1 10 15 https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/cc28f65219620023fc8d0608334bc288.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=hA5beOzjzTzT1JhluoMUxtQudAOF%7EPMPmEPovohH20Phuy7tVAYS4McnqNt4RXwej30r8Rdk8VDSamql-8BPKoUG3WinLlh1YTiY3U2eUDz9ckoNCYj9rrq7DyDROJ3rJwyIoSxGprwyP7gZU3N-cC%7ExLV1X3pLNtXiNeoDqncaDscGuMi5rA9tCWmos4IElaVl5xj6EmPkdwg1ZrFAv8qDWNBZbuu98PmJ5viQad4Vi2S705vwiT5MTlgVTjoZIPbe6BtWtU5prK2xzeG8vNQC9QSSBzturGNZWAxTY3yU64VS1nsYyl3fJowH54aJF5RLttj01yO-YN83WNnt-fw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 81057220c89c8ee371efd0cbeb7c8f9d PDF Text Text �THE LATE FBISCffi CONSORT, AT SHE GREAT EXHIBITION OF 1851. NOW ERECTED AT KENNINGTON PARK. MODEL COTTAGES FOR WORKING MEN, DESIGNED UPON THE OPEN STAIRCASE PJSINCIP&E, BY HENRY ROHAftTS, ESQ., F.&A. PLATE {See Page 30.) 1. m �OVERCROWDING; THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN 18 6 6 AND CO. �PRINTED BY WATERLOW AND SONS, CARPENTERS’ HALL, LONDON WALL. �OVERCROWDING; THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. One of the most momentous, and one of the most pressing questions of our age is this of how to find healthful, pure, and comfortable dwelling-house accommodation for the in­ dustrial classes of the community. The distinct and specific object of the present publication is to bring the general his­ tory and various practical bearings of that question n-nder comprehensive review, within as narrow a scope, in as con­ secutive a form, and with as much completeness of detail as, within reasonable limits, is possible. The importance of the subject is beginning to be acknow­ ledged on all hands. The most illustrious princes, the most influential statesmen, and the most laborious philanthropists of our time, have not only had their attention called to it, but have brought to its consideration their deepest solicitude —to its exposition and enforcement, their highest eloquence. It is a question in which the late lamented Prince Consort took an anxious and practical interest—a fact which, of itself, might be accepted as a proof of its urgency; for Prince Albert did not patronise philanthropy as one of the pet amuse­ ments of the day, or devote himself to the investigation of its many problems as fields for curious speculation or dilletanti research. Into his studies of topics of this nature he brought �4 OVERCROWDING ; the true and earnest spirit of a wise beneficence—a benefi­ cence in which the calm and judicial sense of the philosopher was ever in the service of a right Christian devotion to the welfare of mankind. Since Prince Albert took the step which may be almost said to have given birth to one of the most glorious social reformations ever initiated, and to which reference will again, in due course, have to be made, the importance of the question has increased in a degree which may, without any exaggeration, be described as appalling. And the importance of the question must necessarily increase with the increase of our population, and with the increase of the material ad­ vantages with which our country is being so liberally blessed. This question involves the prime conditions of the physical health, the moral purity, the social order, and the political honour of the community ; it comprises the leading terms on which the welfare of the individual, as also that of the State, can be secured. It must not be forgotten, however, that a general and ear­ nest public interest in the question will be absolutely neces­ sary to the carrying out of this great reform. To help to create that public interest is the aim of the present writer. The patronage of a prince, an occasional speech in the House of Lords or the House of Commons, an experimental effort here and there to oope with a mightily abounding evil, will be, however noble in themselves, mournfully inadequate to the demands of the case. Until the whole body of the peo­ ple, the rich and the poor, the small and the great, shall be brought to see its interest and to feel its duty in this mat­ ter, abuses and corruptions will accumulate until they explode in catastrophe. Truths are wrapped up in this question which the people themselves must learn, before the question can be considered to be solved. Ignorance of those troths will be fatal, not only to the efforts made to achieve reform, but, what is worse, to the very people in whose behalf the reform is attempted. And even information will be of little �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 5 service, in such an enterprise as this, unless it is backed by­ conscience and vitalised by faith. Indeed, it is as true in the actual providence of life, as it is in the code of Divine Jus­ tice, that with an increase of knowledge comes an increase of responsibility; and that ignorance is never punished so severely for its sins, as intelligence is for its sins. “That ser­ vant which knew his lord’s will, and prepared not himself, neither did according to his will, shall be beaten with many stripes. But he that knew not, and did commit things worthy of stripes, shall be beaten with few stripes.” Now, the connection between the health and the virtue of a community and its sanitary condition has been demon­ strated in facts innumerable. The science of this question is as positive as any which comes within the range of human study. The principal lessons of sanitary science, moreover, are not only acknowledged by the faculty—they are, to a greater or a less degree, comprehended by every but the lowest class of society. But do we practice what we know ? Do we live according to the light which has been given us ? Are we not, on the contrary, fully conscious of the humili­ ating fact that, whilst our information has increased, the evils of which we have through that information become cogni­ sant have increased also ? Although the state of education in England was never anything like so high and satisfactory as at the present moment, it is to be feared that, through the stolid selfishness of the rich, and the selfish stolidity of the poor, the sanitary condition of England was never, in some momentous respects, so bad as now. Notwithstanding those enterprises a rapid historical survey of which will be found in these pages, it yet remains true that the necessity for overcrowding is being forced upon the London poor at a rate more rapid than that at which improved accommodation is being provided for them. It cannot be denied that the drain­ age of the metropolis is, as a system, more complete than at any former period; yet we get only a very partial benefit from �6 OVERCROWDING J this fact, owing to the manner in which the people are huddled together, without the sweet purifications of fresh air, or the scarcely less necessary refreshment of heaven’s light; compelled to breath diffused death, and existing under wellknown conditions of inevitable emaciation, probable pestilence, and all but certain moral as well as physical degeneracy. Wise men learn the truth and obey it. Fools learn only by experience ; and the experimental fruits of insanitary sins are so subtle in their development, and so occasional in the more startling calamities that mark their growth, that fools, ■without the aid of wise men, will never learn the truth at all. The wise men, however, have compared the phenomena of health and of disease until they have mastered the chief laws by which the relations of health and d isease are regulated. And now the science of the subject is clear. Alas, that only gigantic public calamities should have the power of enforcing its lessons upon us ! Alas, that men who are wise enough to build up a science of health, should be fools enough to neglect their own prescriptions until disaster comes upon them in furious desolation, to prove that truth is sacred and may not with impunity be profaned, and that God’s laws are sup­ ported by the omnipotence of His own dread justice, whose chastisements fall on all by whom they are outraged and defied! An old proverb says, that “ self preservation is the first law of nature.” If we look at life in its larger relations and more general manifestations, apart from the accidents that startle our deepest instincts into their boldest action, and those occasional moods of the soul when the sense of practical responsibility seems to acquire the intensity of religious enthusiasm, it is to be feared that the proverb finds but par­ tial illustration in the habits of mankind. How few of us live day by day according to the laws of life ! How little do conservative considerations obtain in the physical customs and personal indulgences of even the most enlightened mem­ �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 7 bers of our community ! How recklessly do we mix poison with our food, and death with our drinks ! How shamelessly do we trample on the divinely ordained canons of health which have been made known to us ! But, in no case is the instinct which prompts to self-preservation more atrociously or systematically ignored than in the matter of the construc­ tion, the situation, and the material administration of our dwelling-houses. In relation to thousands upon thousands of our fellow countrymen our elaborate economy of civilisation is but an artistic aggravation of the native barbarities of the race. Why do men build houses at all ? W hy do they not encamp on the open heath, in the beautiful meadows, on the hill-side, heaven’s sun shining upon them, and the stars their faithful night-watchers ? The answer might be furnished by a fool, and it would be a foolish answer. A house, we say, is a memorial of family association, a temple for all homely adorations, a device for the protection of social delicacy, a shelter from the stormy blast and the treacherous air, a pro­ tection against fatal fogs and the pestilential vapours that rise from the diseased earth. Such is the pretence of civili­ sation. Now, in multitudes of instances, what is the fact ? A house is but a den of depravity, a haunt of indecencies which in the open air would be intolerable even to those who are doomed to the endurance of them, a nest of pestilence, a sepulchre into which living corpses are thrown in heaps, and under the very eye of society are left to putrify before disso­ lution has commenced its work, at once the citadel of fever and the sanctuary of famine, where a torpid revelry in ghastly indelicacies is almost the only sign that human conscience and human consciousness are not altogether extinct. If “ self­ preservation were the first law of nature,” what poor wretch would seek a dwelling in these abodes of death ? And, if it should be said that the poor are helpless and must be pitied in their misery, if self-preservation were really the first law of nature, would, not the wealthy and the well-to-do at once �8 OVERCROWDING ; set about the correction of an evil which is pregnant with peril as with shame to them ? Would they not take care that the “ fever nests ” which have been built close to their own mansions should be destroyed ? Would they not recog­ nise their common interest in the welfare and the health of their neighbours ? Would they not, knowing as they do that pestilence does not confine its desolations to the scenes where it has its birth, but assails the miscellaneous throng with a most undiscriminating ferocity, seek, by purifying the whole locality in which they reside, to protect themselves against its ravages ? They would, if selfishness were not a blind and a perverted passion within them. As the miser starves to death rather than spend the gold he worships on the means of life; so, too often, does society cherish the spirit of a wicked and delusive self-security rather than make the little sacrifice necessary to its own health and happiness. It is a melancholy fact on which to reflect, but it is a fact, that our wonderful material progress as a nation is the great cause of the dangers which press upon us, and to the removal of which it is the aim of the writer, in his own way, to con­ tribute. When an enterprising- individual advances from poverty to opulence, he mostly improves himself in all the departments of his own personal being, and in all the asso­ ciations of his life as he goes along. He will adapt himself to his changing circumstances with an elasticity and tact than which there is in human nature scarcely anything more extraordinary or more admirable. His providential capacity improves with his improving fortunes, so that dignity sits easily upon him, and his new responsibilities find him pre­ pared to sustain and discharge them. It is not always so, however. Some men get rich who display no faculty for the rational enjoyment or the honourable dispensation of their wealth. They are always in a muddle. Their poor relations are kept about them in a squalid condition, a disgrace to themselves and a nuisance to the neighbourhood. Their �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 9 rooms are just as small as in the old time ; the only difference being that they are now inconveniently crowded with incon­ gruous furniture. All the actual embarrassments of life are unchanged. There has been no development of the method and plan of existence corresponding with the development of its means and resources. Our metropolitan community has, it must be confessed, shown very much of this spirit of improvidence in its recent amazing progress. Its wealth has increased enormously; so has its population. But it has not applied its increase of wealth to the task of providing im­ proved accommodation to its rapidly and awfully accumulating numbers. Thus its comforts have diminished as its means of providing them have augmented. It has vigorously com­ menced repairing the mischief at one end, but this only increases the confusion and humiliation at the other. We have proceeded to the enlargement of our shops and warehouses, and to the improvement of our facilities for locomotion; but this has resulted in a formidable contraction of the area allotted to the necessarily resident population. Our public improve­ ments, in fact, have been carried out without prescience, true economy, or a pretence to harmony and completeness. We have yielded to the pressure first of one exigency and then of another; and thus, whilst we have been working out an incumbent reform in this direction, we have actually been aggravating a threatening abuse in that. At last, however, the special and supreme evil with which we are called upon to grapple is distinctly recognised. That evil is overcrowding. The measures which have been already adopted to meet that evil we will now proceed briefly to sketch. Sanitary science, in its remedial applications, may be said to have gained no attention in this country until the visita­ tion of the cholera in the year 1832. It is quite true that men like John Howard, Dr. Chalmers, and some others, had occasionally, and with much earnestness, warned the public of the frightfully unhealthy conditions under which the poor �10 OVERCROWDING J in'large towns were obliged to live, but these individual voices were unheeded; and even the ravages of pestilence excited more morbid consternation than enlightened solicitude. In 1834, Mr. Sidney Smirke published his “ Suggestions for the Architectural improvement of the Western part of Lon­ don,” in which the claims of the poorer parts of the popula­ tion to better household accommodation were warmly and pathetically insisted upon. In 1837 a violent epidemic of typhus fever broke out in the eastern districts of the metro­ polis, and the Poor Law Commissioners appointed Dr. Southwood Smith, the father of sanitary reform in this country, to undertake an investigation into the general con­ dition of that part of London, whilst similar investigations in other parts of the metropolis were entrusted to Dr. Neil Arnott and Dr. Kay (now Sir J. T. Kay Shuttleworth). The results of these inquiries led to the formation, in 1839, of the “ Health of Towns Association,” the object of which was to devise and to execute remedial measures for the horrible unhealthiness of the towns which had been brought to light. In the following year, on the motion of Mr. Slaney, a com­ mittee of the House of Commons was appointed to further extend these inquiries. The Bishop of London, at the same period, earnestly pressed the question on the consideration of the House of Lords. In 1842, the Poor Law Board pub­ lished the “ Deport of an Inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population,” which Lord Stanley has de­ clared has been from that day to the present the text-book of sanitary research. The year, 1842, was a very important year in the history of this question. Then