binding up a wound, there holding up
feeble hands in their last prayer, or decently composing the limbs of a dead hero
ere the earth closed over him. Heroes from a hundred battle-fields were waited upon
by her, no services rendered to them were too menial for her to do, no danger too
great for her to dare in the cause of humanity, for not alone to the hospital and camp
were her graceful, womanly labors confined, but amid the din and carnage of battle,
her tenderness was felt and her work performed. And when at last the work of death
was done, and dying men had said to her their last “ God bless you,” she returned again
to her eastern home a widow, lonely, bereft and sorrowful. To one of her great energy
action was necessary to prevent her sinking under great grief, and once again by the
advice of friends, she returned to that stage which she had never trod but to elevate and
adorn.
In this brief sketch we have but too feebly portrayed the character of Mrs. Lander
either as an artiste or woman. But in the hope that an abler pen will hereafter do her
great services to the drama and to humanity ampler justice, we can only commend this
painstaking actress and good woman to the affectionate regard and consideration of all
those who honor charity, and who would wish to see upon the American stage an elevated
drama unmarred by grossness and without a tinge of impurity, a drama which with its
sister arts of Painting, Music and Poetry, should strengthen and develop true and
beautiful thought in the world.
�OHITTIOTTS OP THE IFEEZESS.
[Washington Chronicle, April, 1867.]
Mrs. Lander as Elizabeth.—The National
Theatre was the scene of an artistic triumph on
Saturday night, when the character of Eliza
beth, the most fortunate and illustrious of mod
ern sovereigns, was given by Mrs. Lander with
wonderful beauty and power. One of the most
select audiences that we have ever seen in a
Washington Theatre witnessed the representa
tion, and to say that they were spell-bound by
the genius of the great actress is but a moderate
expression of the emotion everywhere evinced.
It were a waste of words to compare the
Elizabeth of Mrs. Lander and that of Ristori.—
Both are grand, but they are utterly unlike.
The former is Protestant the latter Catholic;
the one is from an English stand-point, the
other from an Italian. Both are artistic con
ceptions, but, in our opinion, Mrs. Lander ex
cels the Italian artiste in representing the stout
heart and haughty temper, the strong self-will
and energy, the love of courtly pomp and mag
nificence which characterized the great English
Queen. Most beautifully, too, were the oppo
site traits of character portrayed by Mrs. Lan
der—the kingly, fierce and masculine traits and
the tender, womanly and sometimes tearful emo
tions. In her love passage with Essex Mrs. Lan
der was imcomparablc. There her noble, gentle
and sweet character, fully expressed itself, and
in exhibiting the womanly traits of the Queen,
she showed her own pure and loving soul. More
than once did we catch glimpses of that noble
devotion with which she loved her lamented
husband, and of the lofty nature which gained
for her the adoration of that nohle and chivalric man. Want of space forbids us to enlarge.
We could say much in praise, both of the artiste
and the performance, which by the way was
well sustained in most of the subordinate parts.
But to those who like ourselves have the pleas
ure of knowing Mrs. Lander personally, noth
ing we could say would increase their admira
tion, both for her abitity as an artiste and her
pure and winning character as a woman ; and
to those who have never seen her we only say,
seize the earliest opportunity you have to wit
ness her Elizabeth.
[Philadelphia Press, May 4th, 1867.]
The Walnut.—Mrs. F. W. Lander as
Elizabeth.—We were safe in saying that the
Elizabeth of Mrs. F. W. Lander would bo mag
nificent. The role has been so thorough a study
with Mrs. Lander as to demand that it should
be thoroughly studied by the critic, before he
shall presume to call liis impressions rife. And
for this reason, if for no other, we have com
paratively little to say this morning of a per
formance whose power and beauty have rarely
been equalled upon the modern stage. In the
series of pictures with which the five acts of the
historical drama abound, two stand prominently
forth. These are the simultaneous dictation of
the two letters in act first, and the marvellously
conducted whole of act fourth, dedicated to the
signature of Essex’s death-warrant. There is no
other portion of the play, indeed, to which re
collections will not cling, and tenaciously at
that; but memory grapples on to these two
more especially, and with all her vitality re
fuses to let them go. The dictation of the let
ters, one to Leicester and the other to Popham,
was a wonderfully beautiful piece in declama
tion, which we do not remember to have ever
heard equalled in. the English tongue; the
modulations of voice in the repetition of the
signature, “ Elizabeth," being the complete key
and exposition of all that had gone before. The
entire audience recognized the grand beauty
of this passage, and applauded with lightninglike intelligence. . The second of these two
pictures, the entire fourth act, was. a more
thoroughly soul-subduing piece of acting than
our knowledge of even Mrs. Lander’s genius
had prepared us to anticipate. We feel con
vinced that the more sympathetic among the
audience felt the real power of this actress for
the first time, at the moment when the death
warrant being signed, the great Queen’s face got
old in a moment, with that indelible aspect
which such instantaneous age brings with it.
Her endeavor to conceal the signature at the
approach of Davison, the clutching expression
of eye and limbs and lineaments, when the
warrant is finally delivered into Davison’s
hands, and her final dismissal of her attendants,
that she may be left alone with, her remorse
and with her God, were all conceived with the
exquisite and subtle power of true genius, full
of beauty of the most tender and agonizing
type. But the entire role demands of the
observer more elaborate thought than can be
contained in those few generalizations, and we
propose to return to the subject again and again.
[The Philadelphia Press, May 5th, 1867.]
The Walnut.—Having witnessed Mrs. Lan
ders Elizabeth but once, we can only repeat to
day the substance of what we yesterday said,
viz: that before arriving at the ultimatum of
opinion, it is necessary that the observer should
bestow upon Mrs. Lander’s portrait of the char
acter a degree of study bearing some rela
tion, at least, to that which Mrs. Lander has
herself bestowed upon the subject of the por
trait. For, throughout , every scene of the
drama, which, commencing in 1585, with the
Queen's quarrel with Leicester, on account of
his presumptuous conduct in the Low Countries,
ends only with her death at the age of seventy,
it is eVident that Mrs. Lander has not only
studied what the character innately was in it
self, but that she has estimated the stages of
development which the progress of years would
effect. Of the series of pictures which so elabo
rate a study enables her to present, two, in our
opinion, appeal most strongly to the memory.
These arc the Dictation of the Letters, in act
first, and the Signing of the Death Warrant, in
act fourth. In the first instance, the Queen is
represented as dictating two letters at once.
�8
One is to the Earl of Leicester, with whom she
is offended for his having aspired to the Crown
of Belgium; and the other is to Chief Justice
Popham, directing him to pay Shakspere’s debt,
and to set the poet at liberty, so that “Henry
the Eighth ” may be produced at the Court
Theatre, at Windsor, within fifteen days. The
entire scene is an exquisite piece of declama
tion, and its beauty consists in the perfect sym
metry with which the modulations of the
Queen's voice correspond to her antithetic
moods, as she moves her head first to one secre
tary, then to the other, until the final name,
Elizabeth, is pronounced, but with such vast
space between the intonations, that in those two
tones the spirit of the entire dictation lies. The
Iliad of the scene is in that nutshell of a word.
But, perhaps, a better idea can be given of the
degree of art necessary to the just rendition of
such a scene, by placing before the reader the
two letters, each complete in itself. That to
Leicester reads thus:
Most Arrogant Earl: Crowns are not made for
heads like yours, far less that of Belgium, which
has already been refused by your sovereign. Re
sign forthwith the command of the troops in favor
of Sir Walter Raleigh. Otherwise we shall order
a despatch of cavalry to arrest you; and Chief
Justice Popham, to whom at this moment we are
inditing a most gracious epistle, will place on your
head a crown of thorns.
Yours, according to your deserts,
Elizabeth.
And the letter to Chief Justice Popham runs
in this wise:
Dear Popham : I have permitted the performance
of Henry the Eighth. But as Shakspere is now in
prison for debt, you will therefore have the honor
of paying those debts for him, in virt ue of the order
which Sir Francis Bacon will present to you. I
hope that another time you will put on your spec
tacles, in order the better to distinguish white from
black.
Your most gracious sovereign,
Elizabeth.
Let the reader imagine these two very differ
ent letters dictated at onoe, the alternate sen
tences of each dovetailing with those of the
other, and he will comprehend the quality and
degree of art which may be evinced tn the Dic
tation Scene.
The second phase to which we have referred
as demanding especial admiration, is the sign
ing of tiie Death Warrant, which, with its
accompanying incidents, occupies the whole of
the fourth act. And throughout the agonizing
situations with which that act abounds, Mrs.
Lander was great; great, not in the paltry sense
in which that word has come to be used, as
signifying something merely above the ordinary
level, but great as towering a head and shoul
ders above the efforts of almost every other
actress in the English tongue whom we have
ever seen. True poets are said to paint by
words, and their language is sometimes called
word-painting. Mrs. Lander, when she does
not paint by words, gives us act-paintings;
and when she does not paint by acts, gives us
the subtler, grander thought-painting, upon
the glowing canvas of mute expression. All
the tortures that a mighty Queen like AZZZzo&etA
could feel, at the moment which, cutting off the
ripe, golden life of one she loved, gave the
death-blow to her own old age, became photo
graphed upon the face of the actress, through
out that superb fourth act. Her disgust and
abhorrence of Sir Francis Drake; her dreadful
anxiety after intelligence from the tower; her
reception, perforce, of the death-sentence of
Essex, handed to her by Burleigh: the tierce,
brief, solitary conflict between love and pride,
to which she puts a desperate end by the attach
ment of the fatal signature ; the instantaneous
deepening of the look of age into the aspect of
horrible decrepitude, when once the deed is
done; her frantic,involuntary effort to conceal
the fact from the jealous eyes of Davison, sent
by the Lord Chancellor to receive the warrant,
signed: the final delivery of it up into the hands
of the Keeper of the Seal; the moral agony, in
look and attitude, which thirst and hunger to
have it back again, as it is borne away; the
dreadful speed she urges upon Hudson when
she learns, too late, that Essex <lid send the
ring; the look of death settling upon the face,
never to leave it again, when the boom of the
cannon is heard, and word is brought her that
her favorite is no more; her frenzied dismissal
of her attendants, and final falling forward
upon her features, arms outstretched and body
writhing, alone with her remorse and God—
these are the prominent figures in a tissue of
acting almost, we believe, unparalleled for truth
and beauty.
The Elizabeth of Mrs. Lander, then, is the
dramatic event of the day. We shall have
more to say of other portions of her acting on
a subsequent occasion, when we shall expect to
apply subtler and acuter tests. At present we
can only add that the Walnut Street Theatre
will, without a doubt, be crowded with intel
lectual audiences so long as Mrs. Lander chooses
to retain this part upon the stage of that estab
lishment.
*
*
*
*
*.
*
It would be extremely unjust to close without
asking attention to the unusually spirited act
ing of Mr. J. II. Taylor in the part of Essex.
It is a role which suits that fine actor to perfec
tion, and his performance throughout the third
act elicited peal after peal of wholly irrestrainable applause.
[Philadelphia Evening Bulletin. May 6th, 1867.]
The Walnut.—Mrs. F. W. Lander gave a per
formance of Elizabeth last evening at the Wal
nut to a large audience. If Mrs. Lander had no
other claim to the title of a great and true ac
tress, this alone would suffice. Not only is her
conception of the character true to history, but
her bearing, her noble and dignified action, and
her impressive and forcible, but yet subdued
delivery, were true in the minutest particular
to the queenly character which she assumed.
The great monarch, the vain, weak woman, and
the fender lover were depicted by turns in her
performance with surprising grace and skill.—
The fiery impetuosity of the Eighth Henry and
the gentleness and sweetness of Anne Boleyn
were mingled in the character which was so
graphically drawn by Mrs. Lander last evening.
Those who were familiar with the personal his
tory of England's greatest Queen saw before
them a true representation of those traits ot
character and peculiarities of temperament and
disposition which combined to make her at once
a true woman and a mighty sovereign; while
those who knew her history but imperfectly,
learned more of it, and learned it more truly
and fully than they could have done from the
pages of history.
*
*
*
*
Taking the representation as a whole, it has
rarely been equaled upon the modern stage.—
There was no rant, no violence, nor untruth to
nature; even in the moments of deepest and
fiercest passion, the actress was quiet, and elo
quent from the very fact that her emotion was
repressed and subdued. In the scene in. the
first act, where she dictates a fierce and bitter
letter to Leicester in Holland, and at the same
time a tender epistle in behalf of the imprisoned
Shaksperc, the change of tone and the play of
countenance were very fine, and called forth
well-deserved applause. The love passage with
Essex in the second act was also excellent, lhe
�9
artist depicted most eloquently the struggle be
tween queenly pride and womanly affection, as
in the scene where she signs the death-warrant
of Mary, Queen of Scots, she expressed her
jealousy of her rival and her pain at doing what
she felt to be a necessary, but a cruel and dread
ful deed. Herinterview with James VI., in the
same act, was also very fine, and was worthy of
her great reputation. The scene in the third
act, where Essex returns from Spain and is re
buked for his disobedience, was admirably per
formed. Throughout the episode Mrs. Lander,
although wrought to a frenzy of rage and striv
ing to find suitable expression for her insulted
dignity, was subdued and womanly. There was
none of that boisterousness, that “tearing of
passion to tatters” which we are accustomed to
near from actors and actresses upon like occa
sions, and in just the same proportion as her
anger found a natural expression, was her im
pressiveness strengthened.
*
*
*
For the two last acts, however, were reserved
the finest and most effective scenes in the play.
In the fourth act, where the Queen looks anx
iously for the ring from Essex so that she may
have some excuse for pardoning him, Mrs. Lan
der was truly great. The death-warrant lay
upon the table awaiting her signature, and the
struggle between duty and love, between pride
and tender affection, and the eagerness of hope,
that gives way at last to anger that her love has
been slighted, were drawn with intense and
vivid power. When the booming cannon echoes
forth the tidings of the Earl’s death Elizabeth
is overcome, and she falls fainting and gasping
for breath upon the chair. This was given with
surpassing grace and fervor and has rarely been
excelled by any popular actress. The reproaches
heaped upon the head of Bacon were also given
with powerful emphasis.
In the last act Jthe Queen has grown old and
infirm; the forehead is wrinkled and her cheeks
are pale and sunken; but she wears her crown
with all her old queenly grace and dignity,
mingled with a sweet pathos as her memory re
verts to the fate of the loved Essex, and as she
totters to the couch and falls upon it, his face
and that of Mary Stuart’s rise up before her
failing vision and, seeming to upbraid her, fill
her with horror and remorse for her part in their
deaths. This was the finest passage in the play.
The agony of fear which Mrs. Lander displayed
as she drew her robes about her and shrank
back cowering upon the bed, was inexpressibly
grand and affecting. It could only have been
given by an artist who forgot self entirely and
felt herself to he the character that she perso
nated. And this is true, also, of the closing
scene, where she snatches the crown from James
and, placing it upon her own head, proclaims
herself still the Queen.
*
*
*
[Philadelphia Sunday Dispatch, May 12/A, 1867.]
At the Walnut, Mrs. Lander has appeared
every evening during the past week as Queen
Elizabeth, in an excellent translation of the
play by Signor Giacometti, which Riston has
been acting with so much success in all parts of
the country. It was certainly a bold undertak
ing for an American actress, no matter how
great her talents might be, to attempt what has
universally been considered one of Ristori’s
finest characters, before the great Italian has
left the country, and before the recollections of
her performances have had time to grow dim
in the minds of her auditors. The result, how
ever, proves that Mrs. Lander did wisely; and,
making due allowance for the fact that she has
the advantage of addressing her audiences in
a language which they can understand, the
unanimous opinion of all who have seen her
Elizabeth is, that it will in every way compare
most favorably with the carefully studied effort
of the Italian actress. Unfortunately we failed
to witness Ristori’s performance of this role,
consequently we are unable to speak in regard
to the relative merits of the rival artistes; but
persons who have seen both, and in whose judg
ment we have entire confidence, assure us that
Mrs. Lander’s personation is in no respect infe
rior. At the same time she is not by any means
a copyist; her conception of Elizabeth’s charac
ter is her own, and it differs materially from
Ristori’s in many respects. For our own part,
we can say without any hesitation that it is un
doubtedly one of the finest and most thoroughly
artistic efforts that has been given on any stage
in this city for a longer time than we care to
remember.
In view of the success which has attended
both Mrs. Lander's and Madame Ristori’s rep
resentations of Elizabeth, it seems somewhat
singular that a character so essentially drama
tic, and which presents so many striking points
for an actress of first-class talent should not
have been made the subject of a drama before
this. Signor Giacometti’s play is a tolerably
good piece of work, although strictly speaking
it has no plot, and merely presents a number of
striking scenes with very little connection be
tween them, in which the great English Queen
is the prominent figure. The other characters
are merely accessories brought in to fill up the
picture, and in his delineation of them the au
thor has not apparently thought it necessary in
all cases to adhere strictly to historical truth.
Being essentially a “one-part” play, the entire
interest of course centres on Elizabeth, and the
actress has a. fine opportunity for the display of
her best abilities. Mrs. Lander’s performance
certainly gives a vivid and lifelike portrait of
the Queen as common tradition represents her.
The lights and shades of her many-sided char
acter, her masculine spirit and love of power,
her feminine weaknesses and ridiculous vanity,
are all portrayed with a power and effect that
we have rarely seen equaled : and this perfor
mance alone would be sufficient to establish
Mrs. Lander’s fame as an artist of extraordi
nary merit, even if she had no other claims to
notice in that respect.
*
*
*
*
[Philadelphia Sunday Times, May 12th, 1867.]
Mrs. General Lander.—It is not often an
actress succeeds in impressing the public by the
performance of a single part so deeply as Mrs.
Lander has done by her impersonation of
Queen Elizabeth. It seemed a hazardous step
for any lady, however highly gifted, to essay a
character identified with the name of Ristori,
but it proved a triumph. Avoiding any servile
imitation of the great Italian, the points of
similarity were merely such as must result from
the play itself. Certain stage business is de
manded by the author, whose conception of
the character of Elizabeth penetrates its perfor
mance by both the ladies; but Mrs. Lander
studied from the English standpoint of history,
Ristori from the Italian. The latter, while ex
citing a certain degree of sympathy for Eliza
beth never suffered the audience to lose sight of
the imperious, arrogant nature of the Virgin
Queen, by which she appeared to draw her suf
ferings upon herself; but Mrs. Lander shows the
woman’s heart beneath the mask of pride, and
makes her audience sensible of the fact that
the daughter of Henry VIII. was not devoid
�10
of human tenderness, and that she was driven
by circumstances to many acts she disapproved
in her inner self. At the same time our actress
does not pretend to make Elisabeth a saint or a
martyr, she does not disguise her inordinate
vanity, her foible, nor her dissimulation: she
merely endeavors to atone for them by display
ing the sincerity of her love for Essex, her
struggle against its sway, her endeavors to be
blind to the faults, treacheries and schemes of
the ambitious Earl, and her endless remorse
for his execution, well merited, as it was, by
his plots and machinations.
*
*
* .*
Mrs. Lander has evinced marvellous power in
the arduous character of Elizabeth, and has
commanded the attention of the public to an
unwonted degree. So highly has her acting of
the part been.appreciated, that a letter has been
sent to her, signed by very many of the stock
holders of the Academy, by the Mayor, General
Meade, and a large number of our most promi
nent citizens, whose names rarely appear in
such cas es, earnestly inviting her to return to
Philadelphia, at the earliest possible day, and
to perform Elizabeth on the stage where Ristori
presente it first to our public. So high a com
pliment has never—in our recollection—been
paid to an actress; it is most fully merited, and
the invitation has been accepted in the spirit
in which it was sent.
*
*
*
*
Mrs. Lander will now become known to a new
circle, and one better able to appreciate and
reward her surpassing genius. Her acting ap
peals to the same audience as does Ristori’s,
and it is most fitting and just that she should
play Elizabeth on the same stage, for not only is
she the compeer of the great tragedienne in
public, but possesses the same estimable quali
ties and elevated position in private life.
[Philadelphia Sunday Times, May 19th, 1S67.J
Mrs. F. W. Lander.—There is a genuine and
wholesome excitement in regard to the ap
proaching representations of Elizabeth at the
Academy by Mrs. Lander. The high encomi
ums passed upon the performance by those who
were so fortunate as to witness it at the Walnut
last week, have been spread throughout the
city, and the name of the actress is on every
lip. There has already been a great demand
for seats, and the prospect is that she will act
before larger audiences than Ristori commanded
in the same part. All who saw the great Italian
are anxious to see Mrs. Lander, and those who
saw Elizabeth at the Walnut, are eager to see it
again with the powerful cast secured for the
Academy. The play is one of absorbing inter
est; it is an accurate historical representation;
the leading celebrities of Elizabeth’s reign
move before us, and we seem to be transported
to her court, and to behold the secret springs of
action which worked such influences in Europe.
The illustrations of character are admirable;
and although the Queen naturally demands the
chief attention of the audience, the minor parts
are all marked by faithful adherence to history.
Mrs. Lander’s impersonation of Elizabeth is her
very greatest effort, and her genius will be re
cognized immediately by those who see her for
the first time in this play.
*
*
*
[Philadelphia Press, May 20th, 1867.]
CONTRIBUTED BY A DISTINGUISHED
YOUNG LADY.
Mrs. Jean Davenport Lander.—No more
delightful task can be found than that of writ
ing the truth about a public character and his
or her work, when truth is sweeter than any
praise and higher than any eulogy. To say,
then, that it is a peculiarly pleasant labor to
utter a few words in regard to Mrs. Lander and
her rendering of Queen Elizabeth is to be most
readily believed by all who have had the rare
and fine pleasure of witnessing this impersona
tion of the great actress.
In this country, with our passions for every
thing strange or foreign just roused to the
greatest enthusiasm over the first artiste of Eu
rope, with every one’s eye and ear full of the
sight and sound of Ristori, and of Ristori in
her grandest personation, it required matchless
effrontery, or the quiet self-assurance of pre
eminent power, in any one who would dare to
court comparison with the great Italian by
essaying the role in which she had achieved
her largest triumph, and which was so pecu
liarly identified with her as to seem almost a
part of herself. Effrontery would have had a
brief career of shame and a death of oblivion—
fate well merited. Power, nobly and beauti
fully enshrined in the majestic presence of
Jean Davenport Lander, has everywhere re
ceived the admiring recognition of the critical;
Bas made for itself a career of pre-eminent
brilliancy, which will shine in memory long
after the queenly face and form have passed
from sound and sight.
So much has been written, and so much more
will be said in critical review of Mrs. Lander’s
rendering of Elizabeth, by pens better fitted
to the work than that of the writer, that no
minute observance of its “points” and “situa
tions” will here be attempted. Suffice it to say,
if you would read history by a dazzling illu
mination—would behold the Good Queen Bess,
with all her foibles, her passion, her glitter, her
power, “ wittf all her imperfections (aye, and
all her majesty) on her head”—if you would for
a little while look upon the most marvellous
woman of the sixteenth century—go to-morrow
night—any night, all the nights of this week—
to see Mrs. Lander, for to witness the one is
but to behold the other.
So much has been said by refined people, es
pecially in this fastidious city of Philadelphia,
about supporting the drama when worthy such
support—about gathering with admiring recog
nition around any actor who could indeed
“ bold the mirror up to nature.” that the honor
of such talkers is at stake in the matter of full
or empty houses to greet this gifted woman.
Some “ robustious fellow,” who will “ tear a
passion to tatters to split the ears of the ground
lings,” can "strut and bellow” on our stage to
multitudes of his own ilk, who will respond to
his rant with “thunders of applause;.” some
vulgar, handsome piece of humanity—in masculino dress or scarcely dressed at all—with just
brains enough to repeat the words set down for
her, parrot-wise, whose successes is commen
surate with her loss of self-respect such an
one can have spectators, we will not say hearers,
by the thousand. Let the polished and culti
vated now see that this woman, who honors
her womanhood by her womanly and delicate
dress—this scholar and student, whose elocution
and accent betray severest training and thought
—this lady whose every gesture and movement
carry the nameless something that marks re
finement and social position—this actor, whose
power, and sweetness, fineness and majesty
are without rival on the American stage m the
person of man or woman—let all who are capa
ble of appreciating these “ gifts of wit and
ornaments of nature” show this appreciation
by seeing that genius is as well sustained in our
theatres as vulgarity and muscle.
A. J-j. JL/.
�11
[Phila. Evening Bulletin, Lender, May 21,1867.]
The Drama in America.—Ristori sailed away
last week, filled with gold and praises, She is
the climax of a long series of illustrious foreign
artistes that have come hither, as to Australia
or some other rich and half-barbarous country,
caring less for our endorsement than our money.
'A nation that has never sent an actor or actress
to continental Europe, if we except Aldrich the
negro, and Menken the speechless, receives
from the favorite of Florence, Naples, Vienna
and Paris, the farewell encomium that here her
genius attained its greatest triumph. Our large
opera houses, closed three-fourths of the year,
are crowded only when these foreigners come,
preceded by their fame. And it is remarkable
that at the poriod of Ristori’s advent, the drama
as a literature was almost defunct among us.—
The fertile but sensational art of Mr. Boucic-ault and his imitators, has brought an inevi
table thirst for even more exciting and volup
tuous spectacles, and while Ristori revived the
classical drama for a hundred and seventy
nights, a single ballet in New York alone has
attained its two hundred and fiftieth perform
ance. Excepting the episodes of Mr, Forrest
and Edwin Booth, the stage of the United
States, for these ten years past, has steadily de
generated—no more a theatre of intellect, seek
ing to penetrate and embody the refined con
ceptions of literature, but an arena of merely
physical competition, where male and female
athletes aspire to no element of art but its nude
ness; and carpentry puzzles its brain to con
trive an avalanche or compress a horse-race
into the superficies of a stage. A few months
ago a play was produced in New York, the en
tire success of which was ascribed to a pig
made to run behind the footlights. It is an old
question as to whether this frivolous, feverish,
and perhaps licentious drama, does wrong to our
youth, our standard of beauty, and the repose
of society; but it is a newer question as to
whether our welcome of foreign actors is based
upon appreciation or fashion, ecstacy or snob
bery.
It is alleged of Adelina Patti that when Auber asked her some time ago, in Paris, whether
the Americans were not passionately fond of
music, she replied: “ It is In mode there, not
Vamour.” That this was unjust, in a great de
gree, we can conscientiously admit; for music
is a universal language, and there is no country
where the science of music is so well cultivated
as in ours; but the Italian and the French
drama can have such attractions to but few of
us. Ristori’s pieces were, in the main, new to
the American public. Splendid as was her
presence—and her cadences were as beautiful—
in the midst of her most thrilling passages, you
could see mouths here and there wide open, not
in transport, but to yawn; and all her classical
magnetisms were fluttered by the turning of
librettos. Fame blew her trumpet. Half her
audiences went to see a notoriety; these must
needs admit that she was wonderful, and were
ashamed to admit that they had been wearied.
So the rarest actress out of our language went
triumphally across the republic, and left to the
thinking few who really loved her, and to our
little scholastic patriotism, the problem as to
why we can patronize legitimate art in a lan
guage we do not understand, and neglect it in
our native tongue.