was the Royal Commission appointed, consisting, among others, of the Duke of Buccleugh and the late Duke of Newcastle, for inquiring into the state of the large towns and populous districts; and it may be here mentioned that the final clause of the instructions given to this Commission directed inquiry to be made “ as to how far �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 11 the condition of the poorer classes of the people, and the salubrity and safety of their dwellings may be promoted by the amendment of the laws, regulations and usages.” That Commission published two Reports, one in 1844, and another in 1845 ", and those Reports distinctly trace to the condition of the houses of the labouring classes the main cause of the excessive sickness and mortality which had been disclosed in the returns of the Registrar-General; and had further distinctly traced to certain definite conditions in and about those houses the constantly recurring epidemics which, at that time, swept away one half of the children while they were as yet in their childhood, destroyed by fever the heads of families in the prime of life, and deprived the whole of the labouring part of the population of more than one-third of the natural term of existence. The Reports of this Com­ mission, combined with the increased public interest which had been excited in the subject, led to the adoption of several important legislative measures, amongst which we may par­ ticularly mention the Public Health Act of 1848, and the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts of the same year—acts which have been subsequently amended—the two latter in 1855, and again in 1860, and the former in 1858. In 1851, also, an Act was passed to enable parishes or boroughs containing not fewer than .10,000 inhabitants, either to build new houses or to adapt old ones, with a view to provide better lodgings for the labouring classes; power was also granted to raise money and to defray the attendant ex­ penses out of the poor rates, such houses being made, as far as possible, self-supporting. In the same year, 1851, an Act was passed for regulating Common Lodging Houses—a Bill the operations of which were, in 1853, made compulsory, and by which certain important conditions of cleanliness, proper ventilation, and the avoidance of overcrowding, as well as the separation of the sexes, were enforced. Another very useful measure, “ The Labourer’s Dwelling Act,” for promoting the building of dwelling-houses for the labouring classes, and �12 OVERCROWDING providing for the registration of joint-stock companies formed for that purpose, was passed in 1855. The tendency of all these enactments was good, and the principle on which they were based was a sound one. It is clearly within the province of the legislature to enforce upon landlords and tenants the observance of sanitary regulations. Restraints are put upon, and responsibilities are attached to, the sale of poisons; and the neglect of the fundamental laws of sanitary science is nothing less than the diffusion of fatal poison throughout the neighbourhood in which it obtains. A dwelling-house which contained no provision for ventila­ tion and for the carrying away of the refuse of its occupants, might have inscribed over its portals, “ All die who enter here; ” and, surely, if that condition of residence were made known, the State would be bound to protect society against the issue. We do not permit a butcher to sell putrid meat, even though the purchaser should buy it with his eyes open. The frankness of the bargain is no mitigation of its crimi­ nality. Why, then, should a landlord be allowed to let his houses in a state absolutely incompatible with the health of the tenant ? The plea of liberty is no more available to bim than to the chemist in relation to the sale of poisons, or to the butcher in relation to the sale of -putrid meat. And, as suicide is, in every well-organised society, punished as a crime, there is really no reason why the gross neglect of all the primary conditions of health should be left in the enjoy­ ment of a mischievous impunity. As Mr. Roberts has shrewdly and sensibly observed in one of the many useful pamphlets he has published on this question, “ The class who have not the power of protecting themselves, and who suffer so greatly from the consequences of that inability, may justly expect . at the hands of Government the same immunity in regard to their dwellings which the public at large are entitled to in regard to the falsification of weights, and the unwhole­ some condition of staple articles of food.” And, indeed, this argument from analogy may be. carried much further, and �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 13 may be applied to the tenant as strongly and as severely as it is applied to the landlord. The man who, from igno­ rance, indifference, or insane disregard to the conditions of physical health, settles down in a fever nest, has the same claim to be protected against himself as the man who should ✓ obstinately refuse to take food, or, under some wild impulse, should seize a razor with the intention of cutting his own throat. In other words, just as the chemist who carelessly dispenses poison is legally guilty of the consequences of his act, even to the extent of manslaughter, so the landlord, who permits his property to become a habitation of pestilence, should be held legally guilty of the consequences; and as the man who wickedly stands in the way of death is amenable to the law for his folly, so should the occupant of a foul house be held accountable for the great sin of which he is guilty. Indeed, between the careless chemist and the neglectful land­ lord on the one hand, or between the would-be suicide and the dirty tenant on the other, there is this difference, all of which is, in both cases, greatly in favour of the former. The evil effects of poison administered in mistake, or swallowed with a view to self-destruction, are confined to the individual; whilst the man who, by his foul habits, creates impure air, breeds diseases which are contagious. He scatters death and desola­ tion broadcast. The mischief he does is public, not personal. He is liable himself to become the victim of his own vices; but in falling he does but augment the malignant force, and enlarge the empire of the evil to which he has succumbed. In enforcing the observance of certain broad, plain, and essential principles of sanitary economy upon the community, therefore, the Government has but discharged its most legiti­ mate obligations, and fulfilled one of the very first purposes of its existence. Government is an arrangement primarily for the protection of the life of its subjects; and uncleanli­ ness is just as murderous in its effects, and just as obviously within the scope of social responsibility, as playing with vast quantities of gunpowder, or the dispensation of unwholesome food. �14 OVERCROWDING It is worthy of being remembered, however, that so far Government has found itself unable to deal with one branch of the evil. In all those Acts to which allusion has been made there is no distinct provision against overcrowding. The legislature has insisted on certain most manifest and most important conditions of health—such, for example, as the thorough drainage of the subsoil, the abolition of the cesspool, and the substitution of the watercloset, involving what may be described as the regular and complete drainage of the house internally, and at least a minimum supply of fresh air and pure water. In the Common Lodging Houses Act (which, as has been said, is a compulsory measure, but which has been in many large towns, through the indolence of the authorities, grievously neglected), the evil of overcrowding was recognised, and safeguards against it were introduced, by the restriction put upon the numbers accommodated in the establishment for the better regulation of which the Act was passed. The great developments of the evil of overcrowding, however, do not take place in the common lodging-houses. They are to be found in private dwellings, into which Govern­ ment inspectors do not penetrate. There they rage unchecked; and all the other sanitary improvements which have been introduced into the districts where such houses abound, are rendered comparatively useless by the prevalence of the special evil under consideration. The Medical Officer of Health in the City of London has frankly admitted that this is the case. He says—(l Without doubt, overcrowding is the worst of all the unwholesome influences with which you have to deal, and until it is corrected you will never be secure from those outbursts of disease which appear to set your sanitary measures at defiance.” In a report made by the Assistant Commissioner of Police on the condition of single rooms occupied by families in the metropolis, without the precincts of the city authorities, the following emphatic declaration to the same effect may be found :—“ It is evident that all the evils which the Acts for regulating common lodging-houses �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 15 were intended to remedy still exist, almost without abatement, in single rooms occupied by families, single rooms so occupied being exempt from the operation of the Act.” Ventilation is absolutely necessary to healthful existence under all cir­ cumstances ; but no structural provision for ventilation, howsoever perfect, can counteract the contamination of the air consequent on overcrowding. It must be admitted that the ventilation of the private rooms where families live huddled together is exceedingly inadequate to start with; whilst, if it were faultless, it could involve no security of pure air under existing conditions. It is calculated that not less than 500 cubic feet of air are necessary to the due and healthful sustenance of each individual, and that even that supply requires to be thoroughly changed once in the hour. The Lodging House Act requires an allowance of 700 cubic feet for each inmate. Police constables lodged in a station or section-house are allowed 450 cubic feet per person. Miss Nightingale, in her Notes on the Sanitary Condition of Hospitals, says—“ In solid built hospitals the progress of the cases will betray any curtailment of space much below 1,500 cubic feet. In Paris 1,700, and in London 2,000, and even 2,500 cubic feet, are now thought advisable.” These esti­ mates are, of course, exceptional, and, as a standard of what is necessary in common life, would be deemed altogether impracticable. But, at any rate, they serve to show the direct and momentous relation there is between health and fresh air; and, if that relation really exists at all, it is obvious that thousands and thousands of the tenements occupied by the families of the working classes of London are utterly unfit for the uses to which they are devoted. The worst phase of the subject, however, remains to be stated. It might be argued on abstract political grounds, that the Government is bound to prevent the lives of the people from being sacrificed to the unhealthy conditions of existence complained of; but, supposing that proposition is granted, the question arises as to what Government is to do �16 OVERCROWDING J in the matter. The fact is, the evil is of such magnitude that the legislature is totally incompetent to deal with it. There are those who, influenced by a benign concern in the physical welfare of the poor, would urge upon the legislature the duty of preventing those great public improvements by which the industrial orders are being gradually driven into an ever-contracting area. With such we cannot agree. In the general view of things, and in the long run, society will gain more by the public improvements referred to than it loses in the inconveniences, terrible though they be, incident upon their adoption. Commercial enterprise is, in itself, a good; and the commercial growth of the nation is a prodi­ gious benefit, for which every wise and thoughtful man will be grateful to Providence. And that growth has its con­ ditions, which are just as evident and just as positive as are the conditions of health. To attempt to curb the cotti-mcroial and material progress of the country by legislative enact­ ments, in the interest of the domestic and social convenience or welfare of a particular class in the community, would be a short-sighted policy indeed. But even if New Oxford Street and Victoria Street, Westminster, had never been made; if the Metropolitan Railway system had been arbitrarily restrained; if the proposed new law-courts should be abandoned; the great difficulty under consideration would not be met. In­ deed, we may go so far as to say that if a temporary stop could be put to the increase of the population, the worst elements of the difficulty would still remain to be dealt with; and those elements would be beyond the physical resources and the political responsibility of the State. Let it be granted that the legislature should institute a general inspection of private dwelling-houses, and rigidly enforce therein the clearly ascertained laws of physical health, still, what would be the result ? Simply that thousands and thousands of the population would be turned out into the common streets, and left without any homes at all. Bad as is the existing state of affairs, therefore, the arbitrary application to it of the �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 17 merely primitive or disciplinary bearings of our sanitary laws would be its aggravation rather than its cure. The full weight of this argument cannot be too minutely elucidated or too emphatically urged. We will suppose, for a moment, that the sanitary policy of the Government is made much more stringent .than it has been; and that Her Majesty’s Commissioners are sent forth through the length and breadth of the metropolis with distinct instructions— first, to condemn to destruction all houses unfit to be the habitations of men; and, secondly, to turn out of each house all persons beyond the number which it will properly and healthfully accommodate. The effect of the former course would be enormous and appalling. In an admirable paper read by Dr. Druitt, at the ordinary general meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects, February 20th, 1860, on “ the Construction and Management of Human Habitations, considered in relation to the Public Health,” we find the following sentences, the perfect truthfulness of which is not to be called in question “ It appears absolutely necessary to utterly remove the old, dilapidated, dark, squalid, damp tenements which cover a large area of this metropolis. Prac­ tically speaking they are perfectly incurable, and they serve only as a nursery of an enfeebled and sensual population. There are houses close by this from which disease is never absent j the soil is sodden with damp and riddled with drains and cesspools; the walls damp and saturated with the exhala­ tions of years ; the wood, decayed and spongy, full of'vermin, never looking clean, and, from its porosity, refusing to dry if washed. Such houses are utterly hopeless ; and it is evident that it would be a boon to humanity if the districts where they prevail could be razed to the ground, the surface exca­ vated, and then covered with dwellings which would admit the light and air and encourage cleanliness.” Now, it so happens that these vast masses of property, which a strict sanitary commission would assuredly condemn, are packed from floor to ceiling with human beings, one half of whom 2 �18 OVERCROWDING at least would, by that same commission, be cleared out, even if the property itself were tolerable. What good would this be ? Before these harsh, though just, proceedings can be re­ commended, provision must be made for the better accommo­ dation of the population disturbed by them; and that is a task which, on no sound principle of political economy, Government should be permitted to undertake. The prac­ tical conclusion is, therefore, that the legislature, in the measures enumerated above, has done very nearly all that it can under existing circumstances attempt. Let us now see what voluntary philanthropy and free commercial enterprise have done towards meeting this stupendous and matchless evil of overcrowding. Passing by the labours of the “ Health of Towns Associa­ tion,” and the“ Metropolitan Sanitary Association,” as being, however important and beneficial in themselves, not strictly within the scope of the present publication, we may pay some­ what close attention to the efforts of two societies the useful­ ness of which must not be measured by the pecuniary success which has attended some of their operations. Rather, per­ haps, might it be said that as pioneers their experience is likely to be of much benefit to associations which have since been formed. By the experiments which they have made, and the results which have attended them, we have at last made good progress towards the discovery. of what are the only conditions on which this great social and sanitary re­ form can be carried out. The “ Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings •of the Industrious Classes ” was formed in 1842; and two years later “ The Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes,” with a more comprehensive programme, set itself to pretty much .the same sort of practical work. Por the present we will trace the operations of the former of these societies. The exact nature of the objects which it was esta­ blished to promote, and of the means it adopted for the ac­ complishment of those objects, may, perhaps, be best gathered �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 19 from the first report of the directors to the shareholders, read at the meeting held at the London Tavern, on the 6th of March, 1846—no less than four years having been spent in surmounting preliminary difficulties, and bringing the scat­ tered and floating elements of the enterprise into cohesion, consistency, and working order. That report is as follows :— The attention, of the public and legislature has been lately much directed to the sanitary condition of large towns and populous districts. Investigations into this subject have been made, partly by individuals, and partly by commissioners appointed under the Crown; and the result of their labours is the collection of a body of evidence, perhaps unequalled in extent and value, for the guid­ ance alike of legislation and of private exertion. One of the main subjects of all these inquiries is the condition of the dwellings occupied by the poorer classes; and the evidence establishes two facts with regard to these dwellings; first, that they are in general extremely wretched, many of them wholly unfit for the habitation of human beings j and, secondly, that the tenants of these miserable houses pay an exorbitant rent foi‘ them. The founders of this association, impressed by the evidence ad­ duced of the deplorable physical and moral evils directly traceable to these wretched dwellings, conceived the plan of attempting some improvement in the general construction of the poor man’s house, and some addition to its convenience and comfort. They did not, indeed, imagine that it would be possible for any private body of men to provide suitable habitations for all the poor, even of the metropolis ; but they thought that it might be practicable, by the combination of capital, science, and skill, to erect more healthy and more convenient houses for the labourer and artizan ; and to offer such improved dwellings to these and similar classes, at no higher rent than they pay for the inferior and unhealthy houses which they at present occupy. It appeared, further, to the association, that if it were practicable to present some examples of houses well built, well drained, and well supplied with air, water, and light, and to -offer these dwellings at no greater charge than is at present demanded and obtained for houses in which no provision whatever is made, or even attempted, for the supply of any one of these essential requisites of health, clean­ liness, and comfort, a public service would be rendered beyond the mere erection of so many better constructed houses; that the in­ fluence of this example could scarcely fail to be beneficial; that, especially, it might help to rendei’ it no longer easy for the land­ lord to obtain an amount of rent for houses of the latter description which ought to suffice for those of the former; and that it might �20 OVERCROWDING ; thus indirectly tend to raise the general standard of accommodation and comfort required in all houses of this class. It was no part of the plan of the association to attempt to assist the poor by offering them any gift, or doing anything for them in the shape of charity; experience having shown that while the means afforded by charity for the removal of extensive and permanent evils are always inadequate, because always too limited and too transient, her gifts in such cases do not really benefit the recipients; but, on the contrary, have a tendency to injure and corrupt them, by lessening their self-reliance and destroying their self-respect. The proposal of the association was, therefore, that the industrious man should pay the full value for his house ; but that for the sum he pays he should possess a salubrious and commodious dwelling, instead of one in which cleanliness and comfort can find no place ; in which he can neither maintain his own strength, nor bring up his family in health ; but must constantly spend a large portion of his hard-earned wages in the relief of sickness. The plan proposed by the association for the accomplishment of their object was to raise the necessary capital by shares, and to ob­ tain a charter from the Crown, limiting the liability of the share­ holder to the amount of his individual subscription. On submitting their object and plan to the Government, Sir Robert Peel and Lord Lincoln, after some consideration, expressed their entire approba­ tion of it, thought it likely to accomplish much good, and advised the granting of the charter by the Crown. It was stated to the Government that, while on the one hand the essential principle of the association is that of self-support, and that the founders of it must regard their scheme as a failure, if it does not return a fair profit on the capital employed, yet that, on the other hand, it was not their design to set on foot a money­ getting speculation ; that their object, though not charitable in the common acceptation of the term, was philanthropic and national, and that it was their desire that the profits, after the payment of a moderate rate of interest, instead of going to increase the amount of the dividend, should be applied to the extension of the plan. The Government approving of this principle, the main provisions of the charter, now in possession of the association, have been framed in accordance with it, and are as follows : — The limitation of the liability of the shareholdei’ to the amount of his individual subscription. Dividend not to exceed £5 per cent, per annum. £25,000 capital to be subscribed before commencing works, and £10 per cent, thereon paid up. The capital may be increased with consent of two-third parts in number and value of the shareholders and sanction of the Board of Trade. The charter bears date the 16th October, 1845 �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 21 Now, we have here a most enlightened appreciation of the moral and financial grounds on which alone an enterprise of this kind can be legitimately and healthily conducted. The utter futility of attempting to render charitable aid to a com­ munity like that of the working orders of the metropolis in the matter of their household accommodation, is just as obvious now as it was then; and all the experience which has been gained on the subject confirms the principle that this mighty reform must be brought within the grasp and under the control of recognised commercial laws before it will have anything like a chance of receiving that general support from the trade and the public, without which it must remain little better than an amiable chimera or a benevolent dream. The perusal of the successive reports of the “ Metropolitan Association,” read in the light of this incontrovertible propo­ sition, has, perhaps, rather a discouraging effect. In every respect but the financial the society seems to have worked prosperously enough. The sanitary results were uniformly splendid. The precise advantages aimed at were obtained with a uniformity absolutely startling. The association observed the following sanitary conditions with great strict­ ness in all its building operations :— 1. The thorough drainage of the subsoiPof the site. 2. The free admission of air and light to every inhabited room. 3. The abolition of the cesspool, and the substitution of the water-closet, involving complete house-drainage. 4. An abundant supply of water; and, 5. Means for the immediate removal, by means of dust­ shafts, of all solid house refuse not capable of suspension in water, or of being carried off by water.* Now, the first experiment made by the Metropolitan Asso­ ciation was in the Metropolitan Buildings, Old St. Pancras Road, which consist of 110 tenements, 20 of which have two * See “Results of Sanitary Improvement,” by Southwood Smith, M.D. Knight and J. Cassell, 1853. C. �22 OVERCROWDING J rooms each, and 90 three rooms, and every one of which has attached to it a scullery, provided with a sink, a supply of water at high pressure at the rate of forty gallons per day; a dust-shaft, accessible from the scullery, and a separate watercloset. Other sets of buildings have been erected, or appro­ priated by the society; as, in Albert Street, Mile End New Town, and Pelham Street, and Pleasant Row, Mile End. Branch associations have been formed in various provincial towns, and lodging-houses and dormitories established. Into all the details of these experiments, however, it is not neces­ sary that we should here enter. At present, we wish simply to present the reader with the sanitary results of the enter­ prise, as tested more particularly by the “Metropolitan Buildings ; ” and in doing so, we find it impossible to render the statement either more brief, lucid, or impressive than as it appears in the report of Southwood Smith already referred to. We, therefore, append his analysis just as it stands :— The results of the experiment with reference to its great object, the protection of health and the diminution of preventible sickness and mortality, are now to be stated. In the year 1850, the comparative mortality of the residents in the Metropolitan Buildings, both adults and infants, was so small, that it was generally concluded that the result was accidental. In the year 1851, this comparative low rate of mortality con­ tinued, though the actual mortality was highei' than in the former year. In the subsequent year the mortality again became nearly the same as in 1850. The following are the exact results :— In 1850, the total population in the Metropolitan Buildings, Old Pancras Road, was 560, and the deaths were 7, being at the rate of 12 and a half in 1,000 of the living. In 1851, the total population was 600, and the deaths were 9, being at the rate of 15 in the 1,000. In 1852, the total population was 680, and the deaths were 9, being at the rate of 13 and a fraction in the 1,000. The average mortality of the three years in tfcese buildings has been 13-6 per 1,000. But taking together the whole of the establishments of the association, which had now come into full occupancy, the total �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 23 population for the year ending March, 1853, amounted to 1,343. Out of this number there were, during that year, 10 deaths, being at the rate of 7 and a fraction iu the 1,000. If this mortality is compared with the mortality of the metro­ polis generally, and with the mortality of one of its worst districts, the following results are obtained :— The deaths in the whole of the metropolis, during the same year (1852), reached the proportion of 22 and a fraction in the 1,000 ; consequently, the total mortality in London generally, taking together all classes, rich and poor, was proportionally more than three times greater than the mortality in these establishments. On a comparison of the infant mortality in these dwellings with that of the metropolis generally, the results present a still more striking contrast. Of the total population in the establishments of the association (1,343), 490 were children under ten years of age. Among these there occurred 5 deaths, being in the proportion of 10 in the 1,000. In the same year the infant mortality in the whole of London reached the rate of 46 in the 1,000 ; consequently, the infant mortality in the establishments of the association has been little more than one-fifth of that in London generally. This low rate of mortality, the comparative absence of sickness, and the general state of well-being implied in the two former con­ ditions, will appear the more remarkable when compared with the mortality in one of the worst districts of the metropolis. In the Notting Hill division of Kensington Parish, there is a place called the “Potteries,” which is wholly destitute of the sanitary provisions secured to the improved dwellings. Until recently it had no drainage, and even now there is little that is effectual. It has no supply of water, no means for the removal of filth, and the houses are dirty, damp, and miserable beyond description or belief. According to the Census of 1851, the population of the Potteries was 1,263 ; and the number of children at that time living, under ten years of age, was 384. As the population of this place is not migratory, but quite stationary, it may be assumed to be pretty much the same in 1853 as it was in 1851. At all events, it may be considered as sufficiently so, to afford the means of comparing its mortality for that year with the mortality of the Metropolitan Buildings. From the returns of the Registrar-General, it appears that during the year ending the 31st March, 1853, the total deaths in the Potteries, from all causes, amounted to 51. In the Metropolitan Buildings the deaths were 10 ; so that with a smaller population (80 less), the deaths were 41 in excess. In the Potteries the deaths from all causes, under ten years of age, were 42 ; in the Metro­ politan Buildings they were 5, being an excess of infant mortality �24 OVERCROWDING ; in the Potteries of 37. In the Potteries, the proportion of deaths per cent, to the population was 4-03, or 40 in the 1,000 ; in the Metropolitan Buildings it was -74, or 7 in the 1,000, being an excess in the Potteries of 33 in the 1,000. In the Potteries, the proportion of deaths per cent., under ten years of age to the popu­ lation under ten years of age, was 10’9, or 109 in the 1,000 ; in the Metropolitan Buildings it was 1’0, or 10 in the 1,000, being an excess in the Potteries of 99 in the l,(W)0. In the Potteries the proportion per cent, of deaths from zymotic diseases, under ten years of age, to the population, was 5'2, or 52 in the 1,000 ; in the Metropolitan Buildings it was '82, or 8 in the 1,000, being an excess in the Potteries of 44 in the 1,000. If the deaths in the whole of the metropolis had been at the same rate as in the Potteries, there would have died in London, in that year, 94,950 persons, whereas the actual deaths were 54,213 ; that is, there would have been a loss of upwards of 40,000 lives ; and if the whole of the metropolis had been as healthy as the Metropolitan Buildings, Old Pancras Hoad, on an average of the three years, there would have been an annual saving of about 23,000 lives. Nothing could possibly be more conclusive or more encou­ raging than this, proving, as it does, that in improving the dwelling-house accommodation of the people, we are really not only improving their physical health but prolonging their lives. The experience of the Society for improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes is equally stimulating. As we have said, this society commenced its operations in 1844; and besides encouraging the establishment by the working classes of field gardens, and the cultivation of small allotments of land, it has also contributed largely to the movement to the claims of which this pamphlet is dedicated. The beneficial effect of its labours on the life and health of its constituents has been remarkable. We may find room for just one ex­ ample, for which we are again indebted to Dr. Southwood Smith. It is that afforded by the history of Lambeth Square, which, before the society in question took it in hand, was just as unhealthy as those Kensington Potteries to which reference has before been made : — Lambeth Square is situated in the Waterloo Hoad district of the �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 25 parish of Lambeth. Tt consists of 37 eight-roomed houses which let at about £28 a-year, and are chiefly occupied by the foremen of large establishments, and the more skilled and highly-paid class of artizans. In outward appearance, and in their general aspect within, these houses are very superior to the ordinary abodes of the same class in other parts of the metropolis, and present