There were, happily for our hope of the
American theatre, a few thinking artistes in
quisitive upon the same problem. Among these
was Mrs. Lander, formerly Miss J. M. Daven
port, a lady of long and pure attachment to
only the noblest compositions in our literature,
and one of the few who had disdained to de
scend with the descending taste of these late
years, and become the embodier of ephemeral
personages, born of a novel, living of a fever,
and dying of inanition. She examined the
plays of Madame Ristori, and found them to
have inherent and fresh merits, apart from the
magnificent talent of their interpreter. The
most effective of these was the Elizabeth, and
this Mrs. Lander had rendered into stronger
and simpler English than the mere literal ren
dering of Ristori’s libretto. After a careful
study of the piece, she enacted it at the Walnut
Street Theatre of this city, and with few of the
adventitious opportunities of Ristori, gave so
original and powerful character to the part,
that it came upon us like a new and brilliant
dispensation. Free from all imitation of her
illustrious predecessor, Mrs. Lancler, in a week,
has nationalized the fine composition of Signor
Giacometti, a play almost exhaustive of the
great acts of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and mak
ing plainer than Sir Walter Scott’s portraiture
of this eminent monarch, the anomaly of her
cunning, courage, jealousy and energy.
A week at tho Walnut Street Theatre set the
town to comparing Lander and Ristori, and
this is still the great social debate of the day.
Strong in her devotion to legitimate art,—
Mrs. Lander, night after night, added new en
thusiasm to her performance, and at last the
Academy of Music, for the first time in its his
tory, opensits doors to accommodate an Ameri
can actress in a purely classical drama. Ahead
of its commencement, the essay is a triumph;
hut this is a business consideration merely, and
of little aesthetical note beyond the hope it gives
of acclimatizing Ristori and Rachel among us,
and leading us out of the fleshy infatuations of
a merely sensual drama The chance seems cer
tainty that Mrs. Lander is to inaugurate the re
action., If Philadelphians, who have unjustly,
we believe, the name of failin^in encourage
ment to genius of their own neighborhood, can
infuse into this engagement the enthusiasm of
its undertaker, we shall put Mrs. Lander into
the galaxy of great actresses, of which Ristori
is one, and send abroad, in classical competi
tion, our mother tongue and our brilliant coun
try-woman.
[Philadelphia Age, May22d, 1867.]
Mrs. Lander at the Academy.—The ele
ments last night were unpropitious for pleas
ure-seekers, yet a large and brilliant audience
was present at the Academy, and the wellselected toilets of the ladies added beauty, ele
gance and variety to the scene. Among the
persons attracted by the reputation of the rul
ing star of the evening, were representative
men of all the liberal professions, and ladies
celebrated in the world, of fashion and the
realm of letters. Poets, painters, lawyers, judges,
professors of music, prominent members of
the theatrical profession and devotees of science,
all weje carefully noting the acting of Mrs. Lan
der, and their hearty approval was proof of the
excellence of the effort, when viewed from dif
ferent points of view, and tested cither by the
strict rule of historical accuracy or the more
liberal interpretation of poetical feeling and
sympathy.
As to the conception and presentation of this
character by Mrs. Lander, we have before spok
en in terms of unqualified praise, and her effort
last night strengthened our first impression.
She follows the line of history with unerring
accuracy. It is Elizabeth, ruler of England,
that is before the audience, not the Elizabeth
of fancy, of romance, or of dreams. This fidel
ity is carried into all the accessories of the
piece, and the consequence is a work of art, full
of truth and calculated to illustrate the spirit
�12
and manners of the age in which the events
took place, as well as the inner life and actual
being of the daughter of royal Henry. Eliza
beth was a mixed character. She was at once a
great and a weak woman. She could command
others, and yet at times was played upon by
persons of much less pretentions to firmness and
maturity of will and purpose, She could be
generous, but in most cases was jealous, exact
ing and tyrannical, and so she was personated.
Mrs. Lander was a Queen terribly in earnest
when the royal prerogative was assailed, and
filled with all the pride, ambition and memo
ries of the proud and haughty race from whence
she drew her blood and being. At other mo
ments the woman predominated, and the voice,
looks, and actions of the artiste, all betokened
the change. The signature of the death-war
rant of Essex was preceded by passages of great
power and beauty, and the consummation of
the. act thrilled the audience from the reality
which Mrs. Lander imparted to the event. The
interview with Lady Burleigh may also be se
lected as affording a fine example of the pecu
liar ability of the artiste. The dictation of the
letters to Popham and Leicester was an effort
of elocutionary skill not often matched. The
delicate shading of each expression, and the
nice judgment displayed in suiting the voice to
tbe feeling uppermost in the mind of the Queen
and the woman, proved how thorough and crit
ical had been the preparation of the artiste for
the task in which she was engaged. The clos
ing scene is terrible in its naked simplicity. All
felt they were in the presence of death, so well
had they been prepared for the catastrophe hy
the actions, looks and words of the artiste. In
a word, as Elizabeth, Mrs. Lander was heroic,
but she was tender: she was grand, but at the
same time human; all the passions were aroused
and exhibitedgbut they were all womanly, and
hence her effort appealed to the heart, and was
instructive as well as imposing and artistic.
During the progress of the performance, each
forcible presentation of a point by Mrs. Lan
der was appreciated and acknowledged by the
audience, and at the close the applause was of
the most flattering and complimentary charac
ter. ******
*
[ The Philadelphia Press, May 22d, 1867.
Mrs. Lander at the Academy.—The public
has at last the opportunity, which it has long
been needing, of ratifying a legitimate dramatic
triumph, in the English tongue, at the Academy
of Music. With the appearance of Mrs. F. W.
Lander, last night, in her already renowned
role of Elizabeth, commenced a dramatic season
which, however short, will, we feel sure, be me
morable in the history of the Philadelphia
stage; for it is a triumph founded upon the cor
respondence between the unquestionable great
ness of the principal character represented, and
the genius, education, and research of the prin
cipal performer. The badness of the wteather
seemed to have very little changed the charac
ter of the attendance, every seat in the parquet,
parquet circle and balcony, as well as in the
boxes, having been secured. Nor did the.gloom
and depression of the weather influence in any
perceptible degree the transport of the plaudits
which resounded throughout the house. The
performance of Mrs. Lander was witnessed with
the most profound attention, every salient
point—and it is bristling with salient points—
being instantaneously seized upon, and an ap
preciation of it evinced cither by breathless
silence or tempestuous applause. The dictation
of the letters, the signing of Mary's death-war
rant, the scene with Essex in act third, the sign
ing of his death-warrant in act fourth, and the
final scenes in the dreary splendor of the last
act, were all applauded by an audience combin
ing both intellectuality and demonstrative en
thusiasm.
*
*
*
* ’ *
[Phil-a. Evening Telegraph, May 22d, 1867.] ,
Mrs. Lander as Elizabeth.—The short en
gagement commenced at the Academy of Music
last night by Mrs. General Lander, in which she
personates the character of the Virgin Qveen,
promises, by its auspicious commencement,
to be as brilliant as the warmest admirers of the
lady could desire. A crowded house and excel
lent support lent their aid to call forth the high
est genius of the talented artiste, and in the
rendition she surpassed herself.
*
*
*
It is the possession of talent of the most ele
vated kind which draws to see her the thou
sands who nightly listen to her voice. No one
denies to her great ability as an actress. We
take it that it is universally conceded that her
Elizabeth is one of the finest, if not the finest,
pieces of female acting that the American pub
lic has had an opportunity to witness. The
character is one most difficult to accurately por
tray. Abounding as it does in the exhibition of
opposite passions, the performer runs the dan
ger of exceeding the limits of nature, and mak
ing what was a real character appear a mon
strous combination of contradictions. It re
quires one who can fully enter into the spirit of
the part, and catch the inspiration of the pride,
arrogance and hauteur of the Queen, as well as
the tender sensibilities of the woman. This
Mrs. Lander has successfully attempted. In
her the love for Essex, and the pride which let
him die when she could save him by a word, do
not appear impossible actions or even unna
tural. Mrs. Lander has supplied us with the
best commentary and key to history within our
reach; and after witnessing her performance,
we can understand more of the spirit of the
Elizabethan era than by consulting Hume,
wading through Lingard, or studying Froude.
She is an actress in the highest of the word, and
when we say that she has carefully studied all
the surroundings of the age to which she carries
us back, and conformed in all parts to its cos
tumes, we complete our just eulogy of her play
of Elizabeth.
*
*
*
*
*
[Philadelphia Inquirer, May 23d, 1867.]
Mrs. Lander at the Academy.—Notwith
standing the unpropitious state of the weather,
the attendance at the Academy thus far, to wit
ness Mrs. Lander’s splendid impersonation of
Elizabeth, has been very large, and the success
she has achieved in the trying role, has surpas
sed even the most sanguine expectations of her
warmest admirers.
In Mrs. Lander’s able hands the character
assumes a magnitude which has seldom invested
it, and even Ristori, great and grand as she is
in the part, fails at times in comparison with
Mrs. Lander in giving it those nice touches of
nature without which no true picture can be
properly portrayed upon the stage. In the
“tempest and torrent" of her passion, perhaps
Ristori in a measure excels our favorite trage
dienne, but this drawback, if drawback it can
be called, is more than compensated for by the
finish, fervor and sustained effect characterizing
every scene in the play in which Mrs. Lander
appears.
Never overstepping the bounds of nature, and
in every look, gesture and intonation being true
to the instincts of art, her impersonation as a
whole is a creation that stands out in bold relief,
�13
and gives one a better idea of the innermost
soul and the peculiar idiosyncracies of the
Virgin Queen than a whole history could. Her
love for Essex, which, although “a consuming
fire” within her breast: her pride, that would
brook no rival near the throne, would strive to
quench, was magnificently exemplified by Mrs.
Lander. The same tender feeling for her favo
rite at the signing of his death-warrant, mingled
with the arrogance of the imperious Queen, and
the conflicting emotions of love and hate that,
at that fatal hour, strove for mastery in her
breast, were also vividly, even painfully por
trayed, and furnished a specimen of genuine
acting. The death-scene of Mrs. Lander is also
one of terrible, truthful interest, and its absorb
ing power over the minds of the spectator ex
emplifies what genius can accomplish in the
mimic world.”
*****
Her scene with Essex at the end of the third
act, was incomparably fine, and last evening
created an immense enthusiasm among the au
dience. Her anxiety for the fate of Essex, in
the fourth act, where she awaits with “dread
suspense” the arrival of the ring, was also a
splendid touch of genuine acting, and the cli
max reached at the termination of the act was
a fitting finale to the beauty that characterized
that portion of the interesting play.
Altogether Mrs. Lander’s Elizabeth is an im
personation of which she may be justly proud,
and one that will add materially to the abun
dant fame she already enjoys as one of the lead
ing histrions of the present day.
Our limited space precludes the possibility of
speaking of the other characters in the play, but
injustice to Mr. Taylor, we must say that his
Essex was a performance every way worthy of
Mrs. Lander’s Elizabeth. His acting generally,
was in the highest degree effective, and many
of his scenes were managed with consummate
tact and skill.
[Philadelphia Inquirer, May 2fih, 1867.]
Mrs. Lander at the Academy.—The engage
ment of Mrs. F. W. Lander at the Academy of
Music has proved, thus far, a complete and bril
liant success. The vast edifice is nightly crowd
ed with the eLVe of Philadelphia, and Mrs. Lan
der’s matchless rendition of
Elizabeth
electrifies the audience each evening. A bril
liant assemblage was present last night, and the
popular desire to see this gifted lady in this
great character is unabated. Mrs. Lander’s
impersonation of the Virgin Queen is one of
the greatest triumphs of dramatic art on the
modern stage. But few more opportunities will
be presented of witnessing this splendid intel
lectual treat, and those who do not embrace the
present chance will have cause to regret it.
Columns could be filled, containing just eulo
gies of Mrs. Lander’s Elizabeth, and the lady is
fully deserving of all the lengthy encomiums
that she has been the recipient of on the part
of the press of this city. Another full attend
ance will undoubtedly be present this evening,
and it is only unfortunate that Mrs. Lander’s
engagement cannot be of a more protracted
character.
[Philadelphia Age, May 2fill, 1867.]
Benefit of Mrs. Lander.—There is an ad
ditional reason why people should visit the
Academy of Music this evening apart from the
rich treat afforded by the acting of Mrs. Lander
in the. character of Elizabeth. That is to be
found in the fact that the proceeds arc to be
applied to the benefit of Mrs. Lander This
lady deserves a substantial token of public re
spect and approbation. She has labored hard
to sustain the legitimate drama. “ Among the
faithless, faithful she.” The current of false
taste and perverted judgment has not been
strong enough to carry her along with it into
that wild river of sensationalism which threat
ens to undermine the whole fabric of our na
tional love for the true, the beautiful and the
pure in dramatic art. With a stout heart and
resolute trust in the right, Mrs. Lander has
struggled on in the chosen path, and at last the
first beams of the rising sun lighted her path
by the universal commendation bestowed upon
her Elizabeth, Night after night this character
has been repeated, and the people have crowd
ed to pay their tribute of respect to the talents
of the delineator. And now comes the occasion
wh^n the woman is to be aided in a material
sense, and we are sure it will be improved.
Mrs. Lander has brought to the stage talents of
a high order, and a private character rich with
all moral and womanly graces, and these offer
ings on the altar of dramatic art, entitle her
to more than ordinary consideration.
[Phila. Sunday Transcript, May 26th, 1867.]
Mrs. Lander’s “ Elizabeth.”—Mrs. Lan
der’s success at the Academy of Music, last
week, was decidedly great. The house was
crowded every night with a brilliant and fash
ionable audience, which seemed heartily in
sympathy with the performers, and applauded
the fine points with unusual discrimination and
great emphasis. Mrs. Lander has fully estab
lished her claim to the title of a great artiste.
She has treated the public to a performance
that possesses rare excellence, and which, in
this day of sensational drama, will be retained
in the memory of those who witnessed it as mark
ing an era in the history of the American stage.
Mrs. Lander will give her farewell performance
to-morrow evening, and, in retiring temporarily
from the stage in the mjdst of her triumph, she
will leave the public appetite whetted, and keen
for her reappearance.
[Pittsburg Chronicle. June 3d, 1867.]
Academy of Music.—Those who had the good
fortune and the good taste to visit the Academy
of Music on Saturday evening, partook of a new
pleasure in witnessing one of the most perfect
and artistic dramatic representations which has
been offered here in a long time, Mrs. Lan
der, in assuming the role of Elizabeth, has cer
tainly reached the highest point which even her
great genius has yet realized. The character
gives a new scope to her powers, and in enact
ing it she develops capabilities of acting which
have heretofore remained hidden from her most
appreciative friends. The character seems as
one fitted to draw out all her qualities in the
fullest degree. It is one which Ristori was sup
posed to have made entirely her own; and so
perfectly does she present it, that it seemed
none other would have the courage to attempt
it. In the English tongue and by an American
artiste, however, it is given us in a style which
makes cause to regret the departure of the Ital
ian. Mrs. Lander, in some points, as in the
famous scene with Essex, runs fully equal to
Ristori.
*
*
*
*
*
*
Mr. J. H. Taylor sustained the character of
Essex in a most admirable manner, and drew
forth the heartiest plaudits. His quarrel with
the Queen is a splendid piece of acting.
�14
[New York Citizen, June 29th, 1867.]
.Mrs. Lander’s Elizabeth.—Some months
since the people of New York.had the pleasure
of witnessing Ristori’s great impersonation of
Elizabeth. Unquestionably great as it was,
Ristori’s Elizabeth suffered from the fact that
very few of those who heard her were sufficient
ly familiar with the Italian language to under
stand a word that was spoken by the actress or
by those who were with her in the cast. It was
a matter of general regret that the first actress
of the age should be unable to speak in a lan
guage intelligible to her American hearers.—
But this regret would have been spared had
New York at that time been acquainted with
Mrs. Gen. Lander’s magnificent rendering of the
same character—Elizabeth. The name of this
estimable lady is not new to New York theatregoers.
*
*****
Mrs. Lander recently sustained the part of
Elizabeth, in the tragedy of the same name, at
Washington. Her impersonation was charac
terized by perfect finish, and quiet but intense
strength. Those who heard her at once com
pared her with Bistori, and almost without ex
ception gave, the palm of superiority to Mrs.
Lander. It is difficult to compare the two, be
cause of the wide difference between them : but
it is safe to say, that while Mrs. Lander avoided
those errors which marred the performance of
the great Italian, her conception and rendering
of the character possessed merits peculiarly and
wholly her own, and which at once, in the esti
mation of her audience, placed her among the
few really great tragediennes that the stage has
known,
Will not the managers of our New York the
atres give the people an opportunity of witnes
sing the superb acting of this incomparable
artiste. There will then l>e no longer any rea
son to regret that Ristori’s Elizabeth was rend
ered in a foreign language, for the Elizabeth of
Mrs. Lander is not only in several respects a
better conception of the character, but it has
the further recommendation of being rendered
in our own language, and by one of the most
lovely and accomplished ladies of whom Ame
rica can boast.
�)
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Biographical sketch of Mrs F. W. Lander, formerly Miss Jean M. Davenport, tragedienne, with criticisms of the press on her rendition of Elizabeth, Queen of England
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Pugh, T.B.
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: Philadelphia
Collation: 14 p. ; 22 cm.
Notes: Printed in double columns. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
The Lander Histrionic Company
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
CT49
Subject
The topic of the resource
Theatre
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Biographical sketch of Mrs F. W. Lander, formerly Miss Jean M. Davenport, tragedienne, with criticisms of the press on her rendition of Elizabeth, Queen of England), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Acting
Conway Tracts
Jean Margaret Davenport
Theatre
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/ea5cdc7849875acec5d95092b0ee5625.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=mEsiHRBN1gQAxcgGTm2L-1fjNoX51zgSf6bqJ5VIqDPoII9brW%7EWyMzxnpfnTU0g%7EQNGooR1c2oDui4oKFglvT4ZbTXABVX2sFrBkCaf6FFX8y9OyvT73qwdNj2SlbGDJorJFQtZ29gOqqOT37p862Q373M4bsRG7MN6Vw5WjpSXKbxZSPr313sC7AeXcyLtk0xBev%7EY69z0FsC7eDevSEghxPzGG8o41X1flTYcM1LYED8H8TrwORqofpjtExMIoMEn5nq9NMfZbK2kgPRynJqviPFrvbhxZfsYg-p%7EavJpBU5HAig7sI150f695w37U3YbcA%7ElchZF-BsI9m9lpw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
3646e491d4b7521878f4b8a05bf099a2
PDF Text
Text
Cades’
-A.3ST -A.
ISAAC I
AT A PUBLIC MEETING HELD IN THE
TEMPERANCE HALL, SHEFFIELD,
ON
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 1867.
MB. EDWIN GRAYSON IN THE CHAIR.
K, PICCADILLY,
London: R. HARD
aM
Sheffield: J. ROBER
I
ANGEL STREET.
��TRADES
AN ADDRESS BY
>
IRON
DE.
I have been requested by a deputation of gentlemen to deliver an Address
on “ Trades Unions.” On duly considering the matter, and asceitaining that
the request was of a Ijonci fide character, I consented, on condition that no
one was to be held responsible, except myself, for what I might utter.
It was a saying of Talleyrand that society was divided into two classes—
the Shearers and the Sheared; and his advice to the Sheared was to get
among the Shearers as soon as they could, inasmuch as they were always the
better off. Sheep are dumb when before the Shearers. Even when clipped
so closely that the skin is cut, a feeble bleat is all their remonstiance. Men
are different: they spoil the shears and damage the Shearers when the
clipping is too close. A remarkable instance of this is recorded in Exodus,
beginning chapter 1, verse xi.—“ The Egyptians did set over the children of
Israel task-masters to afflict them with their burdens. And the Egyptians
made the children of Israel to serve with rigour ; and they made their lives
bitter with hard bondage in mortar, and in brick, and in all manner of service
in the field; all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with
rigour.” In the 2nd chapter, verse xi., it is said—“ And it came to pass in
those days, when Moses was grown, that he went out unto his brethren, and
looked on their burdens, and he spied an Egyptian smiting an Hebrew, one
of his brethren. And he looked this way and that way, and when he saw
that there was no man, he slew the Egyptian and hid him in the sand.
Now when Pharaoh heard this thingjie sought to slay Moses. But Moses
fled from the face of Pharaoh, and dwelt in the land of Midian.” In a subse
quent portion of the account it is stated that the angel of the Lord appeared to
Moses, and the Lord said—“ I have surely seen the affliction of my people
which are in Egypt, and have heard their cry by reason of their taskmasters ;
I have also seen the oppression wherewith the Egyptians oppress them.
Come now, therefore, and I will send thee unto Pharaoh, that thou mayest
�4
my people We children of Israel out of Egypt.” Moses, went, ant
nds became a great and migli^’ lawgiver, a man after God's own hear^® ,
case Moses had no malio^^ainst the Egyptian whom he slew,
•ny lawful authority fn^
him. No doubt there would b#®
'«fery ; the Egyptians—the /^Ä/.s7crs of the children of Israel—wouT<
a murderer, and Pharoalf^Kuld have put him to death unless h®
led. The Israelites, hn«^k would not consider it a murder,
kl on jjp law of
Wich was contrary to the law of the
1» was aftorWwTfuiyi justified. Mr. Cardwell, M.P. for
lis statemeiAdJjfce House of Commons on July 2nd, 1807—
e law’ of We^nd
the law of necessity; and any person
acting under wie law of necessity wfls responsible for his acts, and was liable
to the established law of the country. Persons who took such a responsibility
upon themselves were placed in a position of great difficulty.” In Macmillan’s
Magazine for August, Mr. Thomas Carlyle said—“ Unwritten if you will, but
real and fundamental, anterior to all 'written law’s, and first making 'written
laws possible, there must have been, and is, and wall be, coeval with bn man
society from its first beginning to its ultimate end, an actual martial law of
more validity than any other law’ whatever.” These statements are merely
declaratory of what is universally known : there is nothing new about them.
This law of necessity rests on the instinct of self-preservation. When a
man is born, the fact of his birth imposes on him the duty of preserving
Iris life in the best condition for the longest period that is possible. The
law recognizes this duty. If a man commit suicide, and the verdict of the
coroner’s jury is felo de se—felony on himself—the body is not permitted to
have Christian burial. If a man is apprehended in the act of attempting to
commit suicide the law punishes him; and if a man neglects to provide for
his family he is also punishable. All these rest upon the duty of self-pre
servation. When that duty can be properly discharged in a lawful manner,
there is no violence, but when the law prevents it, the higher law’ steps in,
and violence is the result. When anything is wrong and cannot, be put
right without violence, then, whether lawful or unlawful, violence is exercised.
The violent thunder storm does some mischief, but it purifies the whole
atmosphere. The gaoler uses violence to the garotter, and puts him on the
treadmill to cure him. Jack Ketch—who does not like to be known, like
“ Mary Ann”—by his violence rids the world of a scoundrel. The turnpikes
in Wales got wrong some years ago, and Rebecca and her daughters were very
violent. Ultimately, however, they put the turnpikes to right.
Trades Unions act on this law of necessity. On the blowing up at the
Tower M heel, more than 20 years ago, a public meeting was held in the
Cutlers’ Hall, and I there put this position clearly forth. No one then
attempted to controvert it; nor has it been controverted. When the Social
Science Congress was held in Sheffield, in 1865, there was a public meeting
held on Trades Unions, at which Mir. Hughes, M.P., spoke. I wrote to him
on the Sth of October, and will read part of my letter and his reply:—
“ I take the ground of justifyiny the enforcement of the rules of the Union?.
�5
What is theii' ultimate object? Self-preservation. This is not a right, but a
duty; a law higher than any Act-of-Parliament law. Who manufacture Acts
of Parliament? Not unionists, but the ten-poundry. Who administer the
parliament laws? Not unionists, but, judges dependent on Parliament, and
juries whose qualification is a much h^jyr one than unionists can pay. Hence
the parliament-law is invariably agaflmt Unions. Hence the impossibility, of
an accused unionist being fairly t^bd. Hence the atrocious and cruel
severity of nearly all sentences upon ^j>victed unionists. Hence the Unions
are compelled, by the duty of self-nj^brvation, to obey the highei^law, to
enforce obedience to the laws whicl^Mfey enact, in order to discharge this •
duty, and take the consequences of dfOW^Ag ‘the Parliament-law? when the
enforcement of their own laws renders that necessary. Were I an artisan, it
would be my duty to obey the laws of the trade which I followed. If that
obedience involved a breach of the Parliament-law, I would not be guilty of
that breach, and it would be, therefore, my duty to leave the trade and get my
living in some other way.
“There are Trades’ Unions in diplomacy, government, the law, church,
medicine, at Oxford and Cambridge. Those engaged in these trades elect
the Parliament which enacts that their Unions are legal. Let Parliament do
the same with the Unions of the artisans, or else let them have a part in
selecting the Parliament.
“ As perfection is impossible, I do not expect it in the management of
Unions. No doubt they make mistakes; so do we all. Mine are manifold.
Therefore, I refrain from meddling with the management of them: it is not
my business. I heartily wish every Union could be managed with a clear eye
and a pure mind; but my meddling would not bring that about.
“ Were the golden rule to be the practice instead of the profession, Trades
Unions and strikes would never be heard of. There are manufactories in
Sheffield where there has been neither outrage nor strike for generations.
Why? Because the masters practice this golden rule.
Your obedient servant,
Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P.
Isaac Ironside.
“113, Park Street, W., Oct. 15, 1865.
Sir,—I am obliged by your letter. You are mistaken if you tliink (as some
Remarks in your letter seem to indicate) that I am opposed to Trades’ Unions.
On the contrary, for the last 16 years I have been fighting their battles as
Well as I could, and trying to do away with some of the absurd prejudices
and fears so common in other ranks as to the objects and action of the
Unions. At the same time.I can’t go to the length you seem to do, and
therefore I could not pass in silence the subject of trades’ outrages when
speaking to a Sheffield working-men’s meeting. The subject was uppermost
in the minds of half the members of the association who attended the congress,
and it would have been a great mistake if it had been passed over in silence.
As it is, the men have had the opportunity of protesting against the popular
belief concerning them and their town.
t
�6
•
•
“ I agree with most of your letter, but on one point must distinctly clear
myself. You say you justify the enforcement of the rules by the unions. So
do I, the enforcement of rules by fines, or by expulsion if necessary, against,
their own members. But if, as the context would seem to imply, you mean to
justify personal violence directed either against members or non-members by
unionists, for neglect or infringemenFfcf trades’ rules, I must protest most
emphatically against such a doctrine, <^hich I most sincerely hope you don't
teach the men. If you do, the g|® of such doings as the Acorn-street
outrage is yours far more than theirs.^
••
am, very truly yours,
Isaac Ii^nside, Esq.
•
Thos. Hughes.”