no obvious cause of peculiar unhealthiness. According to the last census this square contains a population of 434 souls. Among this number on a house-to-house examina­ tion, it was found that in one year (1851) there had occurred 80 attacks of zymotic* and other diseases, and 24 deaths ; that is, nearly one person in every five had been laid up with sickness, which had proved fatal in the proportion of between 50 and 60 in 1,000. When built about twenty years ago these houses had been fitted up with untrapped closets, communicating with flat-bottomed brick drains, then in universal use. A number of the drains passed directly under the houses ; they were wholly unprovided with any regular water supply for cleansing ; consequently, instead of carry­ ing away the ordure, they retained it within the houses; and the emanations arising from the stagnant mass of putrefying matter, were carried back into the houses, through the open closets, in a proportion increasing with the obstruction in the drains. At the beginning of 1852, a new system of drainage was ap­ plied to the whole square. Water-closets were substituted for cesspools, and stoneware pipes for brick drains, and the apparatus was provided with an adequate supply of water. By these improvements the houses were placed in the same sanitary condition essentially as the society’s dwellings. The result on the health of the inhabitants was strikingly similar, On a re-examination of this property in November of the present year (1853) it was found that the mortality had been reduced from 55 in 1,000, to 13 in 1,000. This point, however, is now universally conceded; and the question which remains for solution is simply how the con­ ditions of sanitary improvement may be rendered available to the great mass of the community. And relative to that question, the experience of the two associations referred to has * From a Greek word, signifying to ferment. The term is employed meta­ phorically, as if this class of diseases were produced and propagated by a kind of fermentation. In these pages it is used merely for the sake of shortness to include the entire class of preventible diseases. �26 OVERCROWDING furnished valuable information, by the light of which their successors will doubtless attain more satisfactory results. Let us deal with the “ Metropolitan Association” first. Some circumstances which tend to explain the small rate of profit realised by this association should not in fairness be forgotten. The preliminary expenses were heavy; the Royal Charter having been obtained at an outlay of not less than £1,430Moreover, the plan of some of the buildings, more especially in the adoption of internal staircases, instead of external gal­ leries, for giving access to the various tenements, by which they are liable to house-duty, is a disadvantage to which no future experiments are likely to be exposed. Then, the society’s capital is invested in undertakings of various kinds, some of which are much less remunerative than others; and thus the average dividend is greatly reduced. In nineteen years—i.e. from 1846 to 1865—the “ Metropolitan Associa­ tion for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes” expended close upon £92,000 on ten ranges of buildings, in which accommodation was provided for 420 families and 362 single men. On new buildings, giving accommodation to 371 families, the expenditure was £68,947. Is. 5d. On this outlay, a net return was in 1865 obtained, of £3,507.15s. 4d.; being at the rate of upwards of 5 per cent. On an expenditure of £5,471.18s. 7d. on old houses, the net return the same year was £277. 11s. lid., or at the rate of upwards of 5 per cent. The returns from the lodging-houses and dormitories for single men were not so satisfactory, amounting only in the gross to Ilf per cent., from which the expenses of management must be deducted before the balance available for dividend can be calculated. The profits from the Dwellings for Families having therefore to be applied to the payment of dividend on unproductive capital amounting to £18,398. 11s. 5d., absorbed by preliminary expenses and Single Men’s Dwellings, the dividend for the year 1864-5, was at the rate of only 3| per cent, upon the whole of the capital. It is curious that whilst the sanitary results attained by the “ Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 27 Classes ” should have been so perfectly analogous to those attained by the “ Metropolitan Association,” a corresponding analogy in the financial results of the operations of the two societies should be apparent. After an experiment of eight years, the Labourer’s Friend Society, on a total expenditure of £35,143. 13s. 3d., in 1852, realised a net return of £1,385. 3s. 4d., being at the rate of about 4 per cent. From the twentieth report of the society presented at the annual meeting held at Willis’s Booms on the 28th of June, 1864, under the presidency of the indefatigable chairman of the committee, the Earl of Shaftesbury, K.Gr., we gather that the gross profits realised on the nine establishments worked by the society, costing a total sum of £37,485. 8s., were £1,775. 3s. 4|d., or about 4| per cent., from which sum the working expenses of the society must be deducted. The accounts of this society, however, are not presented in a very distinct manner to the public; and it is possible that our estimate of profit may be not quite accurate. Be that as it may, we believe it will be found to be rather above than below the mark; and the latest absolute results cannot be greatly in excess of those realised by the “ Metropolitan Association.” What these two societies are actually doing towards minis­ tering to the home comforts of the working classes of London may be very briefly set forth. The “ Metropolitan Associa­ tion ” has, under its management, ten establishments, as follows :—Albert Street, affording accommodation for sixty families; Albert Cottages, accommodating thirty-three families; Albion Buildings, accommodating twenty-four families ; Ingestre Buildings, accommodating sixty families; Nelson Square, providing homes for 110 families; Pancras Square, containing 110 tenements; Pleasant Bow, accommo­ dating nine families; Queen’s Place, accommodating ten families; Albert Chambers, offering dormitory accommoda­ tion for 234 single men; and Soho Chambers, offering similar accommodation for 128 single men. Here, there is household accommodation, healthy, comfortable, decent, and �28 OVERCROWDING J distinctly within the means of the industrious and provident mechanic, for 420 families ; and lodging accommodation for 362 single men. The business, considered as a business, is an immense one; and the amount of physical convenience, domestic comfort, and moral advantage represented by it is hardly calculable. The Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes have now eight establishments, besides a warehouse in Portpool Lane, the resources of which are as follows:—Hatton Garden, lodgings for fifty-four single men; Charles Street, Drury Lane, lodgings for eightytwo single men ; George Street, St. Giles’s, lodgings for 104 single men; Portpool Lane, household accommodation for twenty families, and lodgings for sixty-four single women; Streatham Street, household accommodation for fifty-four families; Wild Court, single room accommodation for 106 families; Tyndall’s Buildings, single room accommodation for eighty-seven families, and lodgings for forty single men ; and Clark’s Buildings, Bloomsbury, single room accommodation for eighty-two families. Here there is household accommoda­ tion for seventy-four families; single room accommodation for 275 families, and lodgings for 280 single men, and for sixty-four single women. On the whole, the order of persons accommodated is somewhat inferior to that for which the “Metropolitan Association” makes provision; but the attention to cleanliness and ventilation is not less strict, and the sanitary results are, as we have seen, equally gratifying. It would not be right, in this survey—necessarily summary in its character—to pass over, without observation, the efforts of the St. James’s Sanitary Association, presided over by the Bishop of Lincoln; the Marylebone Association; the Lambeth Association, which has derived great advantage from the co­ operation of the Archbishop of Canterbury, in which H.B.H. the Prince of Wales is the holder of a considerable number of shares, and which provides accommodation for thirty-two families; the “ Strand Buildings Company,” of which Viscount Ingestre is chairman, which accommodates twenty-five families, in Eagle Court, opposite Somerset House, and pays �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 29 a dividend at the rate of 4| per cent., all having the same object in view. Nor must the labours of certain private individuals be forgotten. In Bethnal Green, Miss Burdett Coutts, at an expenditure of nearly <£10,000, entirely defrayed by herself, has had erected a pile of buildings 172 feet in length, and four storeys high, for the accommodation of fiftytwo families. W. E. Hilliard, Esq., of Gray’s Inn, has rebuilt an entire street near the Shadwell Station, on the Blackwall Bailway, taking as his model the late Prince Consort’s Exhibition Cottages (which we reserve for special consideration shortly). His plan comprises accommodation for 112 families in blocks of four tenements each, each family having three rooms, together with wash-house, coal-house, water-closet, &c. The total cost of this experiment was £13,643 ; and we have been informed that they pay a profit of close upon 7 per cent, per annum. Mr. John Newson, again, has constructed five piles of family dwellings on his own account, situate respectively in Grosvenor Mews ; Bull Head Court, Snow Hill; Bull Inn Chambers, Holborn; and Grosvenor Market. In these dwellings he provides superior domestic accommodation for 125 families, at an outlay of £13,200; the net return upon which he estimates at 5^ per cent. The lodging-house established at Camden Town, in 1854, by Messrs. Pickford and Co., by which sixty men are accommodated, is a well-managed institution, which works not unprofitably. The late Prince Consort’s model dwellings for the working classes may be now taken into consideration. We have slightly neglected the chronology of the movement which we have endeavoured to trace in not having noticed them earlier; but our reasons for the deviation will be obvious when the special architectural features it will be our duty to point out come up for consideration. His Royal Highness always manifested the deepest and most earnest interest in this subject, and he himself informed the world “ his feelings were warmly shared by Her Majesty the Queen.” The Commissioners for the Great Exhibition held in Hyde �30 OVERCROWDING ; Park in J 851, in answer to an application made to them, decided “ that a model lodging-house does not come within the design of the Exhibition.” Thereupon the applicants addressed a memorial to the Priu.ce Consort, who expressed the most lively interest in the subject, and further indicated his desire that the contemplated houses should be erected on his own account. At a great sacrifice and personal trouble, His Royal Highness secured the consent of four Grovern m on t departments to the erection of the houses in the cavalry barrack-yard, opposite to the Exhibition. The buildings were raised, and they were visited and inspected by upwards of 250,000 persons. In their general arrangement the buildings were adapted for the occupation of four families of the class of manufacturing and mechanical operatives. They consist of two floors with four dwellings on each floor. Each tenement consists of three bed-rooms, living-room, lobby, scullery water-closet, sink, dust-bin, &c. These dwellings,* raised under the immediate care of the Prince Consort, constitute the model of the larger number of blocks which have been since erected. The superlative advantages which they present may be easily enumerated, and will be appreciated at a glance. The most prominent peculiarity of the design is the receding and protected central open staircase, communicating with the external gallery. By this staircase, in conjunction with the fire-proof floors and the flat roof, two or three very important results are secured. In the first place, a great security in case of fire is provided. Secondly, the perfect independence of each tenant is secured, free even from the dull monotony and comparative publicity of the common corridor. Then, lastly, by virtue of this independence of each dwelling, the building becomes exempt from the house duty. The “Albert Cottages,” as they were called, consisted of four tenements, two on each floor ; but it was one special aim of His Royal Highness to have them constructed on such a plan as would admit of the addition of a third or a * See frontispiece. �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 31 fourth storey, without any other alteration than the requisite in­ crease in the strength of the walls. Each tenement contained —first, a living-room, having a superficial area of about 150 feet; secondly, a scullery, fitted up with a sink, a coal-bin, a plate rack, a meat safe, and a dust shaft; thirdly, three sleeping apartments, each with separate access, and window into the open air, and two with a fireplace and, finally, a water-closet, fitted up with a Staffordshire glazed basin, and supplied with water from a' slate cistern on the roof. The ordinary cost of a tenement of this character would be, it was estimated by His Royal Highness, from £110 to £120, and if let for 4s. a-week, after deducting ground-rent and taxes, a net return upon the outlay of about 7 per cent, would be realised. In this estimate, however, it must be borne in mind, that no deductions are allowed for architect’s fees, working expenses, or wear and tear—elements in the calculation, the oversight of which must be held to modify the strictly com­ mercial value of the rate of profit specified. Notwithstanding this, however, it is due to the fame of this great and good Prince to record the fact that, in the history of the most beneficent movement of modern times, he provided a sound and practical model of the work which was required to be done; and, by his success, and the popular attention which he was instrumental in drawing to the subject, he raised it above the category of mere dreamy speculations or spasmodic and eccentric philanthropies, and invested it at once with the attraction of a practicable, and the authority of an incumbent social reform. The next stage in the progress of the cause thus hallowed and brought within purely utilitarian conditions, is one which may be fairly called a development of the idea and the plan of the Exhibition Model Houses; we refer to Langbourn Buildings, erected by Mr. Aiderman Waterlow. In entering upon his large and costly experiment, Mr. Waterlow had a very distinct perception of the supreme requirements of the enterprise; and it was his special aim to afford to Capitalists, as well as to philanthropic people, a demonstration �32 OVERCROWDING ; of the possibility of building healthy houses, containing adequate accommodation, for the working classes on conditions that would be commercially remunerative. Prince Albert’s own words embodied that phase of the problem on the mas­ tery of which the entire solution depended :—“ Unless we can get 7 or 8 per cent., we shall not succeed in inducing builders to invest their capital in such houses.” Mr. Waterlow, moreover, brought to the consideration of the subject in its general aspects, rather the common sense of a man of the world, than the pedantic and really morbid views into which professional philanthropy is too apt to degenerate. By this we mean that he saw the wisdom of allowing to the class for whom he was about to provide as much credit for good taste and social sensitiveness as possible. He, therefore, aimed to give each dwelling the highest attainable individuality of character; he resolved to appeal, in the fullest way open to him, to the self-respect of his tenants ; he, therefore, avoided all assumption of patronage; he made no pretence, either in the style of the buildings themselves, or in the circumstances of their erection, of being a dispenser of charity; and he judiciously resolved to make no sacrifice of internal comfort and decency for the sake of external ornament. A patient and anxious consideration of the whole subject led to the conclusion that the following were among the most important points which required consideration :— I. A ground plan easily adaptable to any plot of ground, capable of repetition to any