When I received this letter my heart bounded. Here was a scholar, a
gmtleman, and a lawyer; and I was anxious to be put right on a most
iaiportant matter, if wrong. No one can be more desirous to lay aside every
weight, and to throw away anything wrong than I am; and I therefore
resolved that there should be no mistake in my rejoinder, which was in these
terms:—
“ October 20th, 1865.
“ Sib,—My letter was clear. I said, ‘ The unionists are compelled by the
duty of self-preservation to obey the higher law—to enforce obedience to the
laws which they enact—in order to discharge that duty.’
“ As Parliament-law will not give the unionists a constable, they have to
appoint him themselves, and see that he discharges the duty of carrying into
effect their decisions. You say you are favourable to the Unions enforcing
their laws ‘ by fines or by expulsion, if necessary, against their own members.’
This is nothing. Were you unfavourable, what would it matter? Any
voluntary association can do that. I maintain that all who get their living
by a trade are bound to obey the laws of the Union of the trade. After
entering a trade it is not a voluntary act of theirs to become members of that
Trades’ Union. 'The rebel States wanted to secede—to be expelled from the
Union—but the United States thrashed them into obedience. So with
Trades’ Unions. It is their duty to thrash all into submission who get their
living by the trade, and who will not obey the laws of the Union without
thrashing. If in so doing they become obnoxious to Parhament-law, they
take the consequences.
“ Never in the history of the world have any men allowed a smaller number of
men to do as they liked. No man can do so unless with the consent of those
around him. There is either an eye to convey determined indignation, or a
hand to strike down the offender.
“ The Irish are brought down to seaweed, sawdust, and Fenianism. Thank
God, Trades’ Unions will prevent the English from being reduced to that
condition.
“ You hope I don't teach my doctrine to the men. There is no necessity.
Their own instinct teaches them. I have not to teach them that the sun rises
in the east, and sets in the west. Would an ‘emphatic protest’ from you
�óáuse the sun to rise in the west? You have to show that the instinct of
self-preservation does not exist—that no duty springs therefrom—and that a
powerful body of men will submit to be coerced, and see their families starved,
at the instance of a smaller body who have obtained possession of the lav making power. You may enact the laws; the natural law will beat you in the
long run, as it. does in the case of a deceased wife’s sister marrying her sister s
husband, and in the case of first cousins marrying. Nature rebels and laughs
at your impotence.
7 Your obedient servant,
„
Isaac Ironside.
Mr. Hughes did not attempt anythin further. I do not say that it was
impossible for him to invalidate my position, but he did not attempt it. As I
have said, no one has attempted to controvert it. I except the anonymous
writers of the press, because I know something about them : they who write
“ we,” and are very learned upon every possible subject. There is a prominent
man amongst them, one upon whose words the newspaper nation hangs. He
discourses upon everything, wherever it may occur. He has just now made
his appearance in the Bankruptcy Court: his debts are large, but his assets
are nil. He is a specimen of these gentlemen who can govern all States, and
manage everybody’s business but their own. Some years ago, one of them
who is now connected with a London daily paper, had been writing in favour
of local self-government. At an interview with him, I strongly advised him
to make his voice heard at the vestry meetings of the parish in which he
resided. I was afterwards informed that he had no house of his own—that
the lease of the house in which he lived was held by a friend, who had a bill
of sale on the furniture. Another had been writing very fully on the capa
bilities of the land. He and I were visiting a mutual friend who was a
large farmer, and during the visit we were in one of the fields which contained
17 °acres. On being asked to name the quantity of land in the field, the
learned “we” estimated it at nearly an acre. So that although he could
write on the land, his agricultural and farming knowledge was limited to
growing mignionette in a cigar box. These are some of the reasons why I
never meddle with the anonymous press. Let me have a gentleman with a
name and I rejoice to try conclusions with him. Mr. T. G. laylor, F.S.A.,
sworn broker, in his steam-shipping circular, dated 11, Tottenham-yard,
London, August, 1867, makes these remarks—“ The press is omnipotent for
evil as well as for good. There is no court of appeal from its unjust decisions.
It will not let you fight it on its own ground. It declares itself pure and
incorruptible, and you have no voice in denial except at vast expense.” This
is an exceedingly truthful and accurate description, and therefore I do not
descend to encounters with the press. The worst feature in this point is that
you cannot find anyone now with whom to converse and exchange ideas. They
are all only so many copies of the day’s newspapers. None consider, study,
and come to judgment themselves. It is all the gossip of the press.
The position I take is well and concisely put by a gentleman who has
written to me. He says, under date September 16th, 1867,—“ I have seen a
�8
paragraph on what is called an extraordinary discussion in your Town
Council on Trades’ Unions. I should like to see the best report. You are
right. Depend upon it, the working men of England null assert then' right to
]ive in one way or another, and so long as the law remains one-sided and
unjust, so long will they resort to violence.” This gentleman is a manufac
turer, and a distinguished member of the Chamber of Commerce in the place
where he resides.
As the acts of violence of Trades’ Unions are of comparatively modern
occurrence, it is necessary to refer
the period when they were unknown,
and to ascertain why it was so, and how the alteration came about. In ancient
times, the Church was the mother oftic people and their protector, resisting
those who would have oppressed them, and who, therefore, had to strike
through the Church at their victims. The Church was the only public insti
tution, and by its machinery all public matters were managed. Good and
devout men left their property to the Church, and the revenues were admin
istered by one-tliird being appropriated to the service of the Church, one-third
to the relief of the poor, and one-third to the maintenance of highways and
bridges. There were no rates and taxes then. This state of things was put
an end to by what is spoken of in history as “ The great Reformation.” The
Church was subjugated and shorn of her power, and the poor of their patri
mony, by the great Reformer, Henry VIII. The only remnant of that
wholesome and restraining power now left on the Continent, is the temporal
power of the Pope, and every vile means is used to subjugate him. Falsehood,
misrepresentation, violence, and deceit, are unscrupulously employed with that
object. The statements made by the anonymous press as to the condition and
feeling of the people at Rome, are false, and you are deceived. The phrase
employed is “ The temporal power of the Popethe real object is, to remove
the only safe-guard, the only existing barrier between the taskmasters and the
people. Let the conspirators only succeed in subjugating him, and you will
soon have to suffer in consequence.
The natural result of this robbery by King Henry, was the enactment of the
Poor Law, in the reign of his daughter, Elizabeth; and when the new Poor
Law was enacted some years ago, the avowed object was to make the poor
live on a coarser diet.
There does not appear to have been any laws relating to Trades and Work
men in Sheffield, before the time of Elizabeth. The people having lost the
powerful protection of the Church, appear to have combined in order to create
by their union, a substitute for the restraining influence of which they had
been deprived.
In Hunter’s History of Hallamshirc, (the edition of 1819,) the regulations
of the first Trades’ Unions are set forth in these terms, p. 119:—“ The actes
and ordinaunces made and agreed uppon the firste daye of September, in the
two and thirtieth yere of the reigne of oure Soveraigne Ladye, Elizabeth, by
thee grace of God,Queene of England, Frannce, and Ireland, Defender of the
Faithe, &c., As well by all the hole fellowshippe and company of Cutlers
and makers of knyves within the Lordshippe of Hallamshire, in the Countye
�9
of Yorke, whose names are particularlye expressed in a sedule hereunto an
nexed, As alsoe by the assente of the Righte Honorable George, Erie of
Shrewsburye, Lorde and owner of the said Lordshippe of Hallamshire,
for the better relief and comodytie of the porer sorte of the said fcllowshippe.”
The first article makes a provision that “no person engaged in the said
manufactures, either as a master, servant, or apprentice, shall perform any
worke apperteyninge to the said scyence or mysterye of cutlers,” for eight
and twenty days next ensuing the eighth day of August in each year; nor
from Christmas to the twenty-third day of January; but shall apply them
selves to other labours, “upon payne 9 forfeyture for everye offence founde
and presented by twelve men of the san^fellowshippe, of the Some of twentye
shillinges, to the use of the said Earle, fln heirs, and assignes, to be levyed as
other his fines and amercyaments within the said Lordshippe have beene
accustomed.” 2. No person to exercise the said trade, who had not served an
apprenticeship of seven years, or been instructed by his father for that term.
Penalty, forty shillings. 3. No person to have more than one apprentice in
his service at one time, nor engage another till the former be in his last year,
nor take any for a less term than seven years. Penalty, forty shillings. 4. No
person occupying any wheel for the grinding of knives, to allow of any work
being done there during the holiday months. Penalty, as before. 5. No
occupier of a wheel to suffer any person to grind or glaze any knives there,
who does not reside within the Lordship and liberties, on the same penalty.
6. No person to be suffered to exercise the trade, who has not sufficiently
learned it, within the said Lordship. Penalty as before. 7. No person to
strike any mark upon his wares, but that which is assigned him, in the Lord’s
Court. Penalty, ten shillings. 8. No liafter shall haft any knives for any
chapman, hardware man, or dagger maker, or other person not dwelling within
the liberties. Penalty, twenty shillings. 9. Nor shall knife blades be sold to
any person not dwelling within the liberties. Penalty, six shillings and eight
pence. 10. No journeyman to be employed under the age of twenty, except
such as shall be allowed by the jury, or who have been apprentices, or taught
by their fathers. Penalty, forty shillings. 11. No person who has not served
an apprenticeship, or been instructed by his father, to set up in the trade,
except he first pay to the jury or twelve men of the cutler’s occupation for the
time being, five pounds, the one-half for the Earl’s use, the other half for the
poor of the said corporation, to be distributed by the jury. Penalty, forty
shillings. 12. Every apprentice to be presented to the jury, within one year,
and the indentures to be sealed before them. At the expiration of the term,
each apprentice to bring his indenture to the jury, and to subscribe the rules
here established. Penalty, ten shillings. 13. All persons summoned to serve
upon the jury, to appear, on pain of forfeiting six shillings and eightpence.
14. Each juryman to appear when summoned by the foreman, to settle ques
tions touching these ordinances, on the like penalty. The 15th article gives
power to the jury, with the concurrence of the Lord or his learned Steward
for the time being, to make fresh regulations. 16. At the great Court of the
Earl, holden at Sheffield, in Easter week, twelve men of the said science and
�10
mysteiy, to be nominated by the Earl or his learned Steward, to inquire into
offences and to punish offenders. The last article declares that, if these
ordinances do not prove so beneficial as is expected to the poorer sort, the
Earl may make them or any of them void.
Upon this, Hunter says—“There is something amiable in the spirit of
attention to the condition of the poor, in which these regulations are conceived.
We may observe in them also a laudable attention to the maintenance of that
reputation which the manufacturers of Hallamsliire had obtained; and I wish
I could add that the records of the Manor Court did not present instances in
which in some of their best points,"these ordinances were violated. The
cutlers’ jury were frequently called ea to levy the penalties for unworkmanly
wares.”
w
Hunter afterwards goes on to state that an Act of Parliament was passed
in 1624, which embodied these rules. He says, p. 120,—“The Act is entitled
‘An Act for the good order and government of the makers of knives, sickles,
shears, scissors, and other cutlery wares, in Hallamshire, in the County of
York, and parts near adjoining;” and in its preamble is set forth, that
whereas the greatest part of the inhabitants of those parts consists of persons
engaged in the different departments of the cutlery manufacture, and that by
their industry and labour they have not only gained the reputation of great
skill and dexterity in the said faculty, but have relieved and maintained their
families, and have been enabled to set on work many poor men inhabiting
thereabout, who have very small means or maintenance of living, other than
by then' hard daily labour as workmen to the said cutlers, and have made
knives of the best edge, wherewith they served the most part of this kingdom
and other foreign countries, until now of late that divers persons using the
same profession, in and about the said Eordship and liberty, and within six
miles compass of the same, not being subject to any rule, government, or search
of any others of skill in those manufactures, have refused to submit themselves
to any order, ordinance, or search, but every workman has taken liberty to
himself to take as many apprentices, and for what term of years he pleases,
whereby and by the multitude of workmen, the whole trade and the exact skill
formerly exercised therein, is like in a short time to be overthrown, by means
of which want of government and search, the said workmen holding themselves
free and exempt from all search and correction, are thereby emboldened and
do make such deceitful and unworkmanly wares, and sell the same in divers
parts of the kingdom, to the great deceit of liis majesty’s subjects and scandal
of the cutlers in that Lordship and liberty, and disgrace and hindrance of the
sale of cutlery and iron and steel wares there made, and to the great impover
ishment, ruin, and overthrow of multitudes of poor people; which offenders
not being subject under any oversight, survey, or authority, do pass unpunished
for their offences, abuses, and misdemeanours. For the remedy whereof, it is
enacted, that all persons engaged in those manufactures within the aforesaid
limits, shall form one body politic, perpetual and incorporate, of one master,
two waidens, six searchers, twenty-four assistants, and the rest commonalty
of the said Company of Cutlers of the Lordship of Hallamshire. It is further
!■
�Il
enacted, that it shall be lawful for the said officers or the greater part of them,
to make such laws, acts, ordinances, and constitutions, as to them shall appear
good and wholesome, profitable, honest, and necessary for the good order,
rule, and government of all the members of the said Company, their appren
tices, and servants ; and to levy reasonable penalties on those who neglect to
observe them ; the money so raised, to be given to the poor of the said corpo
ration. Three hundred and sixty persons immediately enrolled themselves
members of the Company, and by then- proper officers proceeded to enact such
laws as at that time appeared to be convenient and necessary. They passed
a law that all persons should serve the offices to which they were regularly
chosen, should attend necessary meetii|^3, and answer summonses. To the
six searchers, power was given to enter dwelling-houses where they had reason
to suppose that deceitful wares were concealed. The restrictions on taking
apprentices, already sufficiently rigid, were made yet more so. The members
of the body were prohibited from working for strangers, or selling to them
unfinished wares. Twopence annually was required from every member of
the corporation, under the description of mark-rent.
The first of these regulations, (7th of Elizabeth, 1565,) provides that all
engaged in the manufacture of cutlery shall have two holidays of a month
each every year, at seedtime and harvest. The wisdom of this provision is
manifest, and it would be well if we could return to it, although it would be
going 300 years back. This silly objection would be as much to the purpose
if applied to the sun, which shone thousands of years ago. I want all persons
engaged in the manufacture of any article, to meet together in a fair and
proper spirit, and make regulations for the good government of that particular
trade. It is foolish to blame the masters for their exactions ; they only obey
the natural law of capital. When working men become masters, they act in
a similar manner—often worse. I want to see a trial of intellect—the heads
of the masters against the heads of the men. The twelfth of the regula
tions, providing for the sealing of the indentures of apprenticeship, gave rise
to the custom in Sheffield, of having a half-holiday on Shrove Tuesday.
Apprentices signed their indentures before the Cutlers’ Company on that day,
which was therefore called, and continues to be called, Fasten Tuesday. The
same regulations show that the sophistry, fallacy, and nonsense now uttered
with reference to unionists and non-unionists was not then known. “ At the
expiration of the term, each apprentice to bring his indentures to the jury, and
to subscribe the rules here established. Penalty, ten shillings.” If a workman
got his living by the trade, he was bound to obey the rules of the trade. I moved
a proposition in the Town Council with reference to this subject. After reciting
the rules, the proposition was—“ That, in consequence of the repeal of these
powers without the consent of the ‘porer sorte,’ they have had to form themselves
into Trades’ Unions, to protect themselves, their wives, and families, and to en
force the observance of the rules thereof by acts of violence, when such acts
were considered necessary. That in order to prevent any recurrence of similar
acts of violence, and to promote the wellbeing of all the inhabitants of the
Borough, it is essentially requisite that the artisans should have restored to them
�12
the same power of lawfully enforcing obedience to their rules, for the good
government of their trades, which they possessed in 1565, 1590, and 1624, as
herein rehearsed. It was artfully objected that I wished to revive the same
rules as existed 300 years ago, although the proposition distinctly says “ The
same power of lawfully enforcing obedience to their rules.” The rules would
have to be agreed upon now by “ all those engaged” in the trade, masters as
well as men. In 1843, Mr. James Wilson, Law-clerk to the Cutlers’ Company,
published an epitome of the present constitution of the Company, from which
it is clear that these rules are now valid, if they were honestly put in force.
He says—“ The power of imposing reasonable fines upon the non-observance
of bye-laws, is still unrepealed. I ccAider that the bye-laws made before the
31st and the 54th Geo. III., are valid and binding, and that the MasterWardens, Searchers, and Assistants, still retain their power of making bye
laws.
It will be well recollected that some years ago, Master Cutler Broad
hurst rattened a large quantity of cast iron cutlery, and that he invited the
inhabitants, by placard, to Paradise Square, in order to see the cutlery
destroyed. You know how large a meeting assembled, and how delighted
they were at the sight, although it was “restraint of trade.” Mr. Wilson
further says—“ Every person who shall have served an apprenticeship for
seven years, to any member of the Company, is entitled to the freedom of the
Company, and the officers are required to grant him the freedom without his
paying any fee whatever.” He also suggests, in conclusion, that the members
of the Company should use their influence to induce persons to become mem
bers. I mention these facts to shew that my proposition is at least no
innovation, although the press may call it strange and peculiar. More than
fifty copies of the proposition were printed and sent to public men who had
written on Trades’ Unions. There was only one response from a clear-minded
writer and an accurate logician, whose writings I never read without being
instructed thereby; His first answer was in the slip-slop newspaper style,
and it was evident he had not studied the matter. In his second letter he
said—“ Do you mean that those who are engaged in a trade, should make
regulations for the government of the trade, to be enforced by the magistrates?”
I replied that this was my proposition, and I asked who ought to regulate a
trade except those engaged in it, who understood it? This question has not
yet been answered.
With reference to the acts of violence by Trades’ Unions, at Sheffield, and
the Inquisition thereon, it was an act of marvellous insanity on the part of the
working men, to fall into the trap of their taskmasters by praying for the
inquiry. As Englishmen, it was their duty to resist it. All enquiries of that
character have a sinister object, not a bona fide one. The law ought to be
administered by the regular judicial tribunals. The object of crown-appointed
commissions—inquisitions—is to register foregone conclusions. It is to
manufacture evidence by manipulation, bullying, threatening, coaxing,
excluding, refusing, and modifying by the use of rose water and lavender, so
as to support the case already made. When the newspapers were loudly
declaring their satisfaction at the appointment of the Jamaica Commission of
�13
Enquiry, the Sheffield Foreign Affairs Committee wrote to the Colonial
Secretary, Mr. Cardwell, telling him that his object was not to further the
ends of justice, but to thwart them, and shield the guilty criminals. That
letter was published in the Jamaica papers, and the prediction was singularly
verified to the letter. None of the criminals have been put on their trial.
Some have even been promoted. Instead of praying for the Sheffield Enquiry,
the working men should have recollected that they were outside the law, and that
everything would be against them in that sense; nothing in tlieir power. They
should have simply stood on the defensive, ready to have met any special charge
against any individuals, and not have floundered into the general proposition
on which the Inquisition was based. Bid they not recollect the circumstances
of the late Mr. Wilson Overend’s appointment as a magistrate ; his determina
tion to put down Trades’ Unions; his invariable sentence on all unionists
being the extreme penalty ; the great public meeting, and petition signed by
18,000 inhabitants; its presentation by the late Mr. Duncombe, M.P.; the
result of the subsequent enquiry, which was that after Mr. Overend’s appoint
ment, every Trades’ Union conviction under him, was accompanied with a
sentence of three months’ imprisonment, with hard labour; and that most of
the cases had been quashed on appeal to the Court of Quarter Sessions. It is
unpleasant to dwell on that idiotic act of the working men, and tlieii silly
leaders, who appear to have altogether lost their heads. Had the proposition
been mooted of a similar enquiry into the sayings and doings of manufacturers,
coal owners, and others, with reference to their trade secrets, it would have
been scouted ; nay, it -would never have drawn breath. The witnesses on the
Enquiry should have resolutely refused to give evidence which might
criminate them, and have relied upon a writ of habeas corpus in case of
committal. I firmly believed that on the argument upon such a writ the
prisoners would have been discharged from custody on the ground that the
Act of Parliament authorising the inquisition was in contravention of the
law, the constitution, and Magna Charta. The ultimate object of the task
masters in the enquiry, was to reduce wages, and the necessary step was
to destroy the power of the Unions, by getting them painted as black as
possible in newspapers. A letter appeared in the Standard, the other day,
which concluded in these terms:—“ Capital cannot be cheaper, skill is on the
rack, profits will not permit of curtailment. Labour at continental rates, is
the only alternative known to myself as a Manufacturer. City, Sept. 20. The
object is here plainly avowed, “ Labour at continental rates.” What is the
meaning of this phrase? It may perhaps be gathered from another letter,
in the London Daily Telegraph, in these terms—“Sir,—Allow me to call
yam* readers’ attention to the following paragraph, taken from the No) th
Devon Journal of the 19th Sept., 1867.”
“ Barnstaple.—Last week, a poor man, named Robt. Milton, was sent to
gaol for 21 days, by the Mayor and G. E. Kingson, Esq., for allowing his two
children to become chargeable to the parish. His master, Mr. Richards, afarmer, of East Buckland, gave the man a good character, and said that he
was a first-class labourer. On being asked how much wages he gave him,
�14
farmer Richards replied that he received four shillings a week, and that this
was considered first-class wages in that part of the country. The prisoner
said that out of this 4s., he already paid 2s. 9d. for the support of one child,
leaving only a balance of Is. 3d. for himself.”
This is an instructive lesson. The case is one of free labour to perfection.
There was no “tyranny of Trades’ Unions’’ at Barnstaple, to interfere between
Robert Milton disposing of his labour to farmer Richards, who gave him a
good character, and said he was a first-rate labourer receiving first-class wages,
which were four shillings a week.
With reference to the Sheffield Enquiry, iniquitous though it was, the enquiry
at Manchester was more barefaced, ♦Vfter one of the witnesses there had
given his evidence, this exhibition took place, according to the report:—“The
witness before leaving the box said the society wished him to mention one fact
which told against the masters. After Mr. Marsden’s strike, the Masters’
Association issued a circular, containing the names of the thirty-two members
who had struck, the object being to deprive them of the means of obtaining
employment. The circular was despatched throughout the country, and at
this moment fourteen of the thirty-two were still out of work. The Chief
Examiner said this was not one of the cases which he thought they were to
enquire into. The general commission now sitting in London was the proper
tribunal to refer the matter to. The witness added that for the last twelve
months he had been out of employment. The masters objected to employ any
official connected with a trades’ union.” Is it necessary to add a single
word to this statement ?
The first manufacturer who was a witness, at Sheffield, was Mr. Eadon.
His evidence was of the puling character. He said he had often been
rattened, and he did not know the reason. He had never informed the police,
and had always made matters up. Had the enquiry been in a regular judicial
court, Mr. Eadon would have been cross-examined, and asked whether the
whole of the goods sent out from his establishment bore his own mark or not.
It is said that most of the goods he sends out, do not bear his mark, and that
he manufactures goods with any mark upon them that may be ordered. This
most reprehensible practice was prohibited by the trade regulations in the
reign of Elizabeth, under a severe penalty, as I have already shewn. It
was considered very prejudicial to the welfare of the town, and it tends
greatly to the production of “ deceitful and unworkmanly wares.” Mr.
Bragge was another witness. He boasted that John Brown & Co., Limited,
would not employ Trades’ Unionists, and that the practice was successful.
Had Mr. Bragge been cross-examined, he would have admitted that
the business of John Brown & Co. was merged in one of Limited Liability
in April, 1864; that a month afterwards, £20 per share had been paid
up, and that the shares were at £11 premium. At the present time,
there is £70 per share paid up, which is at a discount of £35. In other
words, every £1 invested in May, 1864, was worth 30s., and now every
£1 invested is only worth 10s. That is the value which the public has
placed upon the undertaking. I will give another illustration. When any
�15
application was formerly made to me for a house, and the applicant said he
worked at Brown’s, no further enquiry was deemed necessary. The conduct,
however, of these men as tenants, has recently been so bad that we have
reversed the practice in my office, and if an applicant for a house now says he
works at Brown’s, we immediately close all négociations with him. It is
possible that the low financial condition of the concern may not be owing to
the disreputable fellows employed there, but at all events, it is a state of
things somewhat like that historical Sheffield character, Tet Hague, “nowt to
brag on.” I have had considerable experience of Trades’ Unionists as tenants
of property under my management, and I have invariably found that rents
were better paid by them than by * knobsticks,” who cheat and 'defraud
whenever they have an opportunity.
Everything was done upon the enquiry to make it appear that the death of
Linley was a murder. This is notoriously untrue. According to the evidence
there was no malice against him ; nor was there any intention to kill him.
Had there been any trial at York, the evidence of an eminent surgeon would
have conclusively proved that the shooting did not cause his death. It was
owing to other causes. The grinder at Oughtibridge named this point. In
the letter of“ Paul the Aged;” he says, “ Lindley was not murdered, the asser
tion oft repeated ; that he was is gross Hypocrisy. ‘ murder is the deliberate
taking away the life of a man, woman, or child who does not deserve to lose
it.’ Lindley deserved to lose his—the Children starved to death during the
past ten years did not deserve to lose theirs.” It is unpleasant to have to
speak of the dead, and I should not have done so unless from absolute
necessity, arising from the pertinacious parading of the statement that he
was murdered.
I shall now notice a few specimens of the manner in which those outside
the inquiry have commented upon it. The Archbishop of York spoke in
very strong terms on two occasions immediately after the close of the inquiry.
One of his statements was that “hiring a youth and paying him for it appeared
to be an offence which deserved the penalty of death.” No phrase could be
more full of perversion and fallacy than this. Ilis Grace knew, in the first
instance, that there was no intention to kill Linley. Besides, is the taking an
apprentice simply hiring a youth and paying him? Has the master no
moral responsibility? Has he not to instruct, guide, and govern the appren
tice ? Can a working-man do his duty to his employer, and have the care and
instruction of six apprentices at the same time ? The thing is utterly impos
sible. In the time of Elizabeth, due care was taken to prevent this, as you have
seen. Apprentices were formerly under much more control than at present.
Fifty years ago a Sheffield gentleman, now living, went to the Three Tuns, in
Orchard street, during the last week of his apprenticeship. When the com
pany knew that he was not of age he was turned out of the house, though he
was a very respectable young man. At that time men did not permit
apprentices to consort with them. Now, apprentices are married almost
before the signatures to their indentures are dry, and numbers of low beer
houses are entirely supported by boys and girls. Let the statement of His
�10
Grace be applied to himself. He has valuable church livings in his gift.
Instead of appointing duly qualified clergymen when vacancies occur, let him
hire youths to discharge their duties and pay them for it, pocketing the
emoluments himself. Would he be permitted to do so? Would his shallow
fallacy be taken as an excuse or justification ? Men may take academical
degrees and become Archbishops, and yet their logic be of a most indifferent
character. The exhibition of His Grace at Barnsley, after the Oaks Colliery
explosion, was a pitiful one. Whilst hecatombs of men were entombed in the
earth, undergoing the most frightful and hideous deaths that can be conceived,
His Grace said, at a public meeting, that it was satisfactory to know that no
one was to blame for the occurrence« Was not this almost blasphemous ?
The coal which was in the bowels of the earth emitted gas which caused the
explosion. If the coal had not been disturbed there would have been no
catastrophe. If it were possible to get the coal without an explosion, then
there was blame somewhere: if it were not possible, it ought not to have been
attempted, and still there was blame. The horns of this dilemma disposed of,
His Grace’s statement, and the evidence on the inquest, showed that there
was great blame in various quarters. When the jury considered then.’ verdict
they had to make a compromise between the evidence sworn to at the inquest
and the declaration of His Grace. The result was the cautious and unmeaning
verdict to which they agreed.
I now come to the two clergymen who wrote to the Times saying that the
Rev. Mr. Stainton was not a clergyman of the Established Church,—he did
not belong to that Union,—and that they disapproved of his conduct with
reference to Crookes. I do not know the names of these clergymen and wish
to remain in ignorance, because I desire to hold all clergymen and ministers
of religion in respect, and I could not respect these two. I was at a public hotel
in Bristol when the paragraph announcing this fact was going the round of
the papers. My reply to an enquiry as to the meaning of it was that Mr.
Stainton had waited on the employers of Crookes, and put the case in this
manner—that the conduct of Crookes could not be sufficiently reprobated,
but the question was, should he get his living by labour, by criminal means,
or by becoming a pauper: and that Air. Stainton pressed the employers to
continue Crookes in their service. In my judgment, Mr. Stainton was the
true Christian, the good Samaritan. There is a beautiful passage in one of
the prayers of the Church service, which is read twice every Sunday, but
from these recent exhibitions it is not read with a living eye, nor heard with
living ears. I will read it from the prayer book. “ Finally, we commend to
thy fatherly goodness all those who are any ways afflicted or distressed, in
mind, body, or estate ; that it may please thee to comfort and relieve them,
according to their several necessities, giving them patience under their
sufferings, and a happy issue out of all their afflictions.’’ No man can read
or hear this prayer without being influenced for the better. These two
clergymen would alter it; and instead of simply saying “all” who were in any
way distressed, they would add the words “ except Broadhead and Crookes.”
How can they truly say “ Forgive us our trespasses, even as we forgive them
�that trespass against us.” A humorous incident occurred during my stay at
Bristol. As soon as it was known that I was from Sheffield there was a
chorus of loud condemnation at the public table. I took all very quietly, and
then said the case was a very simple one ; the working-men of Sheffield were
determined to live by their labour,—to have beef, mutton, bread, beer,
broadcloth,—and not to be brought down to the condition of the Irish, or the
first-class labourer of Barnstaple at 4s. per week. They w’ere in earnest to
secure this, and rattened those whose conduct prevented it. If that was not
sufficient they blew them up, and, in extreme cases, shot them. Upon my
saying this, the chorus became more loud and fierce, and some of the gentle
men actually frothed at the mouth. They said, amongst other things, that I
justified murder. I retorted by quoting the incident of Moses slaying the
Egyptian. This made the matter worse. The next day, however, they were
very cautious in saying anything to me on the matter. At breakfast, on the
third morning, one of the gentlemen who was very loud in his condemnation,
was leaving for London. He said that he was a cabinet maker ; that he
dealt largely in veneers with piano-forte makers ; that he took piano-fortes in
payment ; the price in the shop being 25 guineas each, while he calculated the
value at ¿£16, and charged for his veneers accordingly. That his mode of dis
posing of the pianos was in this wise :—He had the last taken to his residence,
and employed a music-master to sell it, giving him instructions to invent any
story whatever so as to dispose of it. One morning the music-master told him
that a lady and gentleman were coming to examine the piano, and informed him
of the story which he had invented. It was that the cabinet maker had a
favourite daughter to whom he had presented a new piano on her last birth
day ; that she had subsequently married contrary to his wish, and that he
had wholly disowned her. The lady and gentleman came, and in the course
of the négociations they alluded to the story which had been told to them.
The cabinet-maker said it was perfectly true ; he was dearly fond of his
daughter, but he could not forgive her, nor could he bear the sight of the
piano in his house. They ultimately gave him tlie price which he asked—
20 guineas. As soon as he had finished his recital, I ceased eating breakfast,
and told the company that I knew I had only to wait. On my arrival they were
all loud and fierce in condemning Sheffield, the London gentleman being the
loudest of all. He now boasted at a breakfast table of English gentlemen,
that he had been guilty of a conspiracy to defraud by means of gross false
hood. He admitted the falsehood. I then asked the company what was
their conduct ? After he had finished his recital, did they rise in indignation
and say they would not sit at table with such a monster ? No. Their looks
and gestures were those of approval ; and yet they condemned Sheffield.
The president of the table then observed that if there were a commission
appointed to examine into all trade secrets, perhaps Sheffield would not look
so bad. My reply was that there was a mote in the eye of Sheffield, and A
beam in theirs ; that the doings of Sheffield were to support the wives and
children of the working-men in comfort, whilst they cheated and defrauded
each other in order to prey one on the other. Nothing was said to me about
the atrocities of Sheffield after that.
�18
Returning to the enquiry, Mr. W. E. Forster, M.P., has delivered himself
on the subject very recently. He stated at a public meeting that “ He was
very strongly of opinion that the course which had been taken at Sheffield
was not the right one. He did not think that the terms ought to have been
such as were made between the public authorities and murderers in Sheffield.
He did not think that, in order to obtain information to make a Blue Book,
they ought to have allowed such murderers as Broadhead and Crookes to
flaunt their murders through the streets of Sheffield, and to say that they had
successfully defied the law and the police. By so doing he thought they had
done something to lessen, if that were possible, the sense of the gravity of
murder in the minds of the community. Whatever was done ought to have
been done upon the old principle of Queen's evidence, and he believed that
upon Hallam’s evidence they might have convicted Broadhead and Crookes.”
Was ever such nonsense uttered? Yet Mr. Forster is an “ advanced liberal.”
Everyone knows that none of the evidence extracted at the Sheffield Inqui
sition could have been used in an assize court. No council of standing could
have tendered it; no judge would have received it. It is notorious that no
value is attached to evidence obtained by favour, fear, or threat. The worst
part of Mr. Forster’s statement 'was that the sense of the gravity of murder
was lessened in the minds of the community. He was Under Colonial
Secretary when the hideous Saturnalia of murder, arson, and robbery took
place in Jamaica. Did he then do anything to lessen the gravity of the sense
of murder? Did he declare that unless the law was enforced against the
criminals he would resign his post? On the contrary, he apologised for the
scoundrels. What gross hypocrisy. Lessen the sense of the gravity of
murder! The bombardment of Kagosima without any declaration of war;
the bombardment of Canton in a similar manner, and based, as Mr. Gladstone
declared, “ on an acknowledged lie.” Sir John Bowring was guilty of the ‘‘lie”
in that case. He also is an advanced liberal. What was done to lessen the
sense of the gravity of murder in the Indian insurrection, when we blew our
victims from guns, and shot them down like rabbits ? Was it not then said at
an agricultural meeting, at Oughtibridge, by one speaker, that he “ would not
leave one black Sepoy alive?” and was he not loudly applauded? Again I
repeat what gross hypocrisy and inconsistency.
The most recent comment has been by Mr. Rathbone, at the Social Science
Congress held in Dundee. He said—“ The real remedy against the tyranny
of a union, lay, he believed, in the formation of a free-labour union, as had
been done at Stavely.
* To sum up, the moral he thought to be derived
from the Trades’ Union Inquiry, seemed to him to be that—1st. When trade
outrages occur in a trade, the union should be held responsible. He also
said that it was a question whether artizans ought to have high wages, because
they spent them in sensual indulgence. Could there be more insufferable
insolence than this? One who does not labour as a producer, saying that it
is a question what portion of the produce the producers should be permitted
to have. Suppose the producers were to deal with him in the same way, and
say that it was a question whether he ought to have anything, inasmuch as he
�produced nothing, and deal with him as the working bees do with drones.
His “moral,” too, is an atrocious one, wholly unworthy of any consideration.
The Inquisition being over, the result was anxiously expected. When
Mr. Overend took his work in to be examined, he said, amongst other things
—“ During the course of our investigation, matters connected with trades’
unions (such as the number of apprentices allowed to each workman, and the
class from which they may be taken, the remuneration of labour, the restraints
exercised upon voluntary action, and the rules and general policy of trades’
unions) have frequently been brought before our notice. These, however, are
questions for the consideration of the Royal Commission sitting in London,
and we purposely avoid making any observations upon them. We are con
vinced that the most material disclosures made to us were so made in reliance
on our promise of indemnity made in conformity with the act of parliament.
Had no such indemnity been afforded, we are satisfied that we should never have
obtained any clear and conclusive evidence touching the most important subjects
of our inquiry." In other words, he said that he had cleansed the cesspool,
and nearly poisoned the nation with the foul effluvia ; that he could not have
succeeded without the help of those who had filled it; that he had heard a
good deal as to how it came to be so full and foul, but he had nothing to do
with that, and if it should become full again, he was ready to cleanse it at
statement prices.
After this abortion, and partly in consequence of it, I brought the case before
the Town Council. There were two objects in that proceeding;—to state the
case, and to ascertain what the taskmasters who were in the Council proposed
to do. The case was partially stated, and it has to be answered before there
can be any further repressive legislation. The taskmasters had nothing to
propose. They were, like Mr. Overend, all at sea. Some rambling statements
were made to the effect that Government would do something, and that there
should be free-labour. The Government will carefully consider the whole
case, before doing anything. Their legal advisers know the utter impossibility
of safely governing the people with any increased repression of Trades’
Unions. As to the phrase, “free-labour,” it is too absurd and ridiculous to
require any lengthened notice. Nor is it necessary, as Mr. Austin shewed at
Preston that he fully understood it. On that point, he is reported in these
terms:—“ What men called free-labour institutions, he denounced as a device
of the capitalist to divert the attention of the men from their societies, which
were the only protection of their labour, in order more easily to destroy the
trade organizations.” Nothing would be more desirable than to carry out the
idea of free labour in its integrity. Let a short act of parliament be passed,
declaring it to be expedient that there should be free-labour throughout the
country, and that after a certain day, all salaries and statement prices depen
dent upon the votes of parliament, or in any other public manner, should be
withdrawn. The Lord Chancellor, all the Judges and other administrators of
the law, all Bishops and Clergymen, all Ambassadors and diplomatists, and
all Members of the Government, would then be free. The Chairman of this
meeting might put himself forward as a free magistrate, hearing cases at
�2Ó
3s. 6d. each. Another might set up as a free County Court Judge, at half the
statement price now paid. I might even become a free Archbishop. The
absurd imbecility of this nonsense is only equalled by the conduct of those
who assume to be the leaders of the Unions in reference to it—Mr. George
Potter and the chattering magpies and parrots who surround him. Mr. Potter
was once a good man, when he was an artisan. Now his object is to sell the
Beehive and become a Member of Parliament. These gentlemen have passed
a resolution excommunicating some of the Sheffield trades. This is a ridicu
lous act of suicide. Did anyone ever hear of any assistance coming from any
organisation in London ? Nearly thirty years ago, there was a strike in the
Potteries which lasted seventeen weeks, and the sum of nearly ¿£8,000 was
advanced by the Sheffield trades in support of the men. There were no
amalgamated associations and executives of Trades’ Unions then, but there
was substantial help, and the men in the Potteries almost worshipped Sheffield
for the assistance rendered. Besides this, is it not madness for the Unions to
quarrel among themselves when the foot of the taskmasters is on their neck ?
Under these circumstances, the proposition of restoring to the working men
the power which they formerly possessed of legally enforcing obedience to
their rules, is put forth. It is not a theory, a speculation, a wild vision, an
innovation: it is simply a restoration. Some of these London people do not
want it. They say that moral force and persuasion are sufficient. If they
can do without legal force or illegal violence, let them do so. Baron Bramwell,
however, has recently given them a lesson on this point of moral force and
persuasion, which will probably not be without its effect. After his exposition
of the law, on the 22nd of August, in the case of the tailors who were con
victed of picketting, I wrote to him in these terms:—
“ Sheffield, August 30th, 1867.
Sir,—I have read your charge to the jury, on the 22nd instant, in the
prosecution against Druitt and others for picketting, with ‘respectful amaze
ment.’ As reported, the charge appears to be illogical and inconsistent
throughout. There is one passage in your remarks, when sentencing the
defendants, which is wholly incomprehensible. It is this—‘ The aggregate of
the happiness of mankind was created by each man being left to his own
discretion, and to do what he pleased in reference to his own affairs.’ In that
case, why are you a judge ? Why were the ten commandments promulgated?
Why is there law ?
“Previous to this statement, you had said that the lock-out of the masters
had nothing to do with the enquiry, the object of the lock-out being to prevent the
men being left to their‘discretion,’and to do what they‘pleased’in reference
to their own affairs. You also observed that the lock-out had been successful;
that is, that the men had been coerced by means of the lock-out. Your obser
vation that the masters had as much right to combine as the men, is true,
only it so happens that magistrates, juries, and judges, who belong to the
class of masters, invariably decide that the action of any and every combina
tion of masters is lawful, and that the action of any combination of men, is
unlawful.
�21
»Tn the current number of Macmillan, Carlyle says ‘That a good man be
free as we call it; be permitted to unfold himself in works of goodness and
nobleness, is surely a blessing to him, immense and indispensable, to him and
to those about him. But that a bad man be(left to his own discretion,
and to do what he pleases,) permitted to unfold himself in his particular way,
is, contrariwise, the fatallest curse you could inflict upon him—curse, and
nothing else, to him and all his neighbours.’ Is Mr. Carlyle right, or are you.
Your obedient servant,
Isaac Ironside,”
Mr. Baron Bramwell.
If after Baron Bramwell, the London people say that sugar and barley*
water will be effective, nothing more is necessaiy.
It is clear that if things go on as at present, or if there are more cruel and
vindictive laws and sentences against the Unions, the acts of violence will be
more frequent. It must not be supposed that the lads of Sheffield are ignorant
of what took place at the inquiry. They would devour the revelations there
made, with eagerness and avidity, and as they grow up, they will know and
practice the like deeds, if compelled thereto. Being a man of peace, and
opposed to violence, I desire to avoid this, and confidently propose a return
to the practice of ancient times, when acts of violence in connection with
trade were unknown. There is no legal difficulty in the way. Let the Friendly
Societies’ Act be amended in this sense; the Lord Chancellor and the Lord
Chief Justice mffiht settle the terms of the emendation ; then let masters and
men meet to agree upon the rules, which might be sent to Mr. Tidd Pratt to
be certified.
T .
, , ,. ,
One word to those who are called “ knobsticks.” It is your conduct which
has caused all this deplorable misery. If you had acted like men there
would have been none of it. You would have been respected by your fellow
workmen and by society. I trust that you wffl cease to be the cause of any
more acts of violence, and that you will agree and act with your fellow
in conclusion, I ask you to dismiss from your minds all that has been said,
for a few minutes. It is not often that I meet you face to face, and I wish to
take this opportunity of giving a little advice. You and I find ourselves
living upon the surface of the earth, surrounded by every variety of animate
and inanimate objects. The more we investigate the nature and properties of
these objects, the more thoroughly we become convinced of the extent of our
ignorance. It is not possible for us to penetrate the mystery of the universe ;
the mystery of life: and our case would be a hopeless one if there were not a
sure and unerring guide for us under all circumstances. _ That guide has been
followed by all the great and good men who have ever lived, of whom there is
any record. It is declared by Christ to be the second great commandment,
like unto the first:—Thou slialt love thy neighbour as thyself. St. Paul left no
doubt as to the meaning of the term “neighbour” in his magnificent sermon at
Athens, wherein he said—“ God hath made of one blood all nations of men to
�22
dwell together on the face of the earth.” You are to love your neighbour aa
yourself, whatever his colour or condition. In proportion as you do this you
will become possessed of the peace which passeth all understanding, which
will rest upon you and remain with you; and when you are summoned to the
silent land “to that bourne from which no traveller returns”—it will be said
of you, “ The memory of the just is blessed.”
Since the delivery of this Address, the question has been put, as to “ whether
duly qualified medical men would have the same reason for committing acts of
violence against quack doctors, as saw grinders exercise against ‘knobsticks?’”
The answer is simple—the medical man goes through a course of study and exami
nation; if successful, he obtains a diploma; this document is his certificate of
qualification. The saw grinder serves an apprenticeship of seven years to learn his
trade. At the expiration of the term his indentures are given to him, which are
his certificate of qualification. The medical man, armed with his diploma, is
entitled to have his name inserted in the “Medical Register,” a publication
authorised by Her Majesty. No quack doctor can get his name inserted therein,
and anyone holding himself out, or practising as a qualified medical man, whose
name is not in the “ Register,” is punishable by a heavy fine. The medical authori
ties can also withdraw the diploma of those who offend against the medical Trades’
Union. There is no Saw Grinders’ Register published by authority, nor any punish
ment of quack saw grinders by the law. In addition to this, the quack doctor is
prohibited from recovering by law any charge for medical services. There is no
prohibition of quack saw grinders from recovering their wages by law. Let the
saw grinders be put in the same legal position in these respects as the medical
profession, and then the question will be a proper one.
I. I.
J. ROBEBTSHAW, PRINTER (BY STEAM POWER), ANGEL STREET, SHEFFIELD,
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Trades' unions: an address by Isaac Ironside at a public meeting in the Temperance Hall, Sheffield on Monday, September 30, 1867. Mr Edwin Grayson in the chair
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Ironside, Isaac
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London; Sheffield
Collation: 22 p. ; 21 cm.
Notes: Large ink stains partly obscuring text. Printed by J. Robertshaw, Sheffield. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
R. Hardwick; J. Robertshaw
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5217
Subject
The topic of the resource
Trade unions
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Trades' unions: an address by Isaac Ironside at a public meeting in the Temperance Hall, Sheffield on Monday, September 30, 1867. Mr Edwin Grayson in the chair), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Conway Tracts
Trade Unions
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/e67f1125225049487f9b38c99491b704.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=RFqeX%7EUM9ouRTlVo6-zll07hwaIQQ4SoFSjE2PrEkhwj0BmmKMHZQ-ZWzcnQ5SCdgSNmCkI6A74lZ-cKlD19qD6xyIqdIyZuCt7NZ6FBDOHIhVK2xvftDp00IuUZKvkfXqJX-44bOd7%7EK0h5YoGEvjhkfXktjCKn1yo2ZFumKV7DY06dv4ZglDsDAbcx%7En2AXpAz4HzUUdng-XZil2cEo8-UkzT333Iiubjev0rxQxoRGnkW-SzcKTDxoAkhP0GrEFZnnz9JBBAmDY7VQKU%7E-O-iCWgR3v6mH7XPOgk-aTQ2VB7oyrbu0CeEUK2csUmXS5h1MFMseQcGH1q95al0Gw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
678cb330b6a953f8840840d5b03be8ce
PDF Text
Text
Cjs6^
i •
LONDON
DIALECTICAL
SOCIETY,
32A, GEORGE STREET, HANOVER SQUARE, W.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WERTHEIMER, LEA AND CO.,
CIRCUS PLACE, FINSBURY CIRCUS.
1866—67.
��PROSPECTUS.
--------------00-------------
That Truth is of all things the most to be desired,
and that it is best elicited by the conflict of op
posing opinions, are propositions on which all
philosophers are agreed, and which need only be
enunciated to command universal assent.
Influenced by these considerations, and actuated
by the desire of giving them effect, several gentle
men of various tastes, literary, scientific, and phi
losophical, thought that a Society instituted for
the purpose of interchange of opinion on all sub
jects of interest, would be to a certain extent a
novelty, and would meet with favorable support.
They were aware that there already existed nume
rous Debating Societies, where mere surface-ques
tions were argued, (chiefly for the purpose of ob
taining practice in speaking,) and where subjects
held to be of the highest importance were prohi
bited from being discussed at all; but there did
not appear to be a Society for the philosophical
�6
treatment of all questions, especially those which
lie at the root of the differences of opinion which
divide mankind,—such questions, for instance, as
are comprised in the domain of Ethics, Meta
physics, and Theology.
It was designed, therefore, to establish not a
mere Debating Society, or Discussion Class, but
an Association with higher and more philosophical
aims.
It appeared to the Founders, that for a Society
of this kind to be successful, Sectarianism of every
description must be rigidly excluded,—all distinc
tion founded upon social condition, occupation,
and the like, disregarded—and the only recognised
qualifications for Membership be an unstained
character, and a genuine desire for the promotion
of the objects of the Society.
It was manifest, too, as an essential condition of
success—being, indeed, the fundamental principle
of the Society, that the most absolute freedom of
debate should be permitted ;—that no subject
whatever should be excluded on any ground save
that of its triviality, and that the restrictions and
reservations which obtain in ordinary Debating
Societies should have no place here.
�1
A meeting of the Founders was subsequentlyheld, at which, after due deliberation, the follow
ing Resolution was unanimously carried : — “ That
“ in the opinion of this meeting, it is desirable that
“ a Philosophical Association be formed for the
“ discovery and elucidation of truth, upon all sub“ jects, by means of argument and discussion.”
The first question to be considered was the name
by which the Society should be known; and with
reference to the title adopted, the following re
marks by Professor Bain, in his essay on Early
Philosophy, may not be out of place :—
“ The essence of the Dialectic Method is to place
“ side by side, with every doctrine and its reasons,
<£ all opposing doctrines and their reasons, allow“ ing these to be stated in full by the persons
“ holding them. No doctrine is to be held as ex“ pounded, far less proved, unless it stands in
“ parallel array to every other counter-theory, with
££ all that can be said for each. For a short time
“ this system was actually, maintained and prac“ tised but the execution of Sokrates gave it its
“ first check, and the natural intolerance of man“ kind rendered its continuance impossible. Since
“ the Reformation, struggles have been made to
�“ regain for the discussion of questions generally,
“ —philosophical, political, moral, and religious,
“ the two-sided procedure of the law-courts, and
“ perhaps never more strenuously than now.”
Let the London Dialectical Society, then, encou
rage and practise the method of teaching implied
by its title : let us remember that
“ Through mutual intercourse and mutual aid,
“ Great deeds are done, and great discoveries made,
“ The wise new wisdom on the wise bestow,
“ Whilst the lone thinker’s thoughts come slight and slow.”
Let us emulate the example of the great Athe
nian philosopher of antiquity, the aim of whose
existence was the demonstration of Reasoned
Truth, and the exposure of the errors and fallacies
of his age,—who, absolutely regardless of all con
sequences, passed his life in the bold enunciation
of the truth, and voluntarily and cheerfully forfeited
it in its defence, — whose virtue, courage, and
wisdom have earned for him the veneration of
posterity.
The Founders of the Society are aware of the
difficulties to be encountered. They know that a
Society of individuals proposing to discuss every
subject, without the slightest reserve, will neces
sarily incur considerable obloquy, and be the ob
�9
ject of much depreciatory remark and prophetic
denunciation. It will rest with the Members to
prove by their conduct in debate, that these un
favorable comments and gloomy forebodings were
based upon an erroneous conception of the prin
ciples upon which the proceedings of the Associa
tion are to be conducted.
In a Society where such full liberty of debate is
granted, where matters on which men have deeplycherished opinions are openly and boldly dis
cussed, some little self-restraint must be exercised
on the one hand, and too great sensitiveness must
not be exhibited on the other. Debate must be
conducted without any undue warmth of feeling,—
arguments, and not individuals, must be attacked,
—imputation of motives must be avoided,—and
the Chairman must exercise his authority with
promptitude, impartiality, and rigor.
It is hardly necessary to express a hope that
* Members will not consume the time of both them
selves and others by the consideration of questions
of frivolous import or vexatious triviality. It was
proposed, indeed, to meet the difficulty by a Law,
empowering the Council to exercise some kind of
censorship ; but it was thought better to leave the
�IO
matter to the good sense of the whole body of
Members, in the full confidence that any attempt at
trifling would be promptly and efficiently checked.
To conclude : the London Dialectical Society
will have effected much good, if, by its means, per
sons are made to feel that to profess a belief on a
disputed question with regard to which they refuse
to examine the evidence, is an act altogether un
worthy of a rational being; and that the only
method of arriving at truth is by submitting one’s
opinions to the test of unsparing and adverse
criticism. Freedom of speech and thought are, not
less than personal freedom, the natural birthright of
all mankind. To refrain from uttering opinions be
cause they are unpopular, betokens a certain amount
of moral cowardice, — engendered by long-con
tinued persecution. To state fearlessly the truth,
or what we believe to be the truth, even though it
be held only by a few, is the act of all who con
sider the exercise of private judgment a right, and *
the extension of human knowledge a duty. But
society generally has not yet reached such a stage
of progress, as to allow individuals to give expres
sion to their honest and deliberate convictions,
without inflicting upon them penalties more or less
�II
severe. The effect of this is to deter men from
expressing opinions, which might be corrected if
erroneous, and accepted if true. In the London
Dialectical Society, however, not only will no per
son suffer obloquy on account of any opinion he
may entertain or express, but he will be encouraged
to lay before his fellow-members the fullest expo
sition of his views. Even if this were not so, it is
to be hoped that Members of the Society will
possess sufficient moral courage to disregard, in the
interests of Truth, that social tyranny—the weapon
of Ignorance and Intolerance.
“ They are Slaves who will not choose
“ Hatred, scoffing, and abuse,
“ Rather than in silence shrink
“ From the truth they needs must think.
‘ ‘ They are Slaves who dare not be
“ In the right with two or three.”
Let us be mindful of the fact, that throughout the
whole history of the world, the voice of Authority
has constantly opposed new truths; and, with an
earnest desire both to learn and teach, let us zea
lously follow the practice of Dialectics, unaffected
by the praises of some, undeterred by the denun
ciations of others, but conscious of honesty and
purity of motive, and desirous for the wisdom and
happiness of Man.
�RULES.
I. —That the Society be called “ The London
Dialectical Society.”
II. —That the object of the Society be the philo
sophical consideration of all subjects, with a view
to the discovery and elucidation of truth.
III. —That the Society consist of a President,
Vice-Presidents, and Members.
IV. —That the government of the Society be
vested in a council of nine, consisting of the Secre
tary, the Treasurer, and seven other Members ;
three to be a quorum.
V. —That the Council be elected by Ballot
annually.
VI. —That vacancies occurring in the Council
be provisionally filled up by the remaining Mem
bers of the Council.
�VII. —That the President and Vice-Presidents
be elected by the Council, and that they enjoy all
the privileges of ordinary Members.
VIII. —That on and after the ist of January,
1867, persons desirous of becoming Members of
the Society, having filled up a form of applica
tion, to be obtained of the Secretary (of which the
annexed is a copy,) be proposed and seconded at
an ordinary Meeting, and balloted for at the fol
lowing Meeting, one black ball in six to exclude;
and that any one thus excluded be not again pro
posed for a period of three months.
FORM OF APPLICATION.
Having read the Prospectus and Rules of the London
Dialectical Society, I beg to express my cordial approval
of its object and the principles on which it is founded, as
therein set forth ; and being desirous of becoming a Member,
request that my name be placed on the List of Candidates for
admission.