extent, and presenting in the elevation a pleasing and attractive appearance. II. Suites of rooms at different rents so planned as to secure the greatest economy of space, materials, and labour, in the erection of the building, and at the same time pro­ vide for the exclusive use of each family, within the external door of the lettings, every essential requisite of domestic convenience. III. The construction of a flat roof capable of being used as a drying and recreation ground, so as to leave as much space as possible available for building. IV. Planning the positions of the doors, windows, and fire­ places, with reference to a suitable arrangement of the �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 33 furniture of the apartments, and the placing of proper fireplaces, cupboards, shelves, &c., in every room. V. An efficient system of drainage and ventilation. VI. Making the joinery as near as possible to an uniform size and pattern, so that machinery might be brought to bear in economizing its manufacture to a considerable extent. VII. The discovery and adaptation of a new material com­ bining the properties of strength and durability, adapt­ ability, attractiveness of appearance, and cheapness, in an eminent degree. VIII. The combination of these advantages in buildings which, when let at fair rentals, would produce a good return on the outlay incurred in their erection. IX. The selection of a locality where the ground rent would not be excessive, although the tenants would be suffi­ ciently near their work to enable them to take their meals at home. Mr. Waterlow was able, to an extent on which he is en­ titled. to earnest congratulations, to carry out most of these objects in the buildings which are so intimately associated with his name. He secured a lease for ninety-nine years of a plot of ground, situate in the most populous part of Fins­ bury. To make way for the noble structure which he has erected on this ground, he had to clear away a number of the most wretched habitations imaginable. In his selection of a site, he was thus fortunate; for he not only substituted healthy and decent dwellings for hovels which were scarcely fit for the accommodation of pigs, but he did this in a crowded neighbourhood, and in close proximity to the scenes of the labour of those who might be expected to become his tenants. The locality is within a quarter-of-an-hour’s walk of the Bank of England. It has another great advantage which should not be passed over. The property of which it forms a part will very shortly revert to Her Majesty’s Ecclesiastical Commissioners, on the expiration of a long lease. The estate is to a great extent covered with houses of the most miserable character; and the great success of the experi­ ment will, it is to be hoped, encourage the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, on receiving the estate, to stipulate or provide 3 �34 OVERCROWDING ; for an extensive improvement of the dwellings for the in­ dustrial classes on a plan similar to that which has answered so well. Every tenement which Mr. Waterlow has built is complete in itself. Nothing is for the common use of the inhabitants but staircase, balcony, and roof. Every domestic office and • convenience is provided for each household sepa­ rately. At a rent of 5s. or 6s. 6d. per week, therefore, a complete and comfortable, as well as a thoroughly salubrious home may be here obtained. The enumeration of the “ important points ” held in view which we have already quoted, as well as the following description of the plan of the buildings and the nature of the structure and general arrangements, are transferred from the pages of an interesting little pamphlet by Mr. J. Aldous Mays, which was written when the first block of “Langbourn Buildings” was opened to public inspection and criticism. This pamphlet is now out of print. After saying that the buildings were designed and erected by Mr. Matthew Allen, of Tabernacle Walk, Finsbury, the writer proceeds:—“ The general plan* of a single block may be described as a parallelogram, having a frontage of 56 feet by a depth of 44 feet, divided into four sections by a party wall in the centre and the two passages (EE) in the middle of each wing. The two centre sections are set back about 3 feet from the line of frontage, for the purpose of giving space for a balcony of that width on each of the upper floors. Each section comprises one suite of rooms, to which access is obtained from the passages (EE) leading (on all the upper floors) direct from the balcony (G)- The balconies are reached by a fireproof staircase having a semi-elliptical form, the entrances to which are shown on the elevation by the two doorways in the centre of the building. This stair­ case is continued to and gives access to the roof. The larger lettings, consisting of three rooms and a washhouse, occupy the end sections of the building. E 0 is the entrance door, B is a living-room provided with a range having an oven and See Plates 2 and 3. �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 35 boiler. Leading out of the living room is the washhouse or scullery (ft) which contains in every case what may be called the accessories of the dwelling,—water cistern, sink, a small fireplace, washing copper, dust shoot, water-closet, &c. It is expected that the fireplace in the washhouse will conduce greatly to the comfort of the living room in the summer time, c is a comfortable bedroom having a fireplace; a capacious cupboard (H) is arranged in the party wall between this room and the entrance lobby, and over the latter is a useful receptacle for the stowage of bulky objects. Passing out towards the front parlour ([)), is a series of shelves having an artificial stone bottom and back, intended by its proximity to the living room to serve as a cupboard for provisions, &c. [J is a spacious handsome parlour having two windows ; the fireplace is placed a little out of the centre of the room, so as to leave a convenient space in which to put an additional bed in cases where this would be required to be used as a bed­ room. On the other side of the fireplace is a sideboard and cupboard. “ The centre sections, comprising the smaller lettings, consist of two rooms and a washhouse, &c. The washhouse A and the living room B are exactly similar to those in the larger letting. The bedroom C can be conveniently con­ verted into a parlour by arranging a set of curtains across the recess at the back of the room, and thus dividing the part where the bed would be placed from the rest of the apart­ ment. WWW represent the windows. The plan is the same on each side of the party walls, and every floor or flat is a repetition of the other. Close to the ceilings of all the rooms a ventilator is placed which communicates with air shafts running through the centres of the chimney stacks. The air is thus constantly rarified, and a system of natural ventilation is produced. Besides this, it will be seen that by setting open the windows a current of external air can be at once passed through every room in the direction of the dotted lines. The lower panes of the windows are filled in with �36 OVERCROWDING ornamental ground glass, so that no window blinds are neces­ sary. The windows are constructed on a somewhat novel principle, being made to open outwards like ordinary French casements, but the two lower panes are not made to open, so that the danger of children falling out, as well as the disad­ vantages of the ordinary window sashes, are avoided. All the rooms are 8ft. 9in. in height. The other dimensions are figured on the plan, and need not be repeated here. Drain­ age is effected by means of 4-in. stoneware pipes passing frGm the top of the building, down the corners of the wash­ houses, directly to the common sewer. The dust shaft carries the dust to covered receptacles at the base of the building, and each shoot is provided with an iron cover so as to prevent the return of dust and effluvia. The dust shafts are also con­ tinued to the top of the building, and act as ventilators to the dust bins. The greater part of the rooms, especially the living rooms, have scarcely any external walls, so that they will be always warm and dry. All the rooms are plastered and papered, and the washhouses are plastered and coloured. Every tenant has his apartments completely to himself, and nothing is used in common except the roof as a drying and recreation ground. By extending the area of the building three or four feet in every direction the size of the rooms could be easily in­ creased, and suites of rooms obtained well adapted to the requirements of any class of the community. With the view of judging of the happy effect that a row of these buildings would produce, the visitor is requested to stand a hundred yards away from the building and imagine the pleasing appearance of a street having several buildings like this on each side of the way. The party walls on the roofs might be dispensed with in cases where several blocks are built side by side, and the roofs thus connected together would form a most agreeable private promenade. The contrast that these buildings present to the wretched tenements by which they are surrounded is in every way encouraging. The lofty elevation at the front, with its spacious doorways �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 37 and. balconies, and ornamental railings, and the wide, bold windows and arches, with their ornamental mouldings and •sills, soon to be filled with flowers, have an imposing effect, and compare most favourably with the aspect of the low dirty hovels which flank the building on either side. At the back, too, similar improvements are at once apparent. In the place of the ordinary yard, just big enough to enclose within its dilapidated brick walls the open water butt, beside the reeking dust bin and privy, the eye here rests upon a space enclosed from the street at the back by neat iron rails, and. laid out in flower-beds and gravel paths. In the spaces between the washhouses on each of the upper floors are arranged landings or platforms, on which the furniture of the occupants is landed by means of a rope, fall and pulley, working from a beam placed across the space at the top. This platform also serves the purpose of hiding the view of the living rooms from the observation of persons in any of the upper rooms; it will doubtless be used also for floricultural purposes by most of the tenants.” It may be mentioned that the Earl of Shaftesbury visited Langbourn Buildings shortly before they were opened, and declared that a more cheerful and attractive home had been there provided at a cost of <£110, than either of the Metro­ politan Associations had produced at a minimum outlay of £180 ; and that he had seen what he had been looking for in vain for many years, viz., a clean, healthy, and desirable home for a mechanic, erected at a price that would pay a fair return on the money invested. This is the distinct and special value of the experiment in question ; and it was instantly recognised by all who had taken any interest in the question. On the completion of the first block a number of noblemen and gentlemen came together for the purpose of inspecting the edifice; and the testimony was not only unanimous as to the elegant appear­ ance of the wThole, and the minute attention to comfort and decency in the construction of each tenement, but, above all, �38 OVERCROWDING J as to the great importance of the point alluded to. Lord Ebury, who occupied the chair, said :— Thus, He did not know whether it was too early in the day to say that the problem was solved altogether ; but after having very attentively perused the document which described the building, and having now carefully inspected the building itself, he must say that, taking the figures to be correct, and that it was capable of producing a rent which would give a per-centage of seven or eight per cent, on the outlay in its erection, a result had been obtained of no slight im­ portance, as it solved the difficulty over which previous ex­ perimentalists had stumbled, and proved that building enterprises of that nature could be rendered commercially remunerative. There were tides in the affairs of men—crises in the development of all great movements. The name of a great duke who had now passed away from us was associated with a struggle which was the turning point of a great strife—the battle of Waterloo : so, in this struggle, he thought they were now witnessing the victory of Waterlow in the great battle in which they had all been striving. Other speakers dwelt on the same point. Langbourn Buildings,* at a cost of £9,000, provides, in 225 rooms, accommodation for eighty families; and we believe that the highest expectations of the proprietor, as to the satisfaction of his tenants, the constancy of their occupation, and the commercial value of the property, have been fully realised. The immediate result of Mr. Aiderman Waterlow’s success was the formation of the “ Improved Industrial Dwellings Company, Limited,” of which Lord Stanley was the chairman. This association is a commercial association, in the strictest sense of the word. Although its leading members have been, no doubt, mainly actuated by a desire to promote the public welfare, yet the practical aim was to carry on the work which had been so well commenced ; and, so far, the results must be held as highly satisfactory. The society has already undertaken five distinct enterprises in various parts of the metropolis, as follows :—Cromwell Buildings, Bed Cross Street, Southwark, which will accommodate 24 families ; Tower Buildings, Wapping, which will accommodate 60 fami* See Plates 2 and 3. �THE EVIL ANI) ITS REMEDY. 39 lies; Cobden Buildings, King’s Cross Road, Bagnigge Wells, which will accommodate 20 families ; Stanley Buildings, Old St. Pancras Road, 100 families ; and City Garden Row, City Road, where 72 families will be accommodated. Presupposing that the net return on these undertakings should average six or seven per cent., as seems very probable, we may expect that the Company will continue the good work, erecting new blocks here and there as opportunity may offer, or their funds will allow, and as the exigencies of the community may require. It may be presumed, moreover, that with profits at such a rate, regularly and permanently realised, there will be no difficulty in obtaining any additional capital which may be necessary to the carrying on of the enterprise. We have now to notice the part taken in this great move­ ment by the Corporation of the City of London. We shall make this portion of our history as brief as possible, taking care, however, to put the essential facts in due order before our readers. By a resolution of the Court of Common Council of the 23rd of October, 1851, it was determined that the “ Finsbury Estate Surplus Fund/’ which amounted to £42,469. 