Signed________________________________
Address_______________________________
Date_______________________
Proposed by________________________ ________
Seconded by_________________________________
�i4
E IX.—That two ordinary Meetings of the Society
be held in each month, except the months of August
and September; but that the Council have the
power to appoint any additional Meeting, and fix
the day for an adjourned ordinary Meeting.
X. —That Members be entitled to introduce per
sonally a friend each at the ordinary Meetings, whose
names shall be entered, together with the names of
the Members introducing them, in a book kept for
that purpose; such Visitors not to take part in the
discussion, without permission of the Chairman.
XI. —That on the written requisition of twelve
Members, the Council call a Special General Meet
ing to consider any question with reference to the
affairs of the Society, and that at such Meeting no
other business but that stated in the requisition be
considered.
XII. —That no Rule be made or altered without
the consent of three-fourths of the Members pre
sent at the Special General Meeting called to con
sider the proposed alteration.
XIII. —That the Secretary send to each Member
of the Council due notice of each Council Meet-
�i5
ing; and to each Member of the Society due notice
of the Annual, and of every Special Meeting; in
each case stating the object for which the Meeting
has been called.
XIV. —That a Balance-sheet and Report be
drawn up by the Council, and presented at the
Annual General Meeting.
XV. —That at the ordinary Meetings, no vote
be taken with reference to the subject of the Paper
read, or discussion which may have taken place.
XVI. —That the Secretary keep Minutes of each
Meeting; such Minutes to consist of a short sum
mary of the Paper read, together with the Debate
thereon, and also any other proceedings which may
have taken place.
XVII. —That the Papers read before the So
ciety, or a copy of them, be delivered to the Secre
tary, and become the property of the Society ■ but
that no Paper be published without the consent of
its Author.
XVIII.—That the subjects proposed for discus
�sion be received, and the order in which they are
to be taken arranged, by the Council.
XIX. —That if the conduct of any Member be
such as to cast discredit on the Society, or to be
detrimental to its interests, a Special General
Meeting shall be called by the Council, according
to the provisions of Rule XI., at which Meeting
the expulsion of such Member may be resolved
upon, the conditions of Rule XII. being complied
with, and the Vote being taken by Ballot.
XX. —That except where otherwise stated, open
Voting be practised.
XXI. —That in the absence of the President,
each Meeting elect its own Chairman, whose de
cision on all matters of order shall be final.
XXII. —That the Annual Subscription be ten
shillings and sixpence, payable in advance.
XXIII.—That the Council have the power to
make such Bye-laws and other Regulations as from
time to time they may deem necessary; but that
no Bye-law or Regulation be made inconsistent
with the constitution of the Society, as set forth
in the Prospectus and fundamental Rules.
�17
XXIV. —That the Council have the power to in
vite persons of celebrity to read papers, or deliver
addresses before the Society.
XXV. —That at the conclusion of each Meet
ing, the subject to be considered at the following
Ordinary Meeting be announced, and that the
Secretary make known the subjects, if possible, not
less than three months in advance.
�BYE-LAWS.
I. —That the Session, commence on the ist of
October, and terminate on the 31st of July.
II. —That the ordinary Meetings be held at the
Rooms of the Society, 3 2a, George Street, Han
over Square, on the evenings of the first and third
Wednesday in each month during the session, and
that the proceedings commence at eight o’clock
precisely.
III. —That any ordinary Meeting held in the
first week of any month, maybe adjourned to the
night of ordinary Meeting in the third week of that
month; such adjourned Meeting to take prece
dence of all ordinary business of that night.
IV. —That no ordinary Meeting held in the
third week of any month be adjourned without
special leave previously obtained of the Council.
V. —That no adjourned ordinary Meeting be
held in the first week of any month.
�19
Papers and Discussions during the Session
. 1866—67.
1867.
Jan. 29.—Inaugural Meeting.
Feb. 5.-—“ On the Causes of Poverty and Low Wages.”
Dr. Drysdale.
19. —Adjourned Debate on Dr. Drysdale’s paper.
Mar. 5.—“On the Laws relating to the Tenure of Land.”
Dr. Chapman.
13.—“On the Medical Education of Women.”
Dr. Edmunds.
20. -—Adjourned Debate on Dr. Drysdale’s Paper.
April 3.—“ On the Political Philosophy of Thomas Carlyle.”
Mr. Smith.
17.—11 On Utilitarianism, as compared with Theological
or Dogmatic Standards of Morality.”
Dr. Drysdale.
May 1.—“ On the Influence of the Inquisition upon Spanish
Literature.”
Mr. Chidley.
15.—“ On Aggressive War : what are the circumstances
(if any) which justify it ?”
Mr. Smith.
June 5.—“ On Utility,—the ultimate Test of Morality.”
Mr. Shields.
19. — “On Waste, politico-economically considered.”
Dr. Edmunds.
July 3.—“ On Marriage-Contracts.”
Dr. Chapman.
17.—“ On the Credibility of Miracles.”
Mr. Warington.
�20
MEMBERS.
Philip Abraham, Esq., 147, Gower Street, W.C.
L. B. Abrahams, Esq., B. A., Jews’ Free School, Bell Lane,
N.E.
Roger Acton, Esq.,
Crescent, N.W.
n, Crescent Place, Mornington
Isidore G. Ascher, Esq., B.C.L., 6, Guildhall Chambers,
Basinghall Street, E.C.
Wynne E. Baxter, Esq., Bedford Park, Croydon, S.
Herman Beigel, Esq., M.D., 3, Finsbury Square, E.C.
H. R. Fox Bourne, Esq., 29, Brixton Place, S.
Thomas Bourne, Esq., 25, Somerset Street, Portman
Square, W.
H. Evans Broad, Esq., 5, Stratheden Villas, Hammer
smith, W.
F. Gordon Brown, Esq., M.R.C.S., 16, Finsbury Circus,
E.C.
N. J. Canstatt, Esq., M.R.C.S., 12, South Place, Fins
bury, E.C.
The Rev. John Chapman, Jews’ College, Finsbury Square,
E.C.
John Chapman, Esq., M.D., 25, Somerset Street, Portman
Square, W.
Sydney Chidley, Esq., 25, Old Jewry, E.C.
Andrew Clark, Esq., M.D., 23, Montague Place, Russell
Square, W.C.
�21
Frank Crisp, Esq., B.A., LL.B., 6, Old Jewry, E.C.
John Crowther, Esq., 94, Holborn Hill, W.C.
Charles R. Drysdale, Esq., M.D., 99, Southampton
Row, W.C.
R. William Dunn, Esq., M.R.C.S., 13, Surrey Street,
Strand, W.C.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., F.R.C.S., F.S.S., 30, Brook
Street, Grosvenor Square, W.
D. H. Dyte, Esq., M.R.C.S., 15, Bury Street, E.C.
John Dyte, Esq., 32, Moorgate Street, E.C.
James Edmunds, Esq., M.D., 4, Fitzroy Square, W.
Mrs. Edmunds, 4, Fitzroy Square, W.
Pierce Egan, jun., Esq., Middle Temple, E.C.
James Ellis, Esq., M.D., St. Luke’s Hospital, Old Street,
E.C.
James H. Gough, Esq., B.A., Thames Conservancy Office,
Trinity Square, E.C.
Jacob Guedalla, Esq., 10, Clarendon Gardens, Maida
Vale, W.
Joseph Guedalla, Esq., 10, Clarendon Gardens, Maida
Vale, W.
William Hardwicke, Esq., M.D., 70, Momington Road,
N.W.
Ephraim Harris, Esq., B.A., Jews’ Free School, Bell
Lane, N. E.
Morris Harris, Esq., 8, Great Prescott Street, E.
A. Hartog, Esq., 15, Belsize Square, N.W.
George H. Haydon, Esq., Bethlem Hospital, Lambeth, S.
N. Heckford, Esq.,M.R.C.S., 5, Broad Street Buildings, E.C.
�22
Samuel Jackson, Esq., Guy’s Hospital, Borough, S.
H. L. Kempthorne, Esq., M.D., Bethlem Hospital, Lam
beth, S.
G. W. King, Esq., Eagle Wharf Road, N.
Albert Kisch, Esq., M.R.C.S., 2, Circus Place, Finsbury,
E.C.
James Knight, Esq., 71, Cheapside, E.C.
Joseph Knight, Esq., 8, Warden Road, Haverstock Hill,
N.W.
J. Baxter Langley, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.L.S., 50, Lincoln’s
Inn Fields, W.C.
J. S. Laurie, Esq., Hall Staircase, Inner Temple, E.C.
Gerald Levi, Esq., 8, Coleman Street, E.C.
Maurice H. Levirton, Esq., 2, Fen Court, Fenchurch
Street, E.C.
J. H. Levy, Esq., Education Department, Privy Council
Office, Downing Street, S.W.
The Rev. M. B. Levy, Synagogue, St. Alban’s Place, S.W.
Morell Mackenzie, Esq., M.D., 13, Weymouth Street,
Portland Place, W.
The Rev. P. Magnus, B.A., B. Sc., 29, Blandford Square,
N.W.
Frank R. Malleson, Camp Cottage, Wimbledon, S.W.
Mrs. Malleson, Camp Cottage, Wimbledon, S.W.
Henry Maudsley, Esq., M.D., 38, Queen Anne Street,
Cavendish Square, W.
J. Maurice, Esq., 3, Langham Place, Regent Street, W.
Bentley McLeod, Esq., 32, Moorgate Street, E.C.
B. M. Moss, Esq., 25, Store Street, Bedford Square, W.C.
�LONDON
DIALECTICAL
SOCIETY.
PRESIDENT.
Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
ANDREW CLARK, Esq., M.D.
Prof. HUXLEY, F.R.S.
COUNCIL.
L. B. Abrahams, Esq., B.A.
John Chapman, Esq., M.D.
William Hardwicke, Esq., M.D.
James Knight, Esq.
J. H. Levy, Esq.
Henry Maudsley, Esq., M.D.
J. Rigby Smith, Esq.
TREASURER.
C. R. Drysdale, Esq., M.D.
HON. SECRETARY.
D. H. Dyte, Esq., M.R.C.S.
HON. SOLICITOR.
Sydney Chidley, Esq.
A UDITORS.
James H. Gough, Esq., B.A.
Bentley McLeod, Esq., (Messrs. Dyte, McLeod and
Leader, 32, Moorgate Street, E.C.)
�INDEX.
Prospectus
........
3
Rules................................................................................. 12
Bye-Laws-............................................
Papers for
List
of
the
Session 1866-67
.
18
...
19
Members.....................................
20
�23
E. J. Moss, Esq., 48, Edmund Terrace, Kensington, W.
H. Raymond, Esq., 8, York Grove, Peckham, S.E.
Alfred T. Rees, Esq., 13, Rydon Crescent, St. John
Street Road, E.C.
Walter Rivington, Esq., B.A.,M.S., 22, Finsbury Square,
E.C.
W. H. Mosse Robinson, Esq., Birdhirst. Croydon.
Henry Sewill, Esq., M.R.C.S.,20, Clifton Gardens, Maida
Vale, W.
W. A. Shields, Esq., Birkbeck Schools, Peckham, S.E.
James L. Shuter, Esq., 33, Farringdon Street, E.C.
A. Simons, Esq., B.A., Jews’ Free School, Bell Lane, N.E.
J. Rigby Smith, Esq., Education Department, Privy Council
Office, Downing Street, S.W.
James Spear, Esq., 6, Bishop’s Road, Bayswater, W.
P. Spiers, Esq., Jews’ Free School, Bell Lane, N.E.
H. C. Stephens, Esq., Grove House, Finchley, N.
William Taylor, Esq., 145, New Bond Street, W.
Arthur Waller, Esq., B.A., B.Sc., St. Thomas’s Hos
pital, Walworth, S.
George Warington, Esq., F.C.S., Apothecaries’ Hall,
Blackfriars, E.C.
William Rhys Williams, Esq., M.D., Bethlem Hospital,
Lambeth, S.
W. H. Witherby, Esq., M.A., M.D., Coombe, Croydon, S.
H. S. Yeomans, Esq, 35, . Upper East Smithfield, E.
G. G. Zerffi, Esq., Ph. D., 3, Warrington Gardens, Maida
Hill, W.
��y
^rosycdusi atul
OF THE
LONDON DIALECTICAL
SOCIETY.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY S. MELDOLA, 9, CRANE COURT,
FLEET STREET, E.C.
1866.
��PROSPECTUS,
That Truth is of all things the most to be desired,
and that it is best elicited by the conflict of opposing
opinions, are propositions on which all philosophers
are agreed, and which need only be enunciated to command universal assent.
Influenced by these considerations, and actuated
by the desire of giving them effect, several gentlemen
of various tastes, literary, scientific, and philosophical,
thought that a Society instituted for the purpose of
interchange of opinion on all subjects of interest,
would be to a certain extent a novelty, and would
favorable support.
They were aware that there already existed numerous Debating Societies, where mere surface-questions were argued, chiefly for the purpose of obtainKgMRe.tice in speaking, and where subjects held to
be of the highest importance were prohibited from
being discussed at all; but there did not appear to be
�4
a Society for the philosophical treatment of all ques
tions, especially those which lie at the root of the
differences of opinion which divide mankind,—such
questions, for instance, as are comprised in the domain
of Ethics, Metaphysics, and Theology.
It was designed, therefore, to establish not a mere
Debating Society, or Discussion Class, but an Asso
ciation with higher and more philosophical aims.
It appeared to the Founders, that for a Society
of this kind to be successful, Sectarianism of every
description must be rigidly excluded,—all distinc
tion founded upon social condition, occupation,
and the like, disregarded—and the only recognised
qualifications for Membership be an unstained cha
racter, and a genuine desire for the promotion of the
objects of the Society.
It was manifest, too, as an essential condition of
success—being indeed the fundamental principle of
the Society, that the most absolute freedom of de
bate should be permitted;—that no subject whatever
should be excluded on any ground save that of its
triviality, and that the restrictions and reservations
which obtain in ordinary Debating Societies should
have no place here.
A meeting of the Founders was subsequently held,
at which, after due deliberation, the following Reso
�lution was unanimously carried: “ That in the
“ opinion of this Meeting, it is desirable that a Philo“ sophical Association be formed for the discovery and
“ elMjgi of truth, upon all subjects, by means of
“argument and discussion.”
The first question to be considered was the name
by which the Society should be known; and with
reference to the title adopted, the following remarks
by Professor Bain, in his essay on Early Philosophy,
may not be out of place :
“The Essence of the Dialectic Method is to place
“ side by side, with every doctrine and its reasons, all
■ 4Ep8?sin£jdoctrines and their reasons, allowing these
“ to be stated in full by the persons holding them.
■ No doctrine is to be held as expounded, far less
“ proved, unless it stands in parallel array to every
“ other counter-theory, with all that can be said for
“each. For a short time this system was actually
‘MEinaained and practised; but the execution of
“ Sokrates gave it its first check, and the natural
“intolerance of mankind rendered its continuance
“impossible. Since the Reformation, struggles have
“been made to regain for the discussion of questions
^EfetUrally.—philosophical, political, moral, and
“religious, the two-sided procedure of the law-courts,
“ and perhaps never more strenuously than now.”
�6
Let the London Dialectical Society then, encoa*
rage and practise the method of teaching implied by
its title: let us remember that
“ Through mutual intercourse and mutual aid,
“ Great deeds are done, and great discoveries made,
“The wise new wisdom on the wise bestow,
“ Whilst the lone thinker’s thoughts come slight and slow.”
Let us emulate the example of the great Athenian
philosopher of antiquity, the aim of whose existence
was the demonstration of Reasoned Truth, and the
exposure of the errors and fallacies of his age,—who^
absolutely regardless of all consequences, passed his
life in the bold enunciation of the truth, and volung
tarily and cheerfully forfeited it in its defence,—
whose virtue, courage, and wisdom have earned for
him the veneration of posterity.
The Founders of the Society are aware of the diflL
culties to be encountered. They know that a Society
of individuals proposing to discuss every subject,
without the slightest reserve, will necessarily incur
considerable obloquy, and be the object of much
depreciatory remark and prophetic denunciation.
It will rest with the Members to prove by their
conduct in debate, that these unfavorable comments
and gloomy forebodings were based upon an
�1
erroneous conception of the principles upon which
the proceedings of the Association are to be conducted.
Ill a Society where such full liberty of debate is
granted, where matters on which men have deeplycherished opinions are openly and boldly discussed,
some little self-restraint must be exercised on the
one hand, and too great sensitiveness must not be exE^^d on the other. Debate must be conducted without any undue warmth of feeling,—arguments, and
not individuals, must be attacked,—imputation of motives must be avoided,—and the Chairman must exercise his authority with promptitude, impartiality,
rigor.
It is hardly necessary to express a hope that gentlemen will not consume the time of both themselves
and others by the consideration of questions of frivolous import or vexatious triviality. It was proposed indeed, to meet this difficulty by a Law, empowering the Council to exercise some kind of censorship; but it was thought better to leave the matter
to the good sense of the whole body of Members, in
the full confidence that any attempt at trifling
would be promptly and efficiently checked.
To conclude : the London Dialectical Society will
have effected much good, if by its means, persons are
�8
made to feel that to profess a belief on a disputed
question with regard to which they refuse to examine
the evidence, is an act altogether unworthy of a
rational being j and that the only method of arriving
at truth is by submitting one’s opinions to the test of
unsparing and adverse criticism.
Freedom of speech and thought are, not less than
personal freedom, the natural birthright of all Man
kind. To refrain from uttering opinions because
they are unpopular, betokens a certain amount of
moral cowardice,—engendered by long-continued paw
secution. To state fearlessly the truth, or what we
believe to be the truth, even though it be held only
by a few, is the act of all who consider the exercise
of private judgment a right, and the extension of
human knowledge a duty. But society generally has
not yet reached such a stage of progress, as to allow
individuals to give expression to their honest and
deliberate convictions, without inflicting upon them
penalties more or less severe. The effect of this is to
deter men from expressing opinions, which might, fee
corrected if erroneous, and accepted if true. In the
London Dialectical Society, however, not only will
no person suffer obloquy on account of any opinion
he may entertain or express, but he will be encou
raged to lay before his fellow-members, the fullest
�9
^•positron of his views. Even if this were not so, it
is to be hoped that Members of the Society will
possess sufficient moral courage to disregard, in the
interests of Truth, that social tyranny—the weapon
of Ignorance and Intolerance.
They are Slaves who will not choose
“ Hatred, scoffing, and abuse,
“Rather than in silence shrink
From the truth they needs must think.
“They are slaves who dare not be
In the right with two or three.”
Let us be mindful of the fact, that throughout the
whBpi&istory of the world, the voice of Authority has
EojgraaMy opposed new truths ; and, with an earnest
desire both to learn and teach, let us zealously follow
the practice of Dialectics, unaffected by the praises of
some, undeterred by the denunciations of others, but
conscious of honesty and purity of motive, and desirous for the wisdom and happiness of Man.
��RULES.
I. —That the Society be called “ The London DiaSociety.’ ’
lectical
II. —That the object of the Society be the philosoph^^^Ensideration of all subjects, with a view to the
discovery and elucidation of truth.
III. —That the Society consist of a President, VicePresidents and Members.
IV. —That the government of the Society be vested
in a ^Sfacil of nine, consisting of the Secretary, the
and seven other Members; three to be a
quorum.
V. —That the Council be elected by Ballot annually.
VI. —That vacancies occurring in the Council be
provisionally filled up by the remaining Members of the
Council.
VII. —That the President and Vice-Presidents be
elected by the Council, and that they enjoy all the privileges of ordinary Members.
�VIII.—That on and after the 1st of October 1866,
gentlemen desirous of becoming Members of the Society,
having filled up a form of application to be obtained,
of the Secretary (of which the annexed is a, copy)
be proposed and seconded at an ordinary Meeting, and
balloted for at the following Meeting, one black ball in
six to exclude; and that a person thus excluded be M)t
again proposed for a period of three months.
FORM OF APPLICATION.
Saving read the Prospectus and Pules of the Londo®
Dialectical Society, and cordially approving of its object, I
am desirous of becoming a Member, and request that my Name
be placed on the List of Candidates for Admission.
Signed ________________
Address_____________________
Date___________________
Proposed by_____________________
Seconded by_____________________
IX.—That the ordinary Meetings of the Society be
held on the evenings of the first and third Tuesday in
each month, except the months of August and Septem
ber ; but that the Council have the power to appoint
any additional Meeting, and fix the day for an adjourned
ordinary meeting.
�13
each Member be entitled to introduce perKnOI® a friend at the ordinary Meetings, whose name
shall be announced to the Meeting, and entered, toge
ther with the name of the Member introducing him, in
a book kept for that purpose; such Visitor not to take
part in the discussion.
XI. —That on the written requisition of twelve Mem
bers, the Council call a special general Meeting to consic^Pwnypiestion with reference to the affairs of the
Society, and that at such Meeting no other business but
that stated in the requisition be considered.
XII. —That no Rule be made or altered without the
consent of three-fourths of the Members present at the
special general Meeting called to consider the proposed
alteration—at which Meeting not less than one-half of
the members of the Society must be present.
XIII. —That the Secretary send to each Member of
the Council due notice of each Council Meeting; and to
each member of the Society due notice of the Annual.,
and of every Special Meeting ; in each case stating the
object for which the Meeting has been called.
XIV. —That a Balance-sheet and Report be drawn
up by the Council, and presented at the annual general
Meeting.
�u
XV. —That at the ordinary Meetings, no Vote be
taken with reference to the subject of the Paper read, or
Discussion which may have taken place.
XVI. —That the Secretary keep Minutes of each
Meeting; such minutes to consist of a short summary
of the Paper read together with the Debate thereon,
and also any other proceedings which may have taken
place.
XVII. —That the Papers read before the Society, or
a copy of them, be delivered to the Secretary, and be
come the property of the Society; but that no Paper
be published without the consent of its Author.
XVIII.—That at a general Meeting specially con-?
vened, the subjects proposed for discussion be received^
and that if there be more subjects than opportunities!
for meeting, the subjects for consideration be decided by
the Meeting, and the order in which they are to be
taken arranged by the Council.
XIX.—That if the conduct of any Member be such
as to cast discredit on the Society, or to be detrimental
to its interests, a special genera] Meeting shall be called
by the Council, according to the provisions of Pule Xl?
at which Meeting the expulsion of such Member may be
resolved, the conditions of Rule XII. being complied
with.
�15
XX. —That except where otherwise stated the Voting be conducted by Ballot.
XXI. —That open Voting be practised at Council
Meetings, election of Chairman at ordinary Meetings,
and under Rule XVIII.
XXII. —That in the absence of the President, each
general Meeting elect its own Chairman, whose decision
on all matters of order shall be final.
XXIII.—That the Annual Subscription be ten shillings and sixpence, payable in advance, on or before the
first Tuesday in October.
XXIV. That the Council have the power to make
such Bye-laws and other Regulations as from timo to
time they may deem necessary : but that no Bye-law or
Regulation be made inconsistent wjth the constitution
of the Society, as set forth in the Prospectus and fundamental Rules.
XXV. —That the Council have the power to invite
persons of celebiity to read papers, or deliver addresses
before the Society.
XXVI. —That at the conclusion of each Meeting,
the subject to be considered at the following ordinary
Meeting be announced, and that the Secretary make
known the subjects, if possible, not less than three
months in advance.
��
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
London Dialectical Society
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
London Dialectical Society
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London
Collation: 23 p. ; 19 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
[s.n.]
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5687
Subject
The topic of the resource
Spiritualism
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br /><span>This work (London Dialectical Society), identified by </span><span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk">Humanist Library and Archives</a></span><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Conway Tracts
London Dialectical Society
Spiritualism
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/ae48c516f5dc4f0ae3267ce19b9003a9.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=lLrRQmNV13UR0Wa4Lomi1DRFvMxigvhtnavz-OnJWG1SgBANriDDbkMGqF%7EgAjN0Gh8m4%7EByvjZMOgQpf8b0Yljn7tL0AHf7Ww8%7EyD9koZqQ7u9ox3RCuVEhCowMcclO3zdkgToZC2cBnDgPKG8uCsNP1ztvTpbQGDdx1MLgUtCG5JBCHDD2NqcWgS2tM7puISnx6XaY1Z4oB%7EL8V3d3bBk3J7j7A6PvhlGQHMxPeunxVh-Fviz%7EctDNGZxiV1bf081g8dKGU5dHvYcByqVoLLf374j0v1FGfAJf44MjhyGG3q8xBDMTLQPFAzj1MdiY5fUCBsotEFR8B8HFKANPhg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
9e8601a311b215dac072b2aa0282b261
PDF Text
Text
���������������������������������������
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The ancient history of Shaftesbury, being a paper read at the eighth general meeting of the Wilts Archaeological Society, at Shaftesbury, 1861. With some account of the excavations on the site of the ancient Abbey Church in 1861-2
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Reynolds, J.J. [Rector of Shaftesbury]
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: Shaftesbury
Collation: 22 p. : ill. (folded map, plans, diags.) ; 22 cm.
Notes: Includes bibliographical references. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
John Bennett, bookseller
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
CT70
Subject
The topic of the resource
Archaeology
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (The ancient history of Shaftesbury, being a paper read at the eighth general meeting of the Wilts Archaeological Society, at Shaftesbury, 1861. With some account of the excavations on the site of the ancient Abbey Church in 1861-2), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Archaeology
Conway Tracts
Shaftesbury
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/04907467207e63934fe77fc9a03ac790.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=e3dAe9xjn2kxPGgmX10oU50cQZg3F5encijau-Ts6GL4pSXxlBMpzAg58UtNTU5oprUubJ5Nty9BdisKp-clwkpqp-6fMZSXUnMPfEtzcjHvl3obLA0mpxLS%7ESS71rMbh7vs6uPHIjChi-2Xn-h1WpO%7EdzDHZDZCDs9KvqjQiBvopiyGmlHzHfWRt3XoN1mxFBSlIPzWIdNa1tkwrN1YMKOLVkPecr8j9FzYirkz3K7-qIT7WQiREw6ivJjij2mDL7aZ%7EtYb-3rxsYm-0DIKOXqUUZUgkUq6eKZMsXLvDOi4CLODChj7lohexjboEmirujq2%7Eafu2PEFnCa6BEoqKQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
b01d27c7319819f27814a3ad30ba98a0
PDF Text
Text
AND
CHRISTIANITY
A EEPLY TO
THE EEV. E. SHEPHEED, OF GEIMSBY,
BY
CHARLES WATTS,
Secretary of the National Secular Society.
LONDON:
AUSTIN AND CO., 17, JOHNSON’S COURT,
FLEET STREET, E.C.
1867.
Price Twopence.
�PREFACE.
It may be necessary perhaps to give a few words of expla
nation, in order that the reader may understand the cause
of the present reply, and the delay in its publication. Some
few months ago, the Eev. R. Shepherd, of Grimsby,
delivered and published a lecture entitled, “ What is a
Secularist ?” Finding that their principles had been mis
represented by the rev. gentleman, the Secularists of
Grimsby invited me to visit Grimsby, and deliver a lecture
in answer to Mr. Shepherd. Accordingly, in September
last, I reviewed the pamphlet “ What is a Secularist?”
in the Odd-Fellows’ Hall, Grimsby. At the conclusion
of the lecture it was the unanimous desire of those present
that as the Rev. R. Shepherd had been invited to attend, and
had. declined to do so, I should write the substance of what
I then said and publish it. The delay in complying with
the above request has arisen in consequence of my pro
vincial engagements having prevented me from writing
what I now present to the consideration of those who
desire to know what a Secularist is. It may be well
here to intimate that it is not intended in this pamphlet to
notice every statement made by Mr. Shepherd. Sufficient,
however, has been considered to show that the rev. gentle
man was as incorrect in his assertions as he wras fallacious
in his reasoning.