3s. should be applied to the purpose of providing improved lodging-houses for the labouring poor. Through inattention in some quarters, and the multiplication of little obstacles in others, this resolution was a dead-letter for up­ wards of ten years. In 1851 an Act of Parliament was passed, called the Clerkenwell Improvement Act, authorising the Corporation to construct the new Victoria Street, Holborn (and we particularly refer to clauses 1 and 12 of that Act, the former authorising the destruction of houses, and the latter authorising the erection of improved houses in their place). Within three months of the passing of that Act, the Corporation evinced its sense of the moral obligaton it was under, by voting the sum named for the purpose of erecting the dwellings referred to, and referred it to the Improvement Committee to carry the vote into effect. It was more than five years before this Committee made any report to the �40 OVERCROWDING Court on the subject. They had, however, in the meantime, purchased ground in Turnmill Street, Clerkenwell, as the site for the projected building. In their report to the Cor­ poration, presented at the end of the year 1856, they curiously recommended that it would not be expedient to proceed at present to the erection of lodging-houses on that site. In 1858 the Corporation decided that the balance of the £42,469 should be re-appropriated to the uses of the Corporation, and indeed, that it should, along with other moneys, be applied to the reduction of its liabilities. In a year or two, the plot of land which had been bought by the Improvement Committee was wanted by the Metropolitan Railway Company. In the Act of Parliament authorising its sale, direct reference was made to the engagements and responsibilities of the Corpo­ ration on this point. Such was the situation of affairs when Mr. Waterlow proposed and carried a resolution by which the subject was referred again to the Improvement Com­ mittee for re-investigation. The result has been a happy one. The Corporation has become convinced of its obliga­ tions ; and has handsomely discharged them. A piece of freehold land has been purchased, at a cost of £16,000, in the Farringdon Road, on which a magnificent pile of buildings has been erected at a further cost of £36,000. These buildings contain dwelling-house accommodation for 180 families. They are built exactly on the model of Langbourn Buildings, with the exception that the external decorations are on a somewhat grander scale: whether any real improvement in the appearance of the edifice has been effected by this outlay may, perhaps, be questioned. It seems, how­ ever, that the Corporation could not well aim at a dividend of more than 5 per cent.; and the cost of the outside splendour which has been aimed at will, it so happens, just about reprcsen the difference between a dividend of 5 and one of 6 or 8 per cent. The average cost per room in Langbourn Buildings was £40 ; in Cromwell Buildings it was £44 ; in Tower Buildings, £41; in Bagnigge Wells, £43 ; in Old St. Pancras Road it wras £46. In the Corporation Build­ �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 41 ings the average cost per room amounted to £60. We ven­ ture to assert that that increased cost adds nothing to the actual convenience, comfort, health, or happiness of the tenants ; and, without saying a word in complaint against it, we wish our readers to remember that the' 5 per cent, estimated profit here is no fair argument against the soundness of the calculations of others, that a profit of 7, 8, or 9 per cent, is really attainable on dwellings of this class. It now remains for us to consider what has been done in furtherance of this great movement by the trustees of the Peabody Fund. What that fund is, and how it came into ex­ istence, every reader of this pamphlet will be already aware. Suffice it, for the sake of the consistency of our narrative, to say that, some three or four years since, Mr. George Peabody, an eminent merchant of America and London, gave the munificent sum of <£150,000 for the purpose of ameliorating the condition of the poor of the metropolis. This sum he handed over to the discretionary use of a committee, consisting of the American Minister at the Court of Her Majesty, Lord Stanley, Sir James Emerson Tennent, Mr. C. M. Lampson, and Mr. J. S. Morgan. These gentlemen were to act as trustees of the fund on behalf of the donor, and on behalf of those in whose interest the gift had been so liberally bestowed. Mr. Peabody himself suggested to this committee the desirability of applying at least a por­ tion of the fund in the construction of improved dwellings for those whom it was his especial desire to benefit.. After delays which are greatly to be deplored, a beginning has been made in this business. A series of dwellings has been erected in Commercial Street, close to the Great Eastern Pailway Station. This pile of buildings, first occupied on February 29th, 1864, consists of nine shops on the ground floor, and fifty-seven tenements for families on the upper floors; the rents of the latter are apportioned as follows— 7 tenements of 3 rooms each, 5s. OtZ. per week. 42 „ 2 „ 4 0 6 „ 2 „ 3 6 2 „ 1 „ 2 6 �42 OVERCROWDING The experiment is one, some features of which are, we think, not quite satisfactory. In the existing condition of the working class population of the metropolis, the time which has been lost is a lamentable evidence of the lack of decision and earnestness which too frequently appears when various minds are called upon to deal with intentions, purposes, and resources not strictly under their own indepen­ dent control. Then, it is a subject of great regret that, in carrying out the really beneficent scheme of Mr. Peabody, the trustees have not had a stricter regard to the commercial conditions of the enterprise in which they have engaged. We fear that the expenses of oversight, added to the great original outlay, will prevent these buildings from ever be­ coming remunerative. In this case, therefore, a certain portion of the £150,000, instead of being eternally and in­ creasingly reproductive capital, has been sunk; and if the same principle shall be carried out, the Peabody Fund, instead of being a perpetual well-spring of blessing to the poor of London, will have very speedily embodied itself in so much brick and mortar work, there to stand till time shall wear it into dust. As was said by an able weekly newspaper two years ago, in reference to this very fund—“ Spend it in charity, and you may lodge perhaps 1,500 or 2,000 families. But make it a great paying concern, and its example will lodge all the poverty in London.” The trustees of this fund might have added their incalculably influential experience to that of Mr. Aiderman Waterlow and the Improved Industrial Dwel­ lings Company, and proved that house-building on the soundest sanitary principles for the working classes may be made a really profitable business. On the contrary, it is to be feared that they have, by an injudiciously lavish outlay in external decoration and artificial novelties of design, contributed to strengthen a too common impression that undertakings of this nature can never become a good investment. The common laundry, though perhaps not a very important matter in itself, is yet, in our view, an objectionable feature in the Peabody dwellings. The grounds of this judgment �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 43 are very simple, but we think they are very sound. In the first place, the arrangement necessarily brings a great number of women together from time to time ; and in the enforced familiarity thus created, a good deal of gossip, and “chaff,” . and irregular conversation is likely to be indulged, which tends banefully to the breaking down of that reserve and seclusiveness of family life which is one of the strongest safeguards of its peace and its purity. Then, contentions for place and precedence are almost certain sometimes to arise, and these go far to disturb that feeling of good neighbour­ ship which it is so desirable to maintain where numbers of families are living in such .immediate proximity to one another. Thirdly, the finest delicacies of a woman’s nature are necessarily taxed by such an arrangement. The woman whose linen is not quite so ample or so good as another’s, even should she not be wounded by unpleasant observations, will find her instinct of self-respect painfully touched, will feel her inferiority of circumstances to involve a social penalty which it is hard to bear. These may be esteemed trivial disadvantages, but those who know most of human nature, know that the mightiest spring-force of its noblest progress is always to be found in its very finest sensibilities ; and that, in all successful efforts for its moral improvement and elevation, those sensibilities must be taken tenderly and faithfully into account. To one other exception we attach much greater importance. The tenements in this case are made to open into that “ long, dull, dark corridor,” of which we have previously spoken. They are not provided each with a separate scullery and water-closet. But at each end of the corridor there are a lavatory and two water-closets, those at the one end being for the use of the males, and those at the other for the use of the females. It requires no argument to show how far from the ideal of comfort, decency, and social purity, or contrary to well known and recognised sanitary laws such an arrangement as this must be. The constant meeting of people who should be strangers at these resorts ; the gradual �44 OVERCROWDING undermining of all cleanly and healthful sentiments which must be the result of it; the gross indelicacies which it will sometimes be impossible to avoid; the extreme inconveniences which, in cases of sickness, must be endured, are points which will spontaneously occur to every reflecting mind, and the condemnation of which will come straight on the heels of their suggestion. We have only one more fault to find. We do not sympa­ thise with the judgment which denies to the occupants of these dwellings the small luxury of papered walls. Surely, where so much money has been lavished on external appear­ ance and architectural display-, the very slight cost of a few yards of paper might have been allowed to the principal rooms of the tenements. A bare white-washed wall has a look and tone of desolation which it would perhaps sound pedantic and somewhat effeminate minutely to analyze, but the import­ ance of which every person who has not lived in a prison or a pig-sty all his days will appreciate. In the combination of colours and the traces of design the eye not only finds a silent pleasure, but the mind an unconscious occupation and a salutary relief. It is not well to cherish in the hearts of the poor the ambition of luxury, but a life utterly destitute of luxury is cramped and depressed beyond conception. Taste is an expensive faculty if it be pampered into absoluteness ; but a soul without it misses the richest privilege and keenest relish of existence. The prettily patterned paper supplies at once the type, the conception, and the motive of elegance to the simplest housewife, to rob her of which is, in some sort, cruel as well as mischievous. We really can never hope that our working classes will master the virtues, if they are not trained to the refinements of civilization, and it would be difficult to say how many germs of refinement there may not be in the neat and agreeable aspect of a sitting room ; the habitual contemplation of some artistic picture; the cultivation of a few simple flowers—in short, in the constant presence of something that, however simple, is sweet and beautiful. �TI1E EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 45 In indulging these slight criticisms on the buildings erected by the trustees of the Peabody Fund, it is, we hope, unnecessary to say that we have been actuated by a sincere desire to see that money, so generously giv^n, judiciously and usefully spent; and we are quite sure the committee have this object so supremely at heart, that they will not consider practical suggestions, though coming from the humblest quarter, intrusive, impertinent, or disrespectful.* So far, then, as to efforts already made, and the light they throw upon the permanent conditions of this great enter­ prise. That light is neither flickering nor dim. The results arrived at are as positive and as distinct in their character as they well could be; and, under ordinary circumstances, the “remedy” for the “evil” we have discussed in these pages, would be adequate to the nature of the case. Unfortunately, however, the circumstances with which we have now to deal are not ordinary. The work of destruction, in other words, is being carried on in London at a much more rapid rate than that at which we can hope to see the work of re-con­ struction maintained, unless the natural course of action can be greatly stimulated, and means in excess of those spontaneously offered by private individuals can, on a large scale and on a simple method, be supplied. In a former part of this pamphlet we have spoken of the obligations of the legislature as to those sanitary regulations of the community on which the life and health of the population so intimately depend. We have proved that there are preventive and punitive functions which may be legitimately discharged by the Government in relation to this question. But are there no remedial measures which come within its recognised and proper sphere of action ? If there be such, it is obvious that every reason exists why the prompt adoption of those * Since these paragraphs were put into type, a repoit “issued under the authority of the trustees ” has been published, from which it appears that four other sites have been secured in different parts of London, in addition to the one we have referred to in Spitalfields. Atone of them, in Islington, buildings comprising 155 tenements have been erected, making together 202 tenements in occupation at Christmas, 1865, and similar structures are to he raised at Chelsea, Bermondsey, and iShadwell. �46 OVERCROWDING J measures may be fairly urged upon Parliament. Let it not be forgotten that the State has a direct share of the re­ sponsibility of the injuries which have been done to the working classes by the development of the great railwav schemes and other large public improvements in the metropolis. These schemes and improvements have been carried out with the direct sanction of Parliament. The Earl of Derby, the Earl of Shaftesbury, and others, when they have raised their voices in opposition to such schemes and improvements, involving, as they must, the displacement of hundreds and thousands of working people, have done so in full and solemn recognition of the obligation of the legis­ lature to consider what is due to those thus sorely and ruinously inconvenienced. That obligation exists, and it is all the heavier now that the work of demolition has, with the sanction of Parliament been carried on without reference to the claims of the ousted families to have suitable accommodation provided for them by those in whose interest that work has been undertaken. In short, we have to deal not only with a chronic evil, but with a special and a most gigantic difficulty.* We are called upon to provide, not only a cure for a long established and radical disorder, but also a relief to and a compensation for a wide­ spread and appalling calamity. The task is exceptionally pressing and arduous; and the query arises whether, in discharging it, we may not reasonably seek exceptional aid. This is a phase of the subject to which the attention of Mr. Aiderman Waterlow has been directed; and our ex­ pository narrative would be incomplete without some brief reference to the steps he has taken in regard to it. On the 7th of April, 1865, he addressed a letter to the Secretary of the Treasury, in which he enclosed a rough draft of a proposition, which, as he thought, would form a suitable method by which the legislature might afford to the movement for providing the poorer and working classes of the metropolis with proper dwelling accommodations, that help which recent debates in both Houses had shown a desire �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 47 to extend to it, and which if it could be adopted, would, he felt sure, greatly strengthen the hands of those who were endeavouring to grapple with the difficulties of this im­ portant question. That ‘’rough draft” was as follows:— By the Act of 9 & 10 Vic., cap. 74, the Public Works Loan Commissioners are empowered to lend money, in such sums, and at such interest as they may think fit, upon the security of local and parochial rates, for the purpose of erecting baths and wash­ houses for the use of the labouring classes ; and the repayment of the principal and interest is made a first charge upon such structures and the profits which may arise from their use. It is suggested that if the legislature can be induced to pass an Act giving the Commissioners power to advance money, to a limited extent, upon the security of the buildings which have been, or may hereafter be, erected by persons or companies whose object is to encourage and promote the improvement of the dwellings of the working classes, a public benefit of almost incalculable extent is likely to result, and that a renewed impetus would thus be given to a movement which has of late sprung up with some vitality, for providing decent dwelling accommodation for the working classes of the metropolis and other large cities, where, in consequence of the rapidly increasing population and wealth of the country, houses and lands are constantly rising in value, so that it is impossible for such persons to obtain dwellings at adequate rents which afford anything like the proper extent of accommodation in point of space, decency, health, and comfort. It is assumed that the profit rentals likely to be derived from this class of dwellings is insufficient of itself to induce capitalists to invest the large sums which must necessarily be employed in order to provide the number of houses at al]» to be compared with the present overwhelming demand, a demand which has been in­ creasing with the population year by year, and now rendered imperatively urgent on every ground, in consequence of the great havoc and destruction of small houses which has of late been caused by the construction of railways and other public improvements; and, further, that the possibility of obtaining a higher rate of interest than at present derived is likely to attract the investment of capital in large amounts, and to develop still further schemes which are already partially successful in remedying the evils complained of. The following notes as to the plan upon which such proposed advances might be made, are offered in the hope of eliciting sug­ gestions and opinions rather than as defining a particular scheme. I. That an Act of Parliament should be passed in the present session to enable the Public Works Loan Commissioners to grant loans upon mortgage of lands, houses, and premises, which are now, �48 OVERCROWDING J or may hereafter be, applied to the use and occupation of the Work­ ing classes, upon the same or a similar principle to that upon which advances are now made for the carrying out of various mu­ nicipal public works, such as the maintenance of fisheries, collieries, mines, and highways, and the erection of gaols, lunatic asylums, workhouses, baths and washhouses, &c., where the security for the repayment of the principal and interest of the loan consists in a charge upon the tolls and dues, or upon the local or county rates, or upon the profits of the baths, &c., as the case may be. The repayment of the principal and interest being secured in this case by a first charge upon the rents and profits arising from the occu­ pation of the tenements, and upon the premises comprising the mortgage. II. That no loan shall exceed in amount three-fifths of the value of the property to be so mortgaged ; the value to be determined by the Commissioners. III. That the whole amount of such loan shall, within two years of the grant thereof, be applied to the satisfaction of the Commissioners in and towards the erection of other additional dwellings or tenements for the occupation of the industrial classes. IV. That the interest co be paid to the Commissioners on account of such loans shall be 3| per centum per annum. V. That the principal and interest thereon shall be repaid to the Commissioners by thirty-five equal annual payments, the amounts of which shall be agreed upon at the time of the granting of the loan. VI. That the mortgage shall empower the Commissioners periodically to inspect the mortgaged dwellings (or those erected by means of the loan) with the view to ascertain whether they are kept and maintained in proper repair, and also whether they are occupied solely by person^ of the class intended to be benefited by the proposed Act. VII. That, in the event of the foregoing requirements not being complied with at any time, the Commissioners may, by giving notice to the mortgagors, call in the balance of the loan then remaining unpaid, with interest to the date of its payment; and that the Commissioners may sell the property failing the re­ payment of the loan or compliance with their order after three months’ further notice. Mr. Waterlow requested Mr. F. Peel to bring these suggestions to the notice of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and to enquire whether he would be willing to receive a deputation on the subject, adding that “ he should be glad if an appointment could possibly be made either before or at �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 49 any early date after the Easter vacation, as if it should be found that the Government might probably be induced to adopt the project, he thought a very large sum would at once be embarked in the erection of Improved Dwellings both in London and in the suburbs in connection with the workmen’s trains.” On the 15th of May following Mr. F. Peel replied to this letter as follows :— Treasury Chambers, 15th May, 1865. Sir,—I am commanded by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of 7th April, on the subject of a proposed loan from the Public Works’ Loan Commissioners to a society of persons interested in the improvement of the dwellings of the labouring classes in the metropolis, and I am to acquaint you that their Lordships doubt whether they would be justified in holding out the expectation of public aid for a purpose such as that described, except to such bodies (all other conditions being satisfactorily adjusted) as might so limit their rate of profit as to distinguish their case from that of ordinary com­ mercial enterprise. I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, Mr. Aiderman Waterlow, F. Peel. Carpenters’ Hall, London Wall. On the 24th of the same month Mr. Waterlow wrote again to the Treasury, as follows :— Carpenters’ Hall, London, E.C., 24^ May, 1865. Sir,—I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 15th hist., marked 7465 U, in reply to my application to the Right Honourable the Chancellor of the Exchequer, asking if he would receive a deputation on the subject of a draft scheme then enclosed, which proposed that the Public Works Loan Com­ missioners should be empowered to grant Loans under certain restrictions for the purpose of encouraging and assisting the erection of suitable dwellings for the working classes, throughout the country as well as in the metropolis. I now beg to enclose for my Lords’ consideration a copy of the draft scheme to which I have adverted, and would respectfully beg to draw their attention to the line which I have marked in pencil, to the effect that the scheme is put forward in its present shape with a view to elicit the expression of opinion and discussion upon its merits, rather than as defining, in a final measure, the exact 4 �50 OVERCROWDING ; terms and conditions under which the proposed advances should be made. Speaking for myself and for the Company of which I am the Deputy Chairman, I had always contemplated that there should be astipulation as to the amount of profit to be derived by persons seeking to avail themselves of the assistance of Government in any such projects as have been referred to; and I beg to submit to their lordships that the maximum rate of profit to be derived by com­ panies or persons from investments in property, in connection with which a Government loan shall be subsisting, ought not to be less than £5 per cent, per annum. The object should, I think, be to fix the rate of interest on the one hand so low as to preclude objection, on the ground that the public funds were being employed for pur­ poses of private profit, and on the other sufficiently high to induce capitalists to embark in enterprises of this nature. There are many considerations which might be brought to their Lordships’ notice, in support of this rate being adopted, but I will confine myself by calling attention to the fact, that the ordinary net returns from investments on house property are from 7i to 10 per cent., and I would respectfully submit that there can be no reasonable objection to the Government assisting persons who are desirous of placing the working classes in a better position, and who would be content with less than they could certainly obtain upon ordinary investments of that class. It should, I think, be borne in mind that great public benefit would arise from the periodical supervision to which it is proposed the mortgaged dwellings should be submitted so long as the Govern­ ment loan was continued. No loan would be granted except upon buildings already erected upon the best sanitary principles, and if these buildings were constantly maintained in thorough repair, a very low death and disease rate would prevail as a rule, which, in districts principally occupied by the labouring classes, almost in­ variably produces a low poor rate, the dwellings in question would therefore confer a benefit in a pecuniary as well as in a moral point of view. I do not gather from your letter whether my Lords are now in a position to grant loans of the kind suggested, or whether it will be necessary to go to Parliament to obtain any further enactment on the subject. I mention this point merely that, in the event of the scheme proposed receiving their Lordships’ favourable consideration, no time may be lost in bringing it into operation. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most obedient Servant, S. H. Waterlow. To the Right Honourable F. Peel, &c., &c. The reply to this was eminently satisfactory. It was dated June 14th, and was as follo-ws : — �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 51 Treasury Chambers, ]Ath June, 1865. Sir, —In reply to your letter of 24th ultimo, relating to the question of advances on loan from the Public Works Loan Commissioners in aid of the improvement of the dwellings of the working classes, I am desired by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury to acquaint you that they consider 5 per cent, as the limit of the profit which should be allowed, and that their Lordships will be prepared to apply to Parliament (if that limit be thought a fair one) to obtain powers for this purpose, either permanent or to subsist (as to entering into fresh transactions) for a limited time, I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, Mr. Aiderman Waterlow, F. Peel. Carpenters’ Hall, London, E.C. In closing this important correspondence, Mr. Waterlow expressed his gratification at learning that the Lords Com­ missioners approved of the limit of 5 per cent, and that they were prepared to apply to Parliament for the necessary power to grant the loans proposed. He urged, in consideration of the extensive compulsory powers for the destruction of small house property granted during the past and then present sessions of Parliament, the passing of a short Bill immediately for the necessary authority to grant the Ioans in question. The dissolution, however, was so near at hand, and so occupied the thoughts of every Member, that it was found utterly im­ possible to enter upon any new legislative business at that period. The new Parliament will, there can be no doubt, be called upon to consider the matter without any delay; and we may hope that the perfectly fair and reasonable proposals to which the assent of the Government has been already virtually given, will receive the cordial sanction of the legislature. The task which the present writer set himself is now com­ pleted. It has been shown how sore and how pressing is the need for the provision of improved and greatly extended dwelling-house accommodation for the working classes of the metropolis. The sanitary obligations which enter into the question have been set forth in as clear and emphatic terms ' �52 OVEKCKOWDING J as were available. The efforts, honourable but frightfully inadequate, which have been already made towards meeting this stern and urgent demand of our civilization, have been rapidly enumerated. The results of those efforts have been, as far as possible, gathered up and stated. The conditions on which alone a satisfactory solution of the momentous pro­ blem can be hoped for, bringing it within commercial laws, have been demonstrated. And it has been irrefragably shown that those conditions are not impracticable. Here, therefore, with one or two passing observations, wo conclude. Of course, all that has been said about London on this important subject, is more or less true of every city, town, village, and hamlet in the country, and it is edifying to know that the provinces are not idle in the matter. Many of the great landholders of the nation are beginning to show a wise as well as benevolent interest in the domestic and home comforts of their labourers. The splendid examples set by the late Duke of Bedford, by the late lamented Duke of Northumberland, and by such good landlords as Lord Palmerston, and others who might be named, are not only indicative of a greatly improved feeling—a deeper sense of responsibility on the part of the employers of labour—but are powerfully stimulating others to proceed on the same just and enlightened principles. Several provincial associations have been formed for the promotion of this movement, and it can­ not be doubted that when the business is once fairly afloat in London it will rapidly extend throughout the kingdom. And there is an aspect of the case on wThich, as yet, nothing has been herein said, but the practical force of which all good men in general, and the large employers of labour in particular, ought to feel. The value of man, as a helper of his fellow-man in the occupation of life, is indefinitely increased by everything that promotes his physical health, his moral exaltation, and his social respectability. In other words, to take care of the working man is, in itself, sound economy. We have found that this is true of horses, and cows, and sheep—of all animals that are in any way directly �THE EVIL ANI) ITS REMEDY. 53 useful to mankind. Hence, within the past quarter of a century, the progress which has been made in the housing of our cattle has been enormous—infinitely in advance of that which has taken place in the accommodation provided for poor humanity. That such a discrepancy exists may be somewhat shameful, yet it is easily explained. A man’s com­ mercial interest in a horse is not only a problem in arithmetic, worked with certainty and ease, but it is one in the solution of which the horse has no personal power or responsibility. Those very attributes of humanity which qualify it for free­ dom and independence, take it beyond the reach of commercial calculation. The worker may sell so much labour, informed by so much intelligence and aided by so much skill, at a certain current rate—an average market value; but the man who buys his labour feels that on the completion of the bargain, and the fulfilment of its terms on both sides, his obligation to the worker ceases. And in a sense it does. But no political economy can be complete which does not include the fraternity of mankind. The farmer loses to the full extent of the social degradation and domestic misery of the labourers on his farm just as much as he loses by the shambling laziness, the uncleansed dustiness, the panting feebleness of his ill-fed, ill-stabled, and ill-tended horse. The analogy does not stop here, however. The capabilities of the horse are limited. The horse does not work his way up from the plough to the hunting field or the race course; his destiny is rather downwards. Man’s destiny is either upwards or downwards, according to his character, the treat­ ment he receives, and the influences that encompass him about. The young and enthusiastic artizan, engaged to-day in the simplest mechanical tasks, will, by to-morrow, be either unfitted for those tasks by the ennervation of his pur­ pose, the beclouding of his intellect, the despair that has settled on his heart, or else he will be worthy of promotion to trusts where the faculty of design may co-operate with mere executive ability. The is really not more interested in the alternative thus pictured than is the master. Even if �•54 OVERCROWDING the man alone were interested, it would be the solemn duty of all kind and good people to consider the circumstances on which issues so fine and so momentous hang; and so, within all reasonable and available limits, to regulate his lot in life that his energies shall not be relaxed, his ambition staggered by a hundred malignant, unnecessary obstacles, his heart broken by griefs which the cruel improvidence of society has cast upon him. But the master, too, thrives with his thrift; advances with his progress; flourishes on his prosperity. As a rule it may be affirmed that every increase made in the labourer’s wage is sustained by a more than equal increase in the profit made by the master out of his labour. But how can the labourer, whose home is a mere “fever-nest,” hope to make progress in his art ? The very air he breathes dooms him to decrepitude. He works under the bondage of a depression and a lassitude which nothing can shake off. To avoid the foul odours, the jarring, discordant voices, the ghastly, disordered aspects of his over-crowded home, he, at night, instead of improving his mind, and bracing up his loins for the march or the battle of life by meditation, by study, or by the indulgence of the holy loves of home, seeks a miserable and a defiling solace in the gin palaoe. He is not long in reaching the horrible goal of his unhappy career, and when he sinks into the pauper’s perdition or the drunkard’s hell, who suffers in his fall ? His wife and children suffer. That is something to make the Christian weep. His wife and children become a burden on the community. That is something to make the ratepayer ponder. Society suffers in his lost service, his para­ lyzed arm, his neglected duty, his damaged work. That is a fact worthy of the statesman’s study. The capitalist suffers, in his lagging enterprises, his irregular supply of labour, his dependence on men who cannot grow up with his affairs, his exposure to disappointment in critical junctures, and in the perpetual confusion in which his mind is cast through the uncertainties of the labour market, and the ill-condition of the men on whom his reputation, his �THE EVIL AND ITS REMEDY. 55 credit, and his fortune depend. Therefore, it is no extrava­ gance to say that in this question of the improved dwelling­ house accommodation of the working classes, to which the Christian is urged by every humane consideration, and the statesman by the highest political obligation, the rate-payer and the capitalist have a direct, personal, pecuniary interest. In attacking this huge task, however, we must be on our guard against easy-looking theories, in which only one object is aimed at, and all other most sacred conditions of heathful society are forgotten. Among these theories, we would as­ suredly place that which proposes the establishment of subur­ ban colonies for the families of working people. In the mixture of classes is to be found one of the very best securi­ ties of civilization. That the railway system may be utilized in the conveyance of working men from the scenes of their labour, in the heart of the great city, to their homes in the suburbs, is a hope which may be legitimately cherished, but to lay out a whole district for houses suitable only to the working order, would not only be a mistake in economy, but a great moral and social calamity. It would be a mistake in economy, for we may be quite certain that the class of trades­ men who would supply these colonies, would be an inferior class; they would be compelled to compensate themselves for the limited range of goods required of them, and the small sums spent by each customer, either by the poor quality of all they sold, or else by an exorbitant rate of profit; and every way the working classes would be the losers. Then it would be a social calamity; for what we want more than anything besides in this country is, not the isolation, but the intermixture and the intercommunion of classes. When the rich and the poor are brought into contact with one another, both are benefited—the rich by the restraint put upon their pride, and the breadth and elasticity imparted to their human sentiments, and the poor by the models of dignity and ele­ gance which are continually presented to them, the elevation of their ideal of existence, the stimulus supplied to their own aspirations, the encouragement afforded to the salutary spirit �56 OVERCROWDING. of social emulation, and the unconscious refinement commu­ nicated to their manners, their habits of thought, and their intercourse with one another. There is, also, some need of caution in another direction. Some have already been found who have been provoked to lament the rapid progress of the metropolis in population, in industry, and in wealth, because by the exigencies of that progress so many poor people have been driven out of their homes, and compelled in crowds to huddle together in places which are altogether unfit to be the habitations of men. There has been, no doubt, in the course of the remarkable developments which we have recently undergone in all the elements of material prosperity, a sad forgetfulness of the claims of those who have been displaced to make way for those developments. And great praise is due to Lord Derby, Lord Shaftesbury, and others, who have tried to force on the great traders on the progress of the community some definite responsibility to that lower strata of the population which has been so mercilessly and so scandalously jostled about to give scope to their ambitious schemes. But the schemes have, nevertheless, a beneficence of their own, the gladsome fruits of which generations to come will enjoy. Progress has its penalties ; but it is a gracious law. Civilization has her cruelties; but she is, on the whole, and. in the long run, a most chaste and charitable and catholic spirit. Thankful for her gifts, let us do our duty, and, though the splendid car in which she rides along may crush an idler here and a straggler there; yea, though because we do not providently clear the way before her, many are crushed beneath her chariot wheels, let us be assured that the Mistress and the Idol of our age is no Juggernaut, imposing death and desolation as tests of the fidelity of her devotees, and demanding sacrifice as the price of salvation; but a most mild and genial and tender-hearted Maiden—the beautiful Benefactress of all the world. ��56 OVERCROWDING. of social emulation, and the unconscious refinement commu­ nicated to their manners, their habits of thought, and their intercourse with one another. There is, also, some need of caution in another direction. Some have already been found who have been provoked to lament the rapid progress of the metropolis in population, in industry, and in wealth, because by the exigencies of that progress so many poor people have been driven out of their homes, and compelled in crowds to huddle together in places which are altogether unfit to be the habitations of men. There has been, no doubt, in the course of the remarkable developments which we have recently undergone in all the elements of material prosperity, a sad forgetfulness of the claims of those who have been displaced to make way for those developments. And great praise is due to Lord Derby, Lord Shaftesbury, and others, who have tried to force on the great traders on the progress of the community some definite responsibility to that lower strata of the population which has been so mercilessly and so scandalously jostled about to give scope to their ambitious schemes. But the schemes have, nevertheless, a beneficence of their own, the gladsome fruits of which generations to come will enjoy. Progress has its penalties ; but it is a gracious law. Civilization has her cruelties; but she is, on the whole, and in the long run, a most chaste and charitable and catholic spirit. Thankful for her gifts, let us do our duty, and, though the splendid car in which she rides along may crush an idler here and a straggler there; yea, though because we do not providently clear the way before her, many are crushed beneath her chariot wheels, let us be assured that the Mistress and the Idol of our age is no Juggernaut, imposing death and desolation as tests of the fidelity of her devotees, and demanding sacrifice as the price of salvation; but a most mild and genial and tender-hearted Maiden—the beautiful Benefactress of all the world. ��I ���w 56'3* GROUND PLAN OF A SINGLE BLOCK OF THE IMPROVED DWELLINGS FOR THE INDUSTRIAL CLASSES. �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Overcrowding: the evil and its remedy Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: 56 p. : ill. (3 plates, 2 folded, including frontispiece plan) ; 22 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Plate 1 illustrating Henry Robarts model cottages. Plates 2 & 3 Langbourn Buildings. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Longmans, Green and Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5397 Subject The topic of the resource Housing Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource [Unknown] Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Overcrowding: the evil and its remedy), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Housing Langbourn Buildings - London Overcrowding (Housing) Working Classes https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/c0a78d32c32a678a4a95958fffb1b142.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=W-XtAyg3iCqQj-l33dBTN5Jhajg5knBPH%7EYXsOH5ejcPd5vXmoEPD3OeFnbm6nvF-Ejmh%7EKtlTmYt%7E%7EMyBnspgbfsiWqtie61jPXxbBj0S94jiGtgP%7EmuB%7EiYy1QgnF3j7zSR1aAOlpliBuQsWnTwSeq8z6%7EfJye76Hz0WL6zGxZWNtF0EzOiONZED8STm9-%7ELTFeQ5IvHEpML%7EAF-jtGJgSgR-NJxJrxhhizk1EQRxHWJq5Vbwz%7EftLfaU7XQf1VQEwzf5BOB0koixKFFw-wUww8kr-3p0QMmSh6ERl6aDKI4PvneI6VX5XQZXDWxYbxnkqhlfUzNTglSjRU6aJRw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM f708ad88e05469109d8fb1d630bd4c2c PDF Text Text I .fEW J'lt & ■»""-U*1 JW<- LITTELL’S LIVING AGE.-NO. 1134.-24 FEBRUARY, 1866. From the Fortnightly Review. AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. concerned would be in certain expectation of it, were it not for the general belief that M. Taine speaks of certain conditions there are in America paramount domestic under which society becomes nothing more reasons against the adoption of such a polithan tm commerce d’affronts. Whilst .there cy. Such a course would increase the is reason to hope that the relations be­ financial burdens, already very heavy, un­ tween man and man, or class and class, in der which the country is now struggling; any society of the, present day, cannot be Msvould indefinitely postpone that return to properly characterised as an interchange of a settled and normal condition of things insults, it is to be feared that the phrase is, which trade always craves, and especially to a sad degree, expressive of the relations after the losses consequent upon war; it subsisting between nations; Here the skies would call again from their homes the sol­ seem always angry, and the volleys of can­ diers who, after the wear and tear of four non alternate only with the hurtling of years of hardship and danger, are desirous recriminations. The historian who shall of rest; it would cost more than any prob­ live when there is a community of nations, able result of a foreign war could repay; will probably, in reading the Blue Books of it would involve the possibility of defeat, these years, think of Saurian growings which would imply a humiliating downfall and gnashings in primaeval swamps. It is from the position and prestige which the therefore with a natural anxiety that one of United States has gained by the thorough the leading nations is seen holding a brand, suppression of the gigantic rebellion that and hesitating whether, and whither, to threatened its existence. Nevertheless, con­ throw it. It is undeniable that the United vinced as the writer himself is, by these and States stands in this attitude at the pres­ higher considerations, that it would be ent moment, and that the world has reason wrong for the United States to enter upon to await with profound solicitude the deci­ a war with any foreign power, he is equally sions of the present Congress as to the foreign' convinced that there are other considera­ policy to be adopted by that nation. I tions calculated to tempt the present Gov­ cannot conceive, of a, legislative assembly ernment at Washington to an opposite gathered under more solemn circumstances course, some of which may be briefly stated than those which surround this Congress, or here. of one holding in itself more important It is an old idea with rulers that, in cer­ issues. tain conditions, a foreign war is conducive Formation, material expansion, centrali­ to the health of a nation, — an idea which sation, and an ambition to lead in the, old countries have outgrown, but one that affairs of the world, may be traced in his­ is sure to have powerful advocates in a tory as the successive embryonic phases young_one. A civil war, says Lord Bacon, through which nations pass. Unfortunately is like the heat of a fever; a foreign one,, is history attests also many “ arrests ” on this like the heat of exercise. It need be no line of development. America, however, longer a secret that, in the few months suc­ has thus far advanced well, and has now ceeding the bombardment of Fort Sumter, reached the last form that precedes a set­ and preceding the actual determination, tled nationality. Her foreign policy, hith­ to coerce the South into the Union by erto relatively of the least, now becomes of military power, there was a powerful influ­ the first importance; for while it seems inev­ ence at Washington seeking to superinduce itable that she should now be tempted to a war with England, with the object of aspire to a leading position in the world, uniting the discordant parties and sections the temptation is reinforced by some pro­ by a direct appeal to the patriotism of both. vocations from without, and by certain This concession to the anti-English senti­ strong inducements from within. The con­ ment— which, for reasons, to be hereafter ditions for a war policy are so obvious that stated, was hitherto confined to the South I have little doubt the nations immediately and its ally, the Northern Democratic party THIRD 3ERIES. LIVING AGE. VOL. XXXL 1475. �546 , AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. — seemed a fine card to play at that junc­ ture ; and if the Trent affair could have occurred sooner than it did, that card might have been played. That it was not, at any rate, is due to the moral character of Mr. Lincoln, and to the strong friendship for England of the Chairman of the Senatorial Committee on Foreign Affairs, the Hon. Charles Sumner. It was plain, too, that New England, the centre of friendship for England at that time, would permit no war to be undertaken on such immoral grounds, and at the same time that she was deter­ mined to make the crisis that had come an occasion for settling the slavery question for ever. Thus the foreign war project for evading the national emergency was smoth­ ered. It was essentially a pro-slavery plan — though it might have encountered a pow­ erful opposition from those Confederates of Virginia and the Carolinas who cared more for separation than for slavery — and had it succeeded in uniting the North and South, slavery would to-day be entering upon a new lease of existence instead of being abolished. Just now the same temptation recurs. The status of the negro in the South is a .-subject for agitations and divisions nearly as .fierce as those which preceded and re­ sulted in the civil war. The South and its old ally, the Democratic party in the North, are demanding the return of the Southern States with their governments still commit­ ted exclusively to the whites : the Northern Republicans bitterly oppose this, maintain­ ing that.the humiliated slaveholders cannot be trusted to legislate justly for the blacks, without whose aid (in the declared opinion of President Lincoln) the rebellion could not have been suppressed. The issue is most important; for, once restored to the position of equal States, - the Southern legislatures . could — providing only that they did not contravene technically the law against chattel slavery — enact a sys­ tem of serfdom, and retain the “ Black Codes,” which prohibit the education and Srevent the elevation;of the negroes, the forth being powerless to interfere unless another war should arise to arm it with the abnormal right, which it. now has, to con­ trol the section it has ;just conquered. The security proposed by the Northern Re­ publicans is to give the negroes votes, which the . Southerners and the. Democrats furi­ ously oppose. It will ,be seen at once that .this political situation necessitates the con­ tinuance of a bitter sectional strife. The . arguments of the Southern party about the constitutional rights of States to regulate their own suffrage naturally provoke taunts concerning their four years’ effort to over­ throw the constitution; their talk about the inferiority of the negro leads their antago­ nists to place the barbarities of Anderson­ ville prison by the side of the long patience of the negro ; the alleged “ unfitness of the negro to vote ” is replied to with the tu quoque based on the disloyalty of the whites; and so long as this issue is before the country, the Northern press naturally parades every current instance of inhuman­ ity to the negro, and every expression of hatred to the Yankees, of which its corre­ spondents easily find enough in the South. All this of course wakes an angry and de­ fiant spirit there ; and thus the country is relegated to the dissension and agitation about the negro which had prevailed with­ out intermission for more than a generation before the war. There is no doubt that the late President Lincoln foresaw this issue, and he has left on record, in a letter recently published, his determination to have ended the negro agitation for ever by demanding equal rights in the seceded States for the ne­ gro. But President Johnson is a very different man. For more than thirty years a Southern slave-holder, a Democratic poli­ tician, and a steady voter in the Congress against all New England ideas, he never­ theless— simply from a pride in the old flag — opposed his own section. He vigor­ ously resisted the rebellion, though it