C. W.
�SECULARISM AND CHRISTIANITY.
Mb. Shephebd commences his attack on Secularism by
comparing it to the old Greek God Proteus, in conse
quence of its being subject to continual changes. The fal
lacy of depreciating Secularism by such a comparison must
be clear to the most superficial reasoner. Surely progress
is not a crime. Does not experience prove that principles
that are stationary are not congenial with modern society ?
What is civilisation but the result of perpetual advance
ment? Whatever, therefore, clashes with any “onward
movement ” is antagonistic to the progressive spirit of the
time. Even Christianity—which is claimed to be “ the same
yesterday, to-day, and for ever,”—is frequently assuming
new phases to suit the “'spirit of the age.” It is quite true
that Secularism is constantly progressing, profiting by the
advance of time, and stimulating its adherents to gather the
germs of truth as they are revealed by the light of science
and experience. The rev. gentleman, however, urges as a
charge against Secularists that we have adopted a new name
and relinquished that by which we were formerly known.
But the rev. gentleman should remember that the word
‘‘infidel ” was not of our own choosing, and certainly when
we discovered that it was a term used only as a reproach
by our enemies, we had a right to disclaim it. Besides,
“Infidelity” does not express our views so correctly as
Secularism does. Christians should be the last to complain
of our accepting a fresh name, inasmuch as many of the
religious sects have frequently deemed it desirable to call
themselves by other names than those by which they were
once known, in consequence of the odium attached to their
former appellation. For example, the Quakers, Methodists,
Socinians, &c., have altered their names ; and more recently
the Independents have changed to Congregationalists. There
can be nothing in the change of a name to justify our rev.
opponent in protesting as if some great moral wrong had
been done. Speaking of us, Mr. Shepherd says—“ They
are Infidels, and why do they call themselves by a name
which is just as applicable to me and to every honest man
who seeks to do his duty in the world, as it is to them ?”
Well, we have no objection to our friend calling himself a
�4
Secularist if he chooses. But I think that I shall show
hereafter that this term is not as applicable to Mr. Shepherd1
as it is to us. But if it were, the same may be said of
the term “ Infidel.” Mr. Shepherd is as much an infidel to
Mahomedism, Buddhism, and -other religions, as we are to
his. Christians overlook the fact that there are other
systems of religion besides theirs, and other alleged sacred
books than the Bible, all of which are as firmly believed in
by some portion of the human race as Christianity is in this
country. The man who believes in only one of these is as
much an infidel to the rest as Secularists are to the whole.
Indeed, Mahomedans would call Mr. Shepherd an Infidel
notwithstanding his Christianity. To this our Christian
friend would doubtless object, but his objection would be
no better founded than is ours to be designated by the same
term.
We are next informed by the rev. gentleman that thete Infidels found that they could not lay hold of the great mass
of the people—that they could make no progress unless they
put on new forms. ... So you find them taxing all their
ingenuity to clothe the old thing in a new garb, in which it
may be more acceptable to the people.” Such an accusation
as this, Mr. Shepherd, is a two-edged sword, very dangerous
to wield, and if employed without great skill, it is likely to
inflict considerable injury on him who uses it. Suppose the
question were asked, in what “garb ” Christianity shall be
clothed, where shall we obtain the answer ? Shall we find
it in the hundreds of different sects with their diversity of
creeds, each professing to be the true followers of Jesus, and
yet they are unable to agree as to what Christianity really is ?
Shall we peruse the history of the early Church, in which the
most violent disputes and better persecutions were carried,
on by various members of that Church against each other,
in consequence of the difference of opinion as to which
“ garb ” Christianity should wear ? If Mr. Shepherd’s atten
tion is drawn to the long catalogue of black crimes, which
were practised in the name of religion during the middle
ages, when the vilest deeds were considered justifiable, so
long as they tended to advance the faith and uphold the
Church ; when murder was a virtue, and lying a creditable
accomplishment, what will be our friend’s answer ? “ Oh
that was not Christianity.” It was, however, unfortunately
the Christianity of that day. Like Proteus, Christianity
has changed since that time, and now wears “ a new
garb in which it may be more acceptable to the people.” In-
�5
'fact, no sooner do we catch hold of the Christian’s garb to
-examine its texture than, quick, presto, it is transformed into
something else. If we show the absurdity of supposing that
a few drops of water sprinkled on a child’s face can purify its
heart, we are told by the Evangelists that this is no part of
•Christianity. Point out the ridiculous character of immersing
an adult female in a bath as an initiation into the Church, and
the Independents, Wesleyans, and Churchmen state that is
not Christianity. Attack the horrible doctrines of eternal
torments, and the Universalists exclaim, that is not Chris
tianity. Demonstrate the irrational nature of the Trinity,
and the Unitarians answer at once, that is not Christianity.
Pourtray the horrors of war, the Quaker asserts that Chris
tianity is peace, and that all war is anti-Christian. Avow
that sometimes war has a high and noble mission, that of
■destroying despotism, breaking up long-standing tyrannies,
and freeing down-trodden peoples, intimate that any reli
gion which would stand in the way of a battle fought for
truth and freedom cannot be good, and we shall instantly
be told that Christianity does nothing of the kind, but that,
on the contrary, it sends its disciples to fight, appoints
chaplains to the army, and consecrates the weapons of de
struction. Thus at whatever point we attack this so-called
divine system it shifts its ground. With what grace, then,
does Mr. Shepherd compare Secularism to Proteus ? It is
Christianity that is for ever assuming new forms and shapes,
most of them hideous enough, but none of them permanent.
Christianity, we are told, “ is a grand old city, built of the
ipure, white marble of truth. It has existed through the
storms of two thousand years, and is as strong to-day as
when first it rose to view.” If this statement were true, it
would certainly say but little for the inherent power and
invigorating influence of Christianity. A constitution that is
• sound and healthy should possess greater strength in its
manhood than it had in its infancy. But what is the fact
with the teachings of the New Testament? After nearly
eighteen hundred years of Propagandism supported by the
wealth of the nation, with prayers to assist it, grace to
isupport it, and a God to protect it, yet with all these assumed
^advantages we are told that it is as strong as it was when it
was first promulgated. But the fact is Christianity is not
iso strong as it was in its “ palmy days.” The older it gets
the weaker it becomes. If Christianity is as strong as
ever, what means so much timidity on the part of the
clergy about the spread of infidelity? and the diffusion of
�6
Ereethought literature ? Do not the various congresses
which have recently taken place among Christians, indicate
that they think danger is in their camp ? Why are we
constantly told that Roman Catholicism (which I presume
is not Mr. Shepherd’s pure white marble of truth) is spread
ing so rapidly that it threatens once more to swallow up
the whole of the Protestant sects ? It requires no pro
phetic power to enable the close observer of the times to
perceive that society is fast approaching a period when the
religious world will be divided into two great parties, the
Roman Catholics and the Rationalists, neither of which Mr.
Shepherd would probably call Christians. At the present
time we find from Christian pulpits Ereethought sermons
preached that attack the very foundation of the faith as
it is in Jesus. When we have such men as Professor
Jowitt, Dr. Temple, the Rev. Charles Voysey, Mr. Kirkus,
of Hackney, giving up many of the leading doctrines of
“Primitive Christianitywhen bishops of the Established.
Church write books disproving the authenticity of the
Bible; when learned societies issue works atheistical in
their tendency, and public papers from their associa
tion upsetting the whole theory of the supernatural;
when our scientific men advise, as Professor Huxley did
recently at Birmingham, students to throw overboard the
Hebrew mythology, with its notions about Adam and
Noah, and the Ark—I submit when these things are taking
place around us, it is hardly the time to boast of the strength
of Christianity. Any statement therefore about religion
having withstood opposition for two thousand years, must
be looked upon rather as an attempt at rhetorical display
than a plain statement of facts.
In reference to Secular principles Mr. Shepherd proceeds
“ I will notice the very first principle these people put forth
In the words of Holyoake that principle is, that ‘ precedence
should be given to the duties of this life, over which pertain
to another world.’ What in the world does a statement like
this mean ? Every Secularist subscribes to it; and yet there
is not one of them who can show that there is the slightest
difference between the duties which pertain to this world and
the duties which pertain to another. The duties which
pertain to this world are the very duties which Christianity
enjoins; and it does more—it gives the moral power and
disposition to fulfil them.” It is to be regretted that Mr.
Shepherd did not tell us where to find the Christianity of'
which he speaks. Evidently it is not to be found in the-
�7
Bible. The distinguishing characteristic of New Testament
Christianity is that the “ sole concern” of mortals here below
is to prepare tor another world. The present state of exist
ence is regarded by Christians only as temporary, in a few
years at most, according to their faith, it will end, though life
after death is, we are told, to be eternal. How then can the
one be balanced against the other? “ What shall it profit
a man,” said Christ, “ if he gain the whole world and lose
his own soul ?” The things of this life are secondary, mere
trifles of the smallest moment, while those of the future are
of all- absorbing interest. Secularism;—or what pious people
call worldliness—therefore, must be altogether opposed to
religion, or what has been very appropriately termed by a
modern author, other worldiness. But the duties, says Mr.
Shepherd, are the same. Are they ? Is it not sad to know
how a preconceived theory shuts out a calm and impartial
observation of facts ? Birst in the category of Christian
duties stands worship. This takes precedence of everything
else, just as love to God stands before love to man. With
out this there is no salvation. Now, surely worship is not
a Secular duty to be practised alike by the Christian and
Freethinker. It can have nothing to do with the things of
this life, and therefore has no place in the principles of
Secularism. To praise some unknown Being whose dwell
ing place is supposed to be somewhere in the skies, or to
pray for supernatural assistance to combat natural forces, is
the first duty and common practice of a Christian, but such
conduct is considered by the Secularists as wild and visionary.
How then can the duties be the same? But, says Mr. Shep
herd, “prayer if it were never answered, would have a very
powerful effect in the culture of our moral nature.” Does
it not occur to the rev. gentleman that the ^avowed object
of prayer is here entirely ignored ? When men pray they
ask for something definite to be done; to talk therefore, of
the effect it has on the mind of the devotee is simply quib
bling. If there is great drought, prayers are offered up in
churches for rain ; if the cholera rages, men pray to have it
removed. To say that if these ends are not accomplished,
still the moral nature of the worshipper is cultivated is to
descend from reasoning to trifling. As Secularists, we doubt
the beneficial effect of prayer on the moral nature, having
seen the very opposite produced. To us it looks childish in
the extreme and appears to be calculated to destroy energy
and self-dependence, and to create a false trust upon that
which never befriends.
�8
Moreover, Christianity not only places the duties that are
said to pertain to another life before those which concern
this world, but positively inculcates disregard of the latter.
“ Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth’’ is an in
junction about which there can be no mistake. Let this be
carried out and society could not exist. Christians know
this; hence they are constantly doing their best to violate
their master’s commands. “ Take no thought for your life,
what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink; nor yet for your
body, what ye shall put on. Take therefore no thought for
the morrow; for the morrow shall take thought for the
things of itself,” are commands as plain as their adoption
would be disastrous. Let our business men consistently
act them out, and we shall soon see how far the Secular
duties will be attended to. Every savings’ bank and insur
ance office is a standing protest against Christianity. And
had Christians the courage to carry out their principles they
would never avail themselves of one or the other. No two
classes of duties can be more opposed to each other than
those sanctioned by Secularism and those taught by Chris
tianity. The latter magnifies poverty as a virtue, and de
nounces riches as a curse; the former teaches that poverty
is a misfortune, and that riches are frequently advantageous.
The man who is poor is unable to play his part in life either
creditably to himself, or beneficially to those around him.
Poverty frequently comes upon a man as an iceberg, chilling
the noblest aspirations of his nature; it is an avalanche which
rushes down on the aspiring youth as he is ascending the hill
of prosperity, and often hurries him into the ruins of des
pair. Christianity teaches that the “ wisdom of this world
is foolishness with God.” Secularism says the wiser a
man is the better he is. The former inculcates improvidence
and recklessness of the future, the latter prudence and pro
vision for a rainy day ; the former puts trust in God and
prayer, the latter in human foresight, energy, and wisdom.
Mr. Shepherd next proceeds to argue in favour of a future
life from the fact that development has been always taking
place in the organic kingdom. First came animals low in
the scale, then higher and higher, and so on up to man.
Why then, reasons the rev. gentleman, may not man pass
at death into a still higher condition ? Now Mr. Shep
herd ought to know, wbat doubtless the merest tyro in logic
can recognise, that there is no analogy whatever in the two
cases. The higher animals are not the lower in another
stage, but an improvement upon them, a new individuality.
�9
The only argument that could logically be drawn from the
development theory on this point is, that after man, beings
of a still higher order might make their appearance but then
they would no more be individual men of a previous age,
than we are the Iguanodons of the “ age of reptiles.” Besides,
all the changes that we know of in the organic kingdom
have taken place in existence upon the earth, whereas the
future conditions which Mr. Shepherd contends for is to be
in some far-otf land of shadows occupied by what is termed
“ disembodied spirits.” To illustrate his position, Mr.
Shepherd takes the case of the caterpillar. “ He lives a
short life, and then he appears to die. But wait a little—
he seems quite dead—he begins to decay—he appears now
only a semi-transparent fluid. See now—from that fluid
has come the beautiful butterfly; and instead of being a
caterpillar, with difficulty crawding over the ground, it is a
beautiful creature flying from flower to flower, and sucking
the honey from each, and basking in the summer sun. You
see nature has changed its mode of existence from a lower
to a higher, and you dare not tell me that nature does not
intend to change the mode of my existence also, from its
present to a higher state.” Now what possible analogy is
there between the two cases! The caterpillar becomes
transformed into the butterfly before our eyes, we can see it
in both conditions, and can observe the process of change
going on. The butterfly is an improvement upon the cater
pillar in point of organisation, but in every other respect
they are both similar. Both are material, and each is liable to
■destruction and decay. The spirit, however, that is supposed
by Christians to be evolved from the human form at death,
■on the contrary is said to be immaterial and immortal, and
therefore totally unlike that material organisation from
which it has escaped. The change is not observed. The
body dies and the elements of which it was composed pass
into other forms—this is all that we see and all that we
know. Beyond this everything is mere conjecture and
vague speculation. Where then is the force of the rev.
gentleman’s comparison and illustration ? It must be un
derstood that the Secularist does not object to a life after
this, providing that it be an improvement upon the present.
He maintains, however, that the duties of this world are
paramount whilst he is here, and that should there be ano
ther state after death, it will be time enough to attend to
its concerns when we enter upon its existence.
The argument based upon the desire felt in most minds
�10
to live for ever is of a different character, and is thus put by
Mr. Shepherd :—“With your wise science, you tell us that
nature never does anything in vain. [Who said so ? Not I.]
She never contradicts herself—she has not put anything into
man or animal, except for a wise purpose. Working by
unerring laws, she never puts anything into a living being
unsuited [This is Theism and the recognitions of the design
argument, not Secularism] to its nature. She has put in
the boy the desire to be a man, because she intends the
boy to be a man. [Not always, many die in youth.] She
has not put into the dog the desire to be a man [How know
you that, Mr. Shepherd ?] because she does not intend the
dog to be a man; such a desire would be unsuited to its
nature. She never promises what she does not intend to
give. Well, if your God nature is so true to her word
[That is your theory, not ours], if she never excites false
hopes, how is it she has put into our minds the desire to live
for ever ? Clearly because she intends us to do
so.” Now it is not correct to assert that the desire
to live for ever is universal. Pouchet, in his “ Plurality
of Paces,” gives several instances of peoples where
this “ longing for immortality ” is absent. Dr. Living
stone and Moffat, the celebrated missionary, also allude to
the Bechuanas, an intelligent tribe in South Africa "who
have not the slightest idea of immortality. And, according
to Dr. Buchner, author of “ Force and Matter,” the same may
be said of the original followers of Buddha. But it is beyond
doubt that many persons are to be found in this country who
have a decided objection to live for ever in the “ future life ”
offered by Christianity. The fact is where this desire does
exist, it is to a great extent either the result of education
and impressions produced in early life, or the wish for a
continuance of our present state of existence improved by
the fostering and cultivation of the best conditions of that
existence. But then does it not occur to Mr. Shepherd
that to wish for a thing is no proof that we shall obtain it ?
Most men desire wealth and fame; how few possess either.
All wish for health; thousands nevertheless lack it. In
every-day life each of us aspires to some position which
in all probability we shall never reach. Any argument
therefore for the Christian’s future life based upon the
desire for immortality is futile in the extreme.
The proposition that “ Science is the providence of life
and spiritual dependence may involve material destruction,”
is next objected to by Mr. Shepherd, and he refers to the-
�11
accident at Sheffield to show that science does not always
prevent ruin and devastation. But surely it must be ad
mitted, even by Christians, that the Sheffield flood arose be
cause the teachings of science had been neglected.
In any
case, however, if attention to the laws of nature fail to pro
duce safety, there is but little chance of any other power
interfering on our behalf. iC It was not spiritual depen
dence,” says Mr. Shepherd, “ which led to the Sheffield
flood—it was dependence on that very science which the
Secularist regards as the providence of life—they depended
upon the embankment. It had been scientifically con
structed. But science made a mistake.” Had the rev.
gentleman acquired a little more scientific knowledge pro
bably he would have recognised that the simple fact of the
embankment giving wav proved most conclusively that it
had not been scientifically constructed. Science could make
no mistake. Ignorance of scientific laws, or of some of the
circumstances which they might be expected to control, may
lead to error, but a thorough knowledge of science never.
Suppose an astronomer, but imperfectly acquainted with
mathematics, should make a calculation as to the time of an
eclipse of the sun, or of the occultation of a planet behind
the moon, and it should afterwards turn out that he was
wrong in bis prediction, would that prove mathematics to
be at fault ? Certainly not; and any person who should
reason as Mr. Shepherd does, and say, see here your boasted
science of figures made a mistake, would be deservedly
looked upon as a man who had not learned the merest rudi
ments of logic. The mathematician made the mistake not
because his science led him astray, but because he was un
acquainted with the principles of that very science which he
professed to follow. A chemist places two'substances, of the
properties of which he knows but little, into a bottle, and
an explosion takes place, which kills him. Does this prove
that chemistry made a mistake? On the contrary, her laws
are infallible. The manipulator was guilty of the blunder,
and that because he was ignorant of the science with which
he was dealing.
But what reason can be given why that providence of
God, of which we hear so much as watching over all the
affairs of man, did not prevent the Sheffield flood or the
fire of Santiago ? “ The reply is clear,” says Mr. Shepherd.
t( If God were constantly working miracles to rectify human
mistakes, men would never be able to depend upon the laws
which govern Jmatter.” Exactly ! Hence the necessity for
�12
men to depend upon the laws which govern matter, which is
the same thing as depending on science. Here Mr. Shep
herd has unwittingly conceded the whole point for which
the Secularist contends, and himself disposed of his own
argument. A dependence on the laws which govern matter
is the position of the Secularist, and, judging from Mr.
Shepherd’s admission, it is also that of the Christian,
despite what he says about his special providence. The
fact is, the majority of Christians consider that the
ages of miracle working have passed away, and al
though they profess to believe in answers to prayers,
whenever they require any material end accomplished,
they take care to employ material means for that purpose.
Does the cholera attempt to land on our shores, science, not
prayer, is summoned to repel the dangerous invader. Does
the cattle plague show signs of returning again, science is
consulted in preference to any other power to avert the cala
mity. Does the lightning threaten to level the “ house of
God ” to the ground, “ spiritual dependence ” is ignored,
and science is immediately applied to the Church steeple to
prevent the catastrophe. Mr. Shepherd says that “ it has
always happened that the men who have been most distin
guished for scientific knowledge, have been Christians.” If
this were so, it would only show how little faith Christians
have in their religion. For nothing can be more clear than
the fact that the Bible ignores science, and puts in its place
a “ special providence,” which it asserts watches over spar
rows, and takes care of the hairs on one’s head. Science
has demonstrated the falsity of the Biblical system of astro
nomy, of the Mosaic account of the creation of the world,
•of the Adamic origin of the human race, of the Noahcian
■deluge, and the doctrine of demoniacs believed in by Christ.
It is hardly correct, therefore, to state that science is
favourable to Christianity. But is it true that the
most eminent scientific men have been Christians? It
is very difficult to ascertain what constitutes a Christian.
If a man keeps in the fashion and goes to Church once or
twice a year, even if it be to take a nap, and he does not
pointedly call in question the alleged truth of religious
dogmas, he is of course put down as a Christian; whereas if
such a man were questioned, he probably would be found as
sceptical about the supernatural as the most advanced Secu
larist. Newton is sometimes called a Christian, but he dis
believed in the doctrine of the Trinity, one of the essential
articles of faith, without a belief in which the Athanasian
�•
-/'if
.
r,-v-.
13
creed says man will be damned. Dr. Priestley, an illustrious
scientific discoverer of his day, was a most advanced Unitarian
and a Materialist, and therefore would not be recognised as
a Christian by Mr. Shepherd. In our own day Mr. Darwin
and Professor Huxley have been denounced by the Christian
world as “ infidels,” and therefore I suppose they are not
Christians. Sir Charles Lyell is Christian but in. name.
The greatest scientific man, perhaps that ever lived, was
Goethe, he made a discovery, that of transcendental anatomy,
which eclipsed all that had preceded it, with the excep
tion of gravity. He was a Pantheist, consequently not e
Christian. The illustrious Humboldt whose fame is world
wide in natural history, and whose name will live for ages
to come, certainly was not a Christian. In Prance scarcely
any of the scientific men even profess Christianity, and
Germany—the most scientific land of modern days—is
notoriously sceptical.
But we are further told that science will not satisfy man’s
heart. No one said it would if by heart be meant the emo
tional feelings. It has no bearing upon these, but there is
plenty of room for their cultivation without going to reli
gion or science. When the beauties of nature are suffi
ciently appreciated and truly valued, enough will be found
within the universe to venerate and adore. And here one
may recognise a noble aspect of Secularism. A Secularist
has a higher opinion of human life, and a better apprecia
tion of the world in which he lives than to regard it as a “ vale
of tears.” We do not groan to be delivered from our pre
sent state of existence. We desire rather to improve that
existence by suppressing the inferior, and encouraging the
superior qualities of human nature. We recognise the pos
sibility of a happier state of society if mankind would but
foster and cultivate better and more exalted conditions.
The last point attacked by Mr. Shepherd is that mora
lity can exist independently of scripture. Here it may be
mentioned that one thing is certain, that of all the moral
codes that have been given to the world by different men,
that contained in the Bible is the most imperfect. It makes
it an equal sin to wish for something in your neighbour’s
possession, and to murder a fellow creature; to repeat the
word Jehovah and to steal; to do a trifling article of
labour on the Sabbath and to commit adultery. . Moreover,
it teaches that the breaking of one command is a violation
of the whole, a most absurd principle, and one which if acted
upon in human society would prove most disastrous. Then
�14
the so-called commandments are really nine prohibitions
and one commandment. Does anyone believe that all the
positive side of man’s duty to man is summed up in “ Honour
thy father and thy mother/’and “Love thy neighbour as
thyself ?” Assuredly not. There are many other positive
duties required to enable a man to live a progressive and
useful’life. Bible teachings frequently sanction immorality
of the worse form; any secular scheme therefore need not be
very perfect to surpass it. “ When you look at lands where
Christianity is unknown,” writes Mr. Shepherd, “do you
find there a high morality independently of scriptural reli
gion ?” I answer, what sort of morality do we find here in
England, where Christianity is said to flourish so exten
sively? Bead the records of the police courts, and the vice
and depravity which are constantly being made known
through the medium of the newspapers, and then cease to
talk of the immorality of foreign lands. Visit the rural
districts of “ Christian” England, and the painful fact will be
too apparent, that the majority of the inhabitants are sunk
into the deepest ignorance and most depraved wretchedness.
Scripture teachings can have had but little influence for good
upon the morals of a people, when we find that, after three
centuries of the rule, discipline, teaching, and example
of 20,000 clergymen, besides dissenting ministers, the
very classes of society which have been most under their
direction and control, are the greatest stigma upon our
social condition. Wesley once gave a picture of Christian
society, which indicates the “ high morality ” produced
where “ gospel truths ” are disseminated.
After stating
that “ Bible reading England ” was guilty of every species
of vice, even those that nature itself abhors, this Christian
author thus concludes, “ Such a complication of villanies of
every kind considered with all their aggravations, such a
scorn of whatever bears the face of virtue; such injustice,
fraud, and falsehood, above all, such perjury, and such a
method of law, we may defy the whole world to produce.” More
recently Buckle, in his “ History of Civilisation,” has con
firmed many of the statements advanced by Wesley. And
two years ago Mr. Baker, the inspector of factories, in his
report of workers in South Staffordshire, published a number
of facts which showed the great amount of immorality and
ignorance existing under a Christian Government. If such
a disgraceful state of things as these were to occur in a com
munity governed by Secular principles, Christians would not
fail to preach of the immoral tendency of Secularism.
�15
Judging of a tree, therefore, by its fruits, the Christian root
must be bad indeed.
“ Look,” says Mr. Shepherd, “ at the palmiest age of
Greek philosophy and Greek art. What was the state of
morals in Greece, during the age of Pericles and Alcibiades ?
Was there ever an age in Greece of greater moral depra
vity ?” Is it not easy to retort and ask our rev. friend to
glance at the palmiest age of Christianity. What was the
state of morals in England during the age of Henry VIII.,
Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, and George IV. ? Was
there ever a period of greater moral depravity and intellec .
tual poverty than during what is known as the “ dark ages.”
Greece and Rome, with all their immorality, will bear
■comparison with the early ages of Christianity. If history
may be relied upon, Christian England is indebted to Pagan
Rome and classic Greece for the incentive to much of that
morality, culture, and heroism, which give the prestige to
modern society. Upon this point, Dr. Temple, in his
<£ Essay on the Education of the World, is very clear.” “ To
Rome,” says the Dr., “ we owe the forms of local govern
ment which in England have saved liberty and elsewhere
have mitigated despotism.”.... ° It is in the history of Rome
rather than in the Bible that we find our models of precepts
of political duty, and especially of the duty of patriotism.”
....To the Greeks we owe the corrective which conscience
needs to borrow from nature.”
Coming to the present time, the influence of Christianity
is visible in Spain and in Rome of to-day. Spain is a
•country professed to be governed by Christian principles,
and what is its condition ? As a nation, it is rotten to its
very core. Standing upon the brink of bankruptcy and
ruin, it requires but the application of the spark of deter
mined heroism to kindle the flame of revolution and anarchy,
whereby it will be made to share the fate of all ^corrupt and
imbecile monarchies. In Rome, we behold another melan
choly proof of the influence of Christianity. Rome, once
the mistress of the world, renowned alike for its valour, its
learning, and its taste; from whose forums emanated that
•eloquence which still shines forth as the production of a
noble and heroic people—Rome, once the depository of
poetry and the cultivator of art, whose grandeur and dig
nity could command the admiration of the world—such was
Rome, but alas I how has she fallen. Now she is a miser
able, downtrodden, priest-ridden country, the victim of a
vacillating and despotic policy. Her former glory, dignity,
�16
and valour, are gone, and are replaced by a shameless, mean,,
and cowardly terrorism. She has lost her prestige, her in
dependence has disappeared, and she stands forth a wreck
and a monument of reproach to a degrading priesthood and
an uprincipled tyrant, who have sapped her vitality and
destroyed her very life. With these facts from history, Mr.
Shepherd should be more guarded in his assertions as to the
influence of Scriptural religion. The truth is, Christianity
and morality have no necessary connection whatever with
each other.
For the information of the Rev. R. Shepherd, and those
who think with him, it may be necessary in conclusion to
give a brief but correct answer to the question “ What is a
Secularist ?” A Secularist is one who prefers a knowledge
of the natural to faith in the supernatural; who selects
reason rather than belief; who will rely upon “ those princi
ples having reference to finite determined time as opposed1
to the undetermined infinite ” believed in by Christians. As
the question of the existence of God is simply one of con
jecture, Secularism leaves it for each mind to decide, if it
can, for itself. A Secularist rejects the popular religious
dogmas, such as the “ Infallibility of the Bible,” “ Efficacy of
Prayer,” “ Original Sin,” “ Eternal Torments,” “ Salvation
through Christ,” etc., inasmuch that these Christian tenets
interfere with and would prevent the performance of Secular
duties. The free search after truth Secularism considers is
one of man’s first duties, and it also urges that the right and
duty to express an opinion are equally imperative. In short,
a Secularist is one who is willing, irrespective of any creed,,
to unite into one common brotherhood to promote the wel
fare and happiness of the human kind, or, in the words of
Mr. Shepherd himself, “ a Secularist is one who efficiently
discharges his worldly duties, and so promotes his own in
terests, and the welfare of the community.” It matters but
little what a man’s belief may be, providing that that belief
does not interfere with a progressive career. To learn how
to perform the functions of life aright; how to regulate his
conduct in every-day life; how to excel in virtue and in
telligence ; how to promote the good of others —in a word,
how to secure “the greatest happiness for the greatest
number,” is the object a Secularist has in view. And if there
be a God of love and justice, we cannot believe that such a
being will punish his. children, for doing that which their
reason assures them is right and commendable.
THE END.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Secularism and Christianity: a reply to the Rev. R. Shepherd of Grimsby
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Watts, Charles
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London
Collation: 16 p. ; 18 cm.
Notes: The Rev. R. Sheoherd had recently published a pamphlet entitled 'What is a Secularist?'
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Austin and Co.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G4955
Subject
The topic of the resource
Secularism
Christianity
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Secularism and Christianity: a reply to the Rev. R. Shepherd of Grimsby), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Christianity
Secularism
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/1add50475d5207c09d8791b3b6141b6f.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=GDeetZSRimEpOqAPZndIPNzgOYno6Ac-EL3H%7EK7SWItNcEbw66dvzpbkLfYzVrLIwP71B4PJtHigZY%7ECndmPP0w4DPEIWQtmAyjs3crIC7fdAkqkwO3cGfRbxaB-qO3njaCLrH46RgalbelEXQdp3o2TXdsmqvQlcSwk7M4WCVs0VGYdeYFxDZOLPXtwbDlV1SMZNrngDlFOK6kp35WvP2FRS-4cd4hOKsYwwFiikLYag%7Esytv30LFWYTZ2DRF9rrIaZvobbANkZjUO9BKmuwMyaoEidXXwHfmu8AdlVf7RfKHS5IvhH3a2KnrrsaItMFh3eCP30Jz5yfLDesUDWRw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
2b6289062a8ec99277f058f88d4146e8
PDF Text
Text
GOD’S COMMANDMENTS
ACCORDING TO MOSES, ACCORDING TO CUBIST,
AND
ACCORDING TO OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE.
A SKETCH
SUGGESTIVE OF
A NEW WESTMINSTER CONFESSION OF FAITH
FOR THE LAITY OF THE 19th CENTURY.
ADDRESSED TO ALL WHO DEEM IT THEIR HIGHEST DUTY
AS WELL AS RIGHT TO
“THINK FOR THEMSELVES.”
“HAPPY IS THE MAN THAT FINDETH WISDOM, AND THE MAN THAT GETTETH UNDERSTANDING."
PROV. III. 13.
LONDON :
N. TRÜBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1867.
PRICE SIXPENCE.
�From an Essay entitled, ‘ Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the
Temporal Happiness of Mankind,’ under the nom de plume of Philip Beauchamp
(printed 1822, and reprinted by Saville and Edwards, Chandos Street, Covent
Garden, 1866), the following extract is made as bearing to some extent on the
present work.
The evils which flow from the belief, not founded on experience, of the inter
ference of an unseen agent infringing at pleasure the laws of nature, are thus
described:—
1 As this persuasion utterly disqualifies mankind for the task of filtering truth
from falsehood, so the multitude of fictitious tales for which it has obtained
credence and currency in the world, exceeds all computation. To him who
believes in the intervention of incomprehensible and unlimited Beings, no
story can appear incredible. The most astonishing narratives are exempted
from cross-examination, and readily digested under the title of miracles or
prodigies. Of these miracles every nation on the face of the earth has on
record and believes thousands. And as each nation disbelieves all except
its own, each, tho’ it believes a great many, yet disbelieves more. The
most enthusiastic believers in miracles, therefore, cannot deny that an
enormous excess of false ones have obtained credence amongst the larger
portion of mankind.’
AV e heartily concur in the following observations on this Essay borrowed
from the Westminster Review for April, 1866. ‘ If it is rightly attributed to a
distinguished historian, we think it greatly to be regretted that he has not
given us in a separate essay his ripest thoughts on the subject.’ . . . . ‘ If
Philip Beauchamp would write something on these subjects, not grudging
to lend the well-earned authority of a known name, and in a manner going di
rectly to his object, he would meet with a more fitting circle of readers than he
could have done five-and-forty years ago.’
We also extract the following passage from an Address of the Rev. Dr
Robert Lee, delivered at the opening of the Theological Class in the University
of Edinburgh (Published by Williams and Norgate) :—
‘ In these days no class of men can possibly have, or should have at any
time, any real weight and authority in guiding opinion, unless it occupy a
somewhat independent position. Prisons and fetters are for the lawless
and disobedient, for thieves and murderers, and all those abandoned classes
who exist and thrive by injuring their neighbours and disturbing society.
Christian teachers, we hope, do not deserve or need to be so guarded, confined,
and pinioned; they are not so set upon perverting the truth, corrupting re
ligion, seducing the people, as that they should be required by law to swear,
at the beginning of their professional life, that they hold not only the great
Articles of the Christian Faith, which are both very simple and very few,
but a positive and categorical opinion regarding many hundreds of proposi
tions which they have not had time to weigh and study ; much less that
they should be required to swear that they will so think on all those points
. which they are now required to profess ‘ during all the days of their life.’ ’
JulIN CHILES AND SON, PRINTERS.
�GOD’S COMMANDMENTS.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
The complaint against those, who have dared to think for themselves,
and to throw aside the authority of all or some of what are called the or
thodox Dogmas of Religion,—for instance, the plenary inspiration of the
Bible, original sin, the eternity of hell torments,—that they leave the
unhappy man, woman, or child, whom they may succeed in enticing from the
pleasant paths of Orthodoxy, without a guide for their future conduct in
life, is not altogether an unjust complaint. The effort of almost all
free thought, no doubt, has hitherto been more on the negative side,—the
pulling down of the old, rather than the constructing a new Faith, or
putting the New Faith into such simple terms as to be at once understood
by all classes.
Now this New Faith, no longer confined to a few isolated thinkers
but spreading quietly in every quarter, on the one hand denies that
God has only revealed himself to man at a particular time or up to a
particular date in his history, and has since left him without any
further revelation beyond what he can obtain by groping about for
the meanings of a number of old books, written in various dead lan
guages, of uncertain dates and authorship, and of which, whilst the origin
als are certainly lost, it is impossible to know whether the oldest extant
copies, or supposed copies, are accurate or are not interpolated or even
forgeries. On the other hand, this New Faith expressly declares that God
is and ever has been revealing himself to man in the works of his Creation,
and that He has never revealed himself in any other way. This Faith, it
will be seen, interferes not with our freest speculations, nor with our
highest aspirations. Thus on the question of a life hereafter, while some
may maintain that one ground of their hope is, that only by a future life
can the misery in this be compensated; others will be free to hold and
will hold, that, while permitted to look forward to a future existence as
being within the scope of the Divine will, still, God’s governance of this
world is perfect and docs not absolutely require to be supplemented by
the life hereafter, to make up for the imagined short-comings, impcrfec-
�•1
tions, and injustice, in the arrangements for our life on earth ; and, more
over, that our obedience to God’s Laws ought to be quite independent of,
and not consequent on, the expectation of a future existence.
Now although there are many learned treatises setting forth the
grounds for this Faith, there is no hand-book for the unlearned to refer
to; there is no standard book or ‘ Catechism ’ of which the free-thinking
father or mother may say, ‘ This little book contains what I believe to be
a true exposition of God’s laws, and out of this I desire my child to
be taught his duty, his religious principles.’ We here use the word ‘re
ligious ’ advisedly and as the proper term, although the multitude may
think that it can be used only by the believers in miracles, in a devil, and
in the monstrous doctrine of the eternity of punishment, and of the end
less woe of those whom it shall not please God arbitrarily to call to ever
lasting happiness.
The present pamphlet is put forth as a partial attempt to supply this
want and to put into plain language what many men, while allowing their
children to learn by rote ten Commandments (possibly compiled for the
Hebrews, long after the time of Moses), and likewise the curious denuncia
tion of themselves contained in the Church-Catechism, as ‘ children of
wrath!’ really do teach them in the practical lessons of every-day life. Its
object is also to bring home to many men the dishonesty of not declaring
more openly what they believe on religious subjects, and at the same time
to give them aid in expressing their convictions, where from want of time
or inclination they have never exactly formularized what they do believe,
though feeling great repugnance to the dogmas sought to be imposed
upon them by the clergyman, who gives priestly consolation to their wives
and daughters. We have none of us, probably, very far to look without
finding among our friends or acquaintances some in this state; men who
are not masters in their own household, who may command the affections,
but have not the least influence over the theological or spiritual lives of
the members of their own family. In many cases utter worldliness or
amiable weakness is pleaded as an excuse for that dishonesty to which we
have taken exception.
Take, for example, a husband and wife—the latter, perhaps, not very
well grounded in her orthodox views : ‘ It will never do to bring up our
children otherwise than according to Church principles. How can we
expect they will get on ? ’ The wife will say, ‘ don’t give these new no
tions to the girls; even for the boys it will be far safer not to be marked
as unsound Churchmen. Think of their being called Infidels, Theists,
Atheists, and all those other shocking names. Why not leave well alone ?
The world got on very well, before that horrible Bishop of Natal was
heard of.’ And then, perhaps, the thought of a rich old uncle will arise,
and the wife will add the conclusive argument,f If he were to get the idea
�into his head that we were not bringing up our children in the strictest
Church principles, you know he would disinherit us and leave all his pro
perty to charities ; pray be careful?
Again, the following is not altogether an isolated or imaginary picture,
the result of an appeal from one free-thinker to another to come forward
with his name, on a subscription, say, for the Essays and Reviews Fund, or
still later for the Colenso Testimonial. ‘ I will give you willingly my £20 ;
but pray keep my name a secret. I would not have my wife suspect me of
thinking as I do on any account. If she were to imagine that I do not
believe exactly as she does, that I have doubts about Bible inspiration,
whatever that may mean, that I do not feel quite steady in my adherence to
the doctrines laid down with such peculiar clearness and force in the Athanasian Creed, or to any other of the so-called fundamental dogmas, she
would be quite miserable. Pray never give her a hint of such a thing.
We have lived so peaceably together for years. It would be quite cruel
on my part to give her an idea of my holding different views from her
own, and what would be the use of it ? It would only unsettle her mind,—
if not her faith, in which she is so wrapped up and contented !’ Thus two
beings, with reasoning faculties, living together nominally as one, profess
ing to have no secrets from each other, are yet perfectly estranged on the
most important of subjects, have no real interchange of thoughts; and
the man, on his side, acts a lifelong lie on the plea at best of good and
amiable motives.
We will not here undertake to judge our friend. Doubtless it may
be said with truth that any attempt on his ’part to f convert1 his wife
would at their time of life be useless ; but this we will say, many a man
imagines the difficulty far greater than it is. How often, if a husband
were quietly to explain to his wife his opinions and the grounds for them,
would he meet with a ready listener; and even should he fail to convince,
he would still have placed himself in the right position towards the
woman he has chosen for his life companion. If his own views have only
gradually opened to a wider sphere of thought, still is he not to
be at liberty to speak his thoughts ? Is free speaking to be the peculiar
privilege of the orthodox ? Are the clergy for ever to have their
own way, and is a husband in his own house to be the only person not al
lowed to express an honest opinion ? Ought not every sensible wife, in
stead of being shocked, to be gratified by the confidence shown in her
better judgment ? Her true complaint should be, of that confidence having
been so long delayed.
One cause for men not discussing these subjects with their wives may
not unfrequently be, that they have not worked out for themselves their
own faith ; they have perhaps discarded the traditional theory of religion,
they may disbelieve in miracles, but have never completely argued out the
�6
why and the wherefore with themselves ; they may not feel the force of the
dogmatic assertions that every thing is true that is in the Bible, and that
all our knowledge must be cut and shaped so as to,suit and fit into the
narrow compass of that book; but they have never seized the true argu
ment in reply; they have no clear and definite notion as to God’s
governance of the world. Consequently they feel uneasy when reproach
fully asked, ‘And where is your substitute for God’s Bible ?’ And they
think it far pleasanter to smother up their difficulties and let their wives,
who have no doubt on any one subject, and scorn, in the plenitude
of their blind faith, to notice the few little intricate difficulties in the
dogmas of the Church (difficulties which by-the-way eighteen centuries of
learned controversy have not solved), take the lead and give true orthodox
religious principles to their children. And be assured these fortun
ate children will never be allowed to suppose that any but very wicked
people, who are sure to go to hell, can hold any other views on the Catho
lic Faith.
To some of our male friends who find themselves thus situated, the
perusal of these pages may suggest a little self-examination, and the act
ing out their lives, according to the straight-forward promptings of their
reason.
The f Commandments ’ which will be found at the end of this work are
drawn up as a suggestion for a Code by which the principles of duty
may be taught to our children, in preference to the Ten Commandments
of the Jewish law, or to any selection of precepts, in the words which
tradition gives us as uttered by Christ. Apart from questions of dogma,
many of these Commandments will be accepted by the ‘orthodox.’
They necessarily illustrate the unfitness of the New Testament as a school
book, by the direct contrast which becomes evident between many of its
precepts, in their literal if not in their actual sense, and the real teaching
which we all ought to give to our children for their conduct in life,
—in one word, to make them truly ‘ righteous.’ We need however
scarcely observe that the quotations from the sayings of Christ are not
given as an attempt to decry his teaching; nor, in framing Command
ments for children who have never been crammed with the (to them) con
fusing lessons of the Old and New Testaments, would the apparently an
tagonistic reference to the sayings or precepts attributed to Christ here
introduced be at all necessary. They are, as will be seen, introduced to
counteract what is often the effect of teaching children from a collection
of books unsuited to their capacities.
We may be told that some passages, such as ‘ take no thought for to
morrow,’ and others, are not properly rendered in the authorized version
of the Bible. Our answer is, perhaps not; but if so, you, the ‘ orthodox,’
should not be so opposed as you admittedly are to an amended version,
�and until it is amended, you cannot blame us for objecting to the use of
words in a book you acknowledge to be faulty. There are nevertheless
other passages, about which no doubt as to the correctness of the transla
tion exists, and which still do not give us the proper teaching we require.
Let us, however, emphatically repeat that nothing written below is in
tended to cast contempt on the sayings of Christ here referred to. Wo
cannot be sure of the sense in which his hearers were intended to under
stand him, even if we have his very words. The language in which his
discourses have been handed down to us is the figurative, and often beau
tifully poetic, language of the East; but it is not the language in which we
want to teach our own children—still less the little plough-boys and the
girls of our country villages—their plain lessons of moral duty. Go into
any Sunday-school throughout the land, and calmly listen to the blunder
ing attempts of the well-meaning volunteer teachers, and hear what a mess
they make, what utter confusion they introduce to the children’s minds, in
stumbling overpassages which, if they explain properly, they have frequent
ly to declare mean exactly the reverse of what the words say; while, to
keep up a consistency between these words and their teaching, they have
to repeat to the children at every breath ‘ the words are figurative, are
allegorical, are spiritual/ We ask, ought this to be? Without much
presumption we may express a hope, that what is here written may give
some of these teachers a clearer view of the way in which they should, in
the words of the Church Catechism, teach a child to ‘keep God’s holy
will and commandments and walk in the same all the days of his life.’
It will be said that the language of these Commandments is not wholly
suited for children. That may be true, although the greatest care has
been taken to make the language as simple as possible. These Com
mandments are sketched out to assist parents and others in teach
ing their children—not by merely cramming by heart, but by patient
explanation and training ; and at any rate, there is nothing contradictory
in the language used, as in the passages to which we have taken excep
tion.
According to the age and development of the child, so ought the
teaching to be. It would be difficult to say how early thought does not
guide some of an infant’s acts. The infant takes food at first without
knowing the result; but before long, because it remembers the pleasure
experienced on former occasions. The child must then have formed an
idea, must have begun to think; and from that moment his education
has commenced. How ever little the parents and nurses may notice the
fact, the child, before he can speak or understand a word that is spoken,
may learn something of God’s Commandments. Through the language
of frowns and caresses, he learns the duty of obedience,—blind obedi-
�8
cnee at first, necessitated by his ignorance. Before the child can speak,
much more read, he will, in any well-regulated house, have learned much.
Even when he does begin to speak and read, how few are the words he
can understand. The difficulty of teachers is and always must be, to
adapt their language to the capacity of a child, and it is almost impossi
ble to put Commandments into words that shall be absolutely suitable to
children of all ages, and also to grown-up persons.
Here let us say a few words on obedience of children. Many parents
fear to lose their authority, if they encourage their children to think for
themselves, too early as they would say. They inculcate blind obedience,
just as the parson tries to inculcate it upon all his parishioners, whom he
would like to keep as children, in the bondage of authority, all their
lives. Why should this be so ? Is it not that the parents, through
indolence and want of proper education, have never attained to a thorough
knowledge of the reasons and principles which ought to govern their own
and their children’s conduct ? They have no faith of their own, of which
they can give a rational account. They are, moreover, afraid of tell
ing their children that they, their parents, are and must be ignorant of
many things; and, they take, as they suppose, the proper course of
teaching—by dogmatically telling the child he must do what he is bid,
without a reason; when, by a little pains, the child would obey with his
understanding, instead of on mere authority.
Instead of repressing a young child’s eager searching for a reason,
we ought to be gently leading him on with a kindly ‘ think for yourself on
all occasions, and on all subjects.’ IIow few parents dare to do this !
On the contrary, both parents and priests do just the reverse, saying,
‘ Think as I think ’—adding, when religion is the subject—‘ under pain of
loss of your eternal happiness ; ’ and thus they crush out that early instinct
implanted in all of us; for the child will think for himself if only encour
aged, instead of being snubbed. We are almost inclined to say, that nearly
the only independent thoughts of many men have been those of their in
fancy.
We trust, in conclusion, that nothing in this pamphlet will be taken
as intentionally offensive to the clergy. We number among them many
as our truest friends, and gratefully acknowledge the zeal of the whole
body in good works ; nevertheless, we look forward to the time when,
set free from the trammels of dogmatic authority, and no longer feeling
bound to expend their energies in ‘ reconciling ’ old books and fables
with the facts of modern science, they will join still more heartily with the
laity in aiding the intellectual and moral development of the human race.
�9
THE COMMANDMENTS,
ACCORDING TO MOSES AND TO CHRIST.
If the question be asked how many Commandments has God given to
us, the almost invariable answer, in the stereotyped words of the catechism,
will be, ‘ Ten/
Few of those making such an answer will have ever troubled them
selves with a thought on the subject. Satisfied with what they learnt like
parrots, when children, ‘ on their mothers’ laps,’ they have taken for
granted that what is said in the Prayer Book is the correct, the only
possible answer to the question.
Now let us ask, Has God given us ten, and only ten, or as many as ten
Commandments ? Many in reply will refer to the Decalogue as conclu
sive ; but let us hope that this answer will not continue to satisfy us and
our children.
It is true that Moses is said to have received Ten ; but on the face of
the Pentateuch itself it is impossible to say exactly what the Ten were, for,
as we shall see below, there are at least two * differing versions even of
these Ten. And, moreover, the Pentateuch contains many more Com
mandments said to have been given by God himself to Moses. The
* Besides the versions of the Decalogue in the xx. chap, of Exodus and in the
v. chap, of Deuteronomy, we find in the xxxiv. chap, of Exodus a third version.
This version is declared to have been delivered, quite as authoritatively as the
other two, by God to Moses. Here we will merely notice that it gives Sab
batical Commandments which, if any such are binding on Christians, must be
equally so with the 4th in the xx. chap, of Exodus.
v. 18. The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep. Seven days thou shalt
eat» unleavened bread.
v. 21. Six days thou slialt work, but on the seventh day thou shalt rest : in
earing time and in harvest thou shalt rest.
v. 22. And thou shalt observe the feast of weeks, of the first-fruits of wheat
harvest and the feast of ingathering at the year’s end.
2 '
�10
question remains, ought a Christian to be satisfied with merely looking
for God's Commandments in the Old Testament ? Should he not give
a preference to what he may find in the New Testament as uttered by
Christ, the founder of his religion ?
Let us compare the Decalogues given in Exodus and Deuteronomy
with the Commandments given in the New Testament.
The Commandments recorded as The Commandments recorded in the
given to Moses—written by God
Gospels—as declared by Christ.
HIMSELF IN TWO TABLETS OF STONE.
From Exodus xx. 2—16.
From Mark xii. 28.
And one of the Scribes asked
him, which is the first Com
mandment of all ? (or, as
quoted in Matt. xxii. 36,
which is the great Command
ment in the Law ?) And Jesus
answered him, The first of all
the Commandments is:
1. I am the Lord thy God, which have 1. f Hear, 0 Israel, the Lord our
brought thee out of the land of
God is one Lord, and thou shalt
Egypt, out of the house of bond
love the Lord thy God with all thy
age. Thou shalt have no other
heart and with all thy soul and
gods before me.
with all thy mind and with all thy
strength.' This is the first (and
2. Thou shalt not make unto thee
‘ great' in Matt.) Commandment.
any graven image, or any likeness
[This command is taken by
of any thing that is in heaven
Christ from Deut. vi. 5.
above, or that is in the earth be
Omitting all reference to the
neath, or that is in the water
land of Egypt, it is of uni
under the earth. Thou shalt not
versal application alike to
bow down thyself to them, nor
Jew and Gentile; while, to
serve them : for I the Lord thy
quote the words of the author
God am a jealous God, visiting
of the ‘ Sabbath,' ‘ it far more
*
the iniquity of the fathers upon
distinctly proclaims the unity
the children, unto the third and
of God, and it enjoins what
fourth generation of them that
the Commandment in the
hate me, and shewing mercy unto
Decalogue does not, — the
thousands of them that love me,
Christian duty of Love to
and keep my commandments.
God.']
3. Thou shalt not take the name of
the Lord thy God in vain : for the
Lord will not hold him guiltless
* See a reference to this work in the
that taketh his name in vain.
note to page 13.
�11
4. Remember the Sabbath-day, to
keep it holy. Six days shalt thou
labour, and do all thy work. But
the seventh day is the Sabbath of
the Lord thy God: in it thou
shalt not do any work, thou, nor
thy son, nor thy daughter, thy
manservant, nor thy maidservant,
nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger
that is within thy gates : For in six
days the Lord made heaven and
earth, the sea, and all that in them
is, and rested the seventh day :
wherefore the Lord blessed the
Sabbath day, and hallowed it.
And the second is like it: name
ly, this—■
2. Thou shalt love thy neighbour
as thyself.
[This command is taken by
Christ from Lev. xix. 18.]
There is none other greater than
these (Mark xii. 28—31).
On these two Commandments
hang all the law and the Prophets
(Matt. xxii. 36—40).
A new Commandment give I
unto you, that ye love one another
(Jno. xiii. 34).
In all the four Gospels not one
word can be found, as uttered by
Christ, in favour of keeping one
day holy above the others, or
against doing work on the Jewish
Sabbath, nor for change of the
Sabbath from the seventh to the
first day of the week, nor for hon
ouring him or God by the observ
ance of days. On the contrary,
Christ is reported as having on
some occasions worked or com
manded unnecessary work to be
done on the Sabbath day. Christ
*
evidently held different views from
* Plucking corn, Matt. xii. 1 ; Mark ii. 23; Luke vi. 1. Christ did not
deny that this was a breach of the Sabbath; but defended his disciples by quoting
David’s act as a precedent.
Healing on the Sabbath day a woman who had been ill for 18 years, and who
could well have waited one day longer. Luke xiii. 12, 13.
The impotent man takes up his bed, and thus deliberately, by Christ’s orders,
did unnecessary work (John v. 8). It could not even have been necessary for
him to do so to show that he was cured. The cure must have been evident
without his carrying a burden,—contrary to God’s injunction in Jeremiah xvii. 21.
1 Jesus spat on the ground, and made clay of the spittle, and he anointed the
eyes of the blind man with the clay’ (John ix. 6). Clearly, however trifling,
this was unnecessary work for one who is believed to have been God omnipotent.
Christ, again, joined a large feast on the Sabbath. Luke xiv. 1, 7—12.
�12
those of our modern English and
But in the version given in
Scotch Sabbatarian. Christ’s great
Deut. v. 14, the reason stated
apostle Paul also distinctly tells
for this Commandment is
his Christian converts that they
quite different.
need not observe days.
*
‘ That thy manservant and thy
It is possibly on this ground, that
maidservant may rest as well as
in the Catechism no reference is
thou. And remember that thou
made, either in the summary of our
wast a servant in the land of
duty to God or to our neighbour,
Egypt, and that the Lord thy God
to any obligation to observe one
brought tliec out thence through
day above another.
a mighty hand and by a stretched
out arm : therefore the Lord thy And from Mark x. 17 ;
And one asked him, Good
God commanded thee to keep the
Master, what shall I do that I
Sabbath day?
may inherit eternal life ? And
Jesus said unto him—Why
callest thou me good ; there is
none good but one, that is
God. Thou knowest the Comman dm ent s.f
7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 3. Do not commit adultery.
4. Do not kill.
6. Thou shalt not kill.
5. Do not steal.
8. Thou shalt not steal.
9. Thou shalt not bear false witness 6. Do not bear false witness.
7. Defraud not.
against thy neighbour.
The 10th Commandment of the
10. Thou shalt not covet thy neigh
bour’s house, thou shalt not covet Decalogue is not referred to by
thy neighbour’s wife, nor his man Christ. He may have considered
servant, nor his maidservant, that his far more universal Com
nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any mandment of ‘Love your neighbour’
thing that is thy neighbour’s.
was sufficient.
* ‘ Let no man, therefore, judge you in respect of an holyday, or of the New
Moon, or of the Sabbath days.’ Colos. ii. 1G.
‘O foolish Galatians (iii. 1), how turn ye again to the weak and beggarly ele
ments whereunto ye desire again to be in bondage? Ye observe days and months
and times and years. I am afraid of you, lest I have bestowed upon you labour
in vain.’ Gal. iv.
t What an opportunity was here lost by Jesus of enforcing the keeping
of the Sabbath if he had intended to enforce it,—an opportunity that our
modern Divines would only too gladly avail themselves of.
�13
5. Honour thy father and thy 8. Honour thy father and mother.
mother that thy days may be long
[It is surely better to teach
upon the land which the Lord
this Commandment as given
thy God giveth thee.
by Christ than with the ad
In the version given in Deu
dition of such a weak or in
teronomy the ground sug
complete ground as we find
gested for keeping this Com
in Exodus.] *
mandment varies from that in
Exodus, and is more explicit.
5. Honour thy father and thy mother
as the Lord thy God hath com
manded thee, that thy days may
And he answered and said,
be prolonged, and that it may go
Master, all these things have
well with thee in the land which
I observed from my youth.
the Lord thy God giveth thee.
Then Jesus beholding him,
Deut. v. 16.
loved him, and said unto him,
One thing thou lackest. [If
thou wilt be perfect, Matt,
xix. 21.]
9. Go thy way; sell whatsoever
thou hast, and give to the poor,
and thou shalt have treasure in
heaven.
A Commandment set aside in
our day, not only by the very
rich, as this man is repre
sented to have been, but by
Christians in general.
In addition to the nine Commandments here selected from Christ’s
teaching, and which Christians may be recommended to use as being his
substitute for the Decalogue, we find many more quite as solemnly laid
down by Christ as of universal obligation. Let us refer to Matt. v. and
vi., in which Christ in the Sermon on the Mount is represented as giving
new Commandments.
* If the reader of this pamphlet cares to look further into the parallel here
drawn between what maybe called Christ’s substitute for the Decalogue, and to
satisfy himself that the Decalogue was written for the Jews and not for Chris
tians, he is referred to ‘ The Sabbath ’ (Chapman and Hall, 1855), vol. ii., in the
first chap, of which, the Mosaic Sabbath is very fully considered.
�14
10. Swear not at all—but let your
communication be yea, yea, nay,
nay.
11. Resist not evil: but whosoever
shall smite thee on thy right
cheek, turn to him the other also.
12. Ye have heard that it hath been
said, Thou shalt love thy neigh
bour and hate thine enemy : but
I say unto you f Love your
enemies?
13. When thou prayest enter into
thy closet, and when thou hast
shut thy door pray to thy Father
which is in secret.
14. But when ye pray use not vain
repetitions, as the heathen do.
15. Take no thought, saying, What
shall we eat and what shall we
drink, or wherewithal shall we be
clothed ? Take no thought for
the morrow. Sufficient unto the
day is the evil thereof.
And from Luke vi. 80.
16. Give to every man that asketh
of thee, and of him that taketh
away thy goods ask them not
again.
Some of these are wisely ignored by Christians at the present day ;
while two which might be obeyed, with no detriment—if with no positive
good, namely, (1) praying in secret only and not parading- prayers in
churches, and, (2) not using vain repetitions in praying—are universally
disobeyed by the great body of professing Christians.
Christ, therefore, at any rate did not confine himself to Ten; ac
cording to the Catechism, he did not give the proper reply to the ques
tion. He nevei’ repeated all the Commandments of the Decalogue.
For anything that Christ is reported to have uttered, he need not even have
been aware of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, or 10th Commandment of the
Decalogue, as handed down to us ; or of the statement in Deuteronomy
that the Ten Commandments were written by God himself in two tables of
stone. Even in giving out those Commandments of the Law which he
�15
did refer to, lie did not repeat them in the order in which they stand in
the Decalogue; and on the subject of the 4th and the 5th Commandments,
he certainly has not enlightened us as to which is the true version,—the
true Commandments, written in the tables of stone.
It is singular that Christians should not have sufficient faith in the
words of their Saviour to adopt his express teaching on the subject of
Commandments. For example, had they such faith, they would not now,
running back to the ‘weak and beggarly elements ’ of the Jewish Scrip
tures, repeat every Sunday they are at church such a Commandment as
the 4th, never uttered by Christ, and which not one of them attempts to
keep, in its strict letter and meaning,—that of absolute cessation from
work and nothing else.
*
We may here remark that the Catechism errs not only in limiting
the number of God’s Commandments, expressly contrary to the teaching of
Christ; but it further makes the child declare that he learns from these
Ten Commandments what no one ever could learn from them. What is
laid down in the Catechism as the child’s duty is a very fair summary of
moral law and duty as believed in and practised by many at the present
day; but to say that the child or grown-up person ‘chiefly learns’ from the
Ten Commandments all that is there put down is not true. Where do we
find in the Ten a word about ‘ submitting ourselves to our spiritual pastors
and masters ’ ? or ‘ ordering ourselves lowly and reverently to our
betters’ ? or ‘keeping our bodies in temperance and soberness’'?
* See on this point ‘ The Sabbath,’ vol. ii. p. 179.
�16
THE COMMANDMENTS,
WHICH BELIEVERS IN A GOD, WILLINGLY CALLING THEMSELVES CHRIS
TIANS, MAY CONSIDER OBLIGATORY UPON THEM.
Turning now to the realities of life, we will look at the Commandments
from our own point of view.
Surveying dispassionately the history of religious opinion through
all ages of the world, we perceive that, notwithstanding all the assump
tions of infallibility by Popes and Ecclesiastics in general, there
has been a constant progress in religious belief. We also per
ceive that the saying of old, that ‘ God made Man in his own image/
should be replaced by the real fact that ‘ Man has always been and
is still making God in his own image ’; that as human knowledge
increases, as our ideas of what is right and noble and true go on
improving, so do our ideas of what a perfect God must be. We have long
since given up the crude notion of an angry and jealous God—of a God
who was ready to walk in a Garden on earth, and to come at the call of
every patriarch who chose to summon him,—and though kings and earthly
potentates may still invoke the God of Battles in their prayers, and Arch
bishops and Bishops may still write prayers on cattle plagues and cholera,
deprecating God’s wrath, and urging him to interfere and abrogate his
own laws at the call of man, we express the hope that the days of such
mistaken attempts to honour God are numbered, and that the time is
rapidly coming when true science or knowledge shall have swept away
these lingering superstitions of bygone ages.
And what is prayer—the only prayer fitted for educated minds,—un
less it be, in the spirit of the Axiom stated below, an earnest searching
after and earnest endeavour to obey all the unchanging laws, moral as well
as physical, which govern this world? In this sense alone can ‘prayer with
out ceasing ’ be possible. In this sense men of science, though possibly
never entering a church built by the hands of man, may be constantly
offering up their ‘praise and thanksgiving’ to the Unknown ‘whose
temple is all space/ and ‘ with whom/ as was well said several hundred
years ago, ‘ is no variableness, neither shadow of turning.’
The Commandments which we, who have not been brought out of the
land of Egypt, and who are not Israelites, but the descendants of Gen
tiles, may believe to be binding on us, though not given out, as the
Ten Commandments are said to have been, on the top of Mount Sinai, are
�17
such as we now derive from the united wisdom and experience accumu
lated by mankind during the past and present ages.
Our only AXIOM is this :—
It is our duty with all our energies to ascertain the laws, both moral
and physical, which govern this world and ourselves; to be constantly
endeavouring to obey these laws when ascertained, and never to
hesitate to give up an opinion or belief on what is called religion, any
more than on any other subject, if we find that that opinion or belief,
even though handed down to us from very ancient times, is inconsist
ent with our better knowledge at the present day.
Acting up to this axiom we accept St John’s declaration, (Little
children, let no man deceive you : he that doeth righteousness is right
eous,’ 1 John iii. 7. We also readily accept, as a bond of brotherhood
between Christ and ourselves, his declaration in Matt. xii. 50, f Whoso
ever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my
brother, and sister, and mother.’ Looking also to Christ’s earnest en
deavour to enforce the law ‘ Love your neighbour as yourself,’ we
desire to be called Christians, although we may utterly repudiate all
the miraculous stories of the Old and New Testaments,—although we may
utterly repudiate any belief in a personal Devil, just as we do in witch
craft,—and although we admit neither sacraments nor priests of any
kind, and look upon the miscellaneous books bound up together and
called the Bible as entitled to no more respect than what is due to them
as ancient records of what men have believed and have felt in former ages.
We differ from the priests of all denominations and the self-styled
orthodox in this ; that, while believing much that is in the Bible, we be
lieve nothing merely because it is in the Bible. We seek enlightenment
in the place of dogmatic assurance, and we accept the declaration of the
man of science, who, to use the words of Professor Huxley (in his lecture
on improving Natural Knowledge, delivered at St Martin’s Hall, London,
on Sunday evening, 7th January, 1866), f absolutely refuses to acknow
ledge authority as such ; for him scepticism is the highest duty, blind
faith the one unpardonable sin. The man of science has learnt to believe
in justification, not by faith, but by verification.’ Our faith may be
described as a simple ‘ Faith in Works.’
The Commandment which we may state includes all others is to (love
thy neighbour as thyself.’ This was, so far as we have any record, first
laid down, not by Christ, as many suppose, but in Levit. xix. 18; but
there its meaning was narrowed by the words which follow, ‘ Thou shalt
hate thine enemy.’ Christ could truly say to the Jews that he gave it to
them as ‘a new Commandment,’ earnestly endeavouring to counteract
the narrow teaching in Leviticus by telling his hearers to love their
�18
enemies, and showing here and elsewhere, that by ‘neighbour* we should
understand every human being. Five hundred years before Christ, Con
fucius, the great Chinese Philosopher, wrote the precept, ‘Do unto another
what thou would he should do unto you, and do not unto another what
thou would not should be done unto you. Thou only needest this Law
alone. It is the foundation and principle of all the rest? The heathen,
*
Seneca, also said ‘ Live for another as you would live for yourself? Now
we do not accept even this Commandment because it was uttered by Moses,
by Confucius, by Christ, or by Seneca, but because all our experience
teaches us that, whether uttered by them or not, it is, in complete accord
ance with the above Axiom, a true law of God;—for the more we study the
laws of this world, both moral and physical, the more do we find that the
happiness of ourselves and of our fellow-creatures—in one word, our
well-being in this life—is intended to be the great object of our existence
here, and that the real happiness of each individual is dependent on the
happiness of others; that a man cannot be truly happy if those around
him are miserable. It may be added that by acting thus, and only thus,
by really loving ourselves and our neighbours, can we show reverence and
love to that mysterious ‘ unknown/—that, to us in our present state,
incomprehensible Power which we call GOD, and believe to have, in
some way wholly beyond our capacity to imagine, created the Universe,
of which our little world is the merest atom.
We therefore, to prevent a possible misapprehension of Christ’s
meaning, would alter the order in which in selecting the two Command
ments from Deut. vi. 6, and Lev. xix. 18, he is recorded as having placed
them, and would say : ‘ first, thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself, and
by so doing (secondly) thou wilt, and in this way only canst thou, show thy
love to God? In this sense love to God may be said to be the first (mean
ing by the first the ‘ greatest/ Matt. xx. 38) Commandment.
Only think of the cruelties and murders practised by Christians in all
ages under the plea of ‘ first love God/ and we shall agree how important
is the alteration in the order of the two Commandments as here suggested.
What were the Crusades and all the religious wars since the commence
ment of the Christian Era—all the martyrdoms and persecutions of Pro
testants by Catholics, and no less of Catholics by Protestants; and in a
less degree, what are all the bitter persecutions and religious feuds and
heart-burnings of the present day, but miserable, mistaken attempts to
love and honour God by hating and ill-using instead of loving our neigh
bour ?
* Confucius also said, ‘ Desire not the death of thine enemy. We may have
an aversion for an enemy, without desiring revenge? This probably is the doc
trine practically held by most Christians at the present day, of whom it would
be a stretch of imagination to say that they consider it a duty to llove their
enemies.’
�19
THE COMMANDMENTS.
1. Love your neighbour as yourself. Do unto others as you, in the
exercise of your best intelligence, think they ought to do unto you.
And how ought I to love myself? This is a question not generally put
to children. The duty itself is not properly enforced—but is rather depre
cated under the fear of inculcating ' selfishness.’ The following may be
stated as some of the laws, without obedience to which it is impossible to
say, ( I truly love myself?
2. Parents.—As a parent or guardian of children, so instruct and
educate them, and so conduct yourself, that they may learn to honour
and obey you, and prepare themselves in their turn to instruct their chil
dren, without troubling themselves too much whether ‘their days may be
long’ or short, but taking every pains that 'it may go well with them’
in the land of their birth or adoption; and that they may, in learning to hon
our and obey you, in your imperfection, learn still more to reverence and
obey that perfect Power, which is revealing itself continuously in the
works of the Creation, and which we worship as God, the Father Uni
versal.
The Hebrews of old said, the sins of the parents are visited on the chil
dren unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate God.
While rejecting the idea implied by the literal statement of a jealous God
punishing mankind for merely hating him, we accept these words partly as
meaning, If you do not obey the laws of God, but disobey them either
through wilfulness or ignorance, the consequences of your conduct or
your bad example will, by God’s unvarying laws, injure not only yourself
but also your children. Remember too that your neglect of your children
will react upon yourself.
Assist also in educating the poor—those whom their parents are
unable or neglectful themselves to educate. Be to them as a parent, where
opportunity offers. All of us are liable to suffer, and arc constantly suffer
ing through the ignorance of what are called the lower classes, although
this effect of their ignorance is very generally overlooked.
3. Health.—Will ye ‘ take no thought for your health, what ye shall
eat and what ye shall drink; and for your body, what ye shall put on ? ’
Matt. vi. 25. On the contrary, study the laws which govern your body
and your mind. Make yourself well acquainted with the beauty of that
wonderful piece of mechanism, that temple in which you dwell and which
constitutes your ' self,’ and strive to preserve it in perfect health as your
most valued treasure—'that it may be well with you’ on this earth.
�20
Though Solomon’s finery, made by human hands, was not so wonderful
as the lily, yet Solomon’s body without any clothing at all was at least as
glorious, and so is your own naked body, as any lily of the field or any
other of the comparatively simple works of creation.
Do no injury wilfully to your own body, nor to that of any man or
creature. ‘ If thine eye cause thee to offend’ (Matt. v. 29 and 30) ever so
much, do not pluck it out; ‘ if thine hand offend thee,’ do not cut it off;
but keep both eye and hand, both body and mind, under proper control.
You cannot ‘cut off’ the real offender, your brain and will.
In the carelessness for health, we continually find the sins of the parents
visited on the children, as instanced by madness, gout, and other diseases
properly called hereditary. Without health you are incapable of doing
your duty, and you become a burden to those whom you ought to protect
and to comfort. Thus fasting is no duty to us. We must take the greatest
care to get good food, though never eating or drinking too much ; while if
we purposely eat or drink too little, simply to ‘ mortify the flesh,’ we do
an injury to our health, and thus do wrong.
Remember also that mind or soul and body are one. You cannot
separate what God has truly joined together. A strong and healthy body
enables the mind to act healthily. A weak body tyrannizes over the mind.
4. Conduct.—Form good habits when young. Think for yourself.
Study to do right. Do not be misled by the common notion that what
is called ‘ Conscience ’ is an intuitive ’faculty or gift at your birth which
will develope itself without effort on your part. As a child gradually
learns to stand upright, wholly unconscious of the slight mental and
bodily effort still necessary to sustain him in that position, so by the care
ful exercise and training of his moral and intellectual powers may a man
gradually learn to judge, almost unconscious of an effort, when he is act
ing uprightly or otherwise. Watch over this faculty continually so as to
keep it, like the rest of your bodily and mental powers, in an ever
healthy state. Be just; be industrious, frugal, and careful, thus avoiding
*
debt (understand by this word inability to fulfil your engagements) as the
greatest shame, and becoming a self-supporting member of the community
in which you live. Be sober, be temperate, be chaste, controlling your
passions and preserving your health; but if you are struck on one
cheek (Matt. v. 39) do not offer the other cheek to be struck. Or if
a man takes your coat (Matt. v. 40), do not let him have your cloak
also; of him that taketh away thy goods, do ask for them again (Luke
vi. 30). If a man wastes your time by making you walk a mile with him
* The reader is referred on this question to an able treatise, A Discourse on
Ethics of the School of Paley, by W. Smith, Esq. London, Pickering, 1839.
8vo, price 3s. Gd.
�21
(Matt. v. 41), do not add to his folly and your own by walking two with
him. On the contrary, and notwithstanding what is said in Matt. v. 39,
< resist evil ’ always to the best of your ability. If injured by another,
strive to have him punished, that his conduct may be amended.
Be considerate of the feelings and opinions of others; but still be not
frightened out of plainly expressing your honest convictions either from
false delicacy towards others who differ from you or from a fear of their
coldness or hatred. Never give way to anger in discussion. Be moie
particularly guarded when the question is a religious one, for here its very
importance is apt to excite. The inclination to anger may anse fiom
vanity rather than zeal for the truth, and should warn you that you are
possibly in error or have not mastered the subject.
Judge others, that in so doing you may learn to judge yourself. While
obeying the injunction, Mudge not, and ye shall not be judged; con
demn not, and ye shall not be condemned’ (Luke vi. 37), to the extent
of not blaming others where, as constantly happens, you cannot know all
the motives of their acts ; do not think that by judging leniently of others,
you will escape f judgment/ or the consequences of your own folly or
wickedness.
Moreover be not deceived! Justice may be, but mercy, in the usual sense
of the word, is not an attribute of that Great Power which governs and con
trols this world. Punishment, either direct or indirect, in the depriva
tion more or less of that state of well-being for which we are fitted, at
tends every breach of God’s laws, physical or moral. Neither ignorance
nor good intention can be pleaded with success. The infant that burns
its hand in the fire or falls out of window, suffers punishment, without
mercy. The man who swallows poison, believing it to be medicine—
and the man who, knowingly, drinks strong liquors in excess, equally suffer
for their acts ; and so does the man who gives way to his passions, whether
he has, or has not, had the advantage of a good education. For a
definition of what may in one sense be called mercy, we might quote the
Psalmist, ‘ Thou, Lord, art mercifdl; for thou rewardest every man ac
cording to his works/ Psalm lxii. 12. The true mercy shown is the gift
of reason, which enables us by care and foresight to protect ourselves and
our children from nearly all suffering. For the rest, we must be con
tented, seeing that all things are not possible even to a God. How can
we be free-agents, and yet be secured against all suffering from our own
acts and the acts of other free-agents like ourselves ?
5. Language, Truthfulness, and Oaths.—Strive for the greatest accu
racy in expressing yourself, and early teach your children the true mean
ing of the words they utter, and urge on them the importance of correct
expression. A child is often made unhappy from inability accurately to con
�22
vey its meaning; and through life what constant quarrels and misery, among
even those who ought to be nearest and dearest to each other, arise from
carelessness or inaccuracy in the use of language.
Speak the truth at all hazards ; but do not suppose it to be a duty to say
at all times every thing you happen to believe. When called upon in a
court of justice to give evidence, do not accept the direction "Swear not
at alP (Matt. v. 34) literally; but swear or promise in the way that other
men may think most binding on the conscience, even though you feel that
in thus doing you in no way increase your obligation to speak the truth,
and nothing but the truth.
6. Promises.—Keep your promises, unless in keeping them you are
committing a greater error than in breaking them; but to avoid the dis
grace of breaking a promise, be extremely guarded in making any pro
mises at all. You are not able to foretell what may happen, and you may
find you cannot keep rash promises. Who but the most infatuated would
now hold up Jephtha’s slaughter of his only daughter, on account of a
rash and superstitious promise, as any thing but a fouL murder, an abom
inable wickedness ?
7. Property.—Lay up for yourselves treasures here (Matt. vi. 19).
Take thought for to-morrow, so that you may be able not only to keep
yourself and your children from want and bodily suffering, and conse
quent ill health; but may have a surplus for those who through real mis
fortune, or mental or bodily incapacity, have need of assistance. Bear
always in mind that although two of us shall agree to ask something
(Matt, xviii. 19), it is not true that God will grant it merely for the asking.
Nor if, like fowls of the air, none of us sow nor reap, nor gather into
barns, shall we be fed as they (Matt. vi. 26) ; but we shall starve, and de
servedly so. Though God has clothed us with a body more beautiful
and complex in its structure than any lily of the field (Matt. vi. 28),
still his having done so is no reason for supposing that we shall have,
without proper exertions on our own part, proper clothing to protect us
from the inclemency of the weather. The lilies of the field want no
clothing; but you will die of cold unless you clothe yourself.
8. Charity.—Do not e sell all that thou hast and distribute unto the
poor’ (Luke xviii. 22); for if you do, you will only increase improvidence
and want. On the contrary, never ‘ give to him that asks you ’ (Matt. v.
42), merely because he asks you; neither give to the poor merely because
they are poor. Rather suspect that the beggar is an unworthy object;
and remember that the giving alms to such a one is a bad act on your
part (prompted by your own ill-regulated impulsiveness), for it is—not
�23
only an encouragement to idleness, but a discouragement to the industri
ous neighbour of that beggar, and increases the evil you thus thought
lessly try to remedy.
Neither purposely give your alms ‘in secret,’ relying on the promised
reward in Matt. vi. 4; rather attend to the instructions to ‘ let your light
so shine before men that they may see your good works ’ (Matt. v. 16).
Alms openly and judiciously given, will offer an example and encourage
ment to your neighbour to do likewise. Still give not alms ostentatiously
nor in expectation of praise or of mercenary reward here or hereafter. If
the knowledge that you are doing good to a neighbour is not a sufficient
reward, you must have been very badly trained as a child.
Probably the greatest real charity you can bestow is to assist in
having the children of those who are unable or indifferent, properly
trained and taught, so that ‘ they may learn and labour truly to get
their own living, and do their duty in that state of life’ in which they
may be placed, or to which they may attain by their own intelligence.
9. Observance.of Days.—Keep each day as holy as any other;—God,
in the only way we can see him, namely, in his works, works every day
alike ; He never rests. Vary your occupations, arrange them as may be
expedient (‘ all things are lawful unto me, but all things are not expe
dient,’ St Paul in 1 Cor. vi. 12) ; but your work in life—working
righteousness—must be continuous as God’s is.
*
* Freed from superstitious observance of days as being one more holy than
another, such an institution as a periodical cessation from ordinary work
is eminently ‘ expedient ’ among a hard-working people, so expedient that as
mankind grows in wisdom neither the penalty of death enacted by Moses nor the
5s. fine of our modern legislation will be wanted to enforce it. The Sunday as a
day more particularly set apart by man for assembling together, either in public
or private, for worship, or for moral instruction and training, which if true must
be religious,—for family and social reunions and intercourse,—and for the enjoy
ment of healthy recreation, bodily exercise, and innocent amusement,—may be
an institution of the utmost importance for promoting the love of ourselves
and our neighbours.
We have to remember, however, that the real rest given by God to man is the
portion of time allotted to sleep. If it were not that man commits excesses in
labour, both mental and bodily, periodical days of rest would certainly not be
necessary, however enjoyable. A proper amount of labour judiciously varied in
its kind every day in the year would be quite as conducive to health ; but just
as a man, who commits excesses in eating and drinking all the week long, may
recruit himself by abstinence on one day in the week, so may we, in the present
state of society, be in every respect benefited by a cessation from labour.
Let us remember also that the artisan, shut out by the superstition of the age
from national museums, picture galleries, botanical gardens, and other places
�21
10. Idolatry.—‘ Little children, keep yourselves from idols’ (1 John
v. 21). Avoid Idolatry in any form, whether it be in making an idol of
one day over another, or of a book, of an idea, or of a man. Accept
a belief from no man. To adopt or to hold a belief because it is written
in a book, or because a man or a church, in olden times or at the present
day, declares it to be true, is idolatry and superstition just as much as to
fall down before a stone, a picture, a graven image, a piece of bread, or a
wafer, and worship it. Think for yourself, unfettered, and undismayed
by the fear of consequences, or by the knowledge that the multitude is
against you. If you wish for a saying of Christ in support of this, re
member the passage (Matt. x. 35), ‘ for I am come to set a man at
variance against his father, and the daughter against her mother, and the
daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law.’
If you thus obey the command to love yourself and your neighbour
alike, you will, in the only way possible to man, show your real love to
GOD, and you may truly say with the Deuteronomist—
‘The Lord our God is one Lord, whom we love with all our
heart, and with all our mind, and with all our strength.’
In conclusion, we would ask our Christian neighbours to think for
themselves, whether it would not be better to teach their children even
from such a code of Commandments as is here imperfectly sketched out,
than from those of the Jewish Decalogue. We would also ask them
whether they would not prefer that their children should, on their en
trance into the world, have some such plain and simple guidance for
their inexperience, in the place of solemnly binding themselves to believe,
most usually without pretence of understanding them, three Creeds, differ
ing one from another, and the present Thirty-nine Articles of our National
Church ? In the one case they will be free to use their God-given
faculty of reason; in the other, they will grow up under a crushing bond
age, slaves to a priesthood and their barbarous anathema, ‘ To doubt is
damnation ! ’
How can a Church be truly national, if it does not permit the widest
differences on questions of mere intellectual belief !
where he might have a chance of learning God’s ways to man—has a perfect right
to spend the Sunday in his ordinary employment, and far better will it be that
he should do so than in mere idleness.
JOHN CHILDS AND SON, PRINTERS.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Victorian Blogging
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library & Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Conway Hall Library & Archives
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Conway Hall Ethical Society
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
God's commandments according to Moses, according to Christ, and according to our present knowledge: a sketch suggestive of a new Westminster Confession of Faith for the laity of the 19th century
Description
An account of the resource
Place of publication: London
Collation: 24 p. ; 22 cm.
Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Printed by John Childs and Son. "Addressed to all who deem it their highest duty as well as right to "think for themselves" [Title page].
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
N. Trubner & Co.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
G5267
Subject
The topic of the resource
Presbyterianism
God
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
[Unknown]
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
<a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (God's commandments according to Moses, according to Christ, and according to our present knowledge: a sketch suggestive of a new Westminster Confession of Faith for the laity of the 19th century), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span>
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
application/pdf
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Text
Language
A language of the resource
English
Conway Tracts
God
Moses
Presbyterian Church
Westminster Confession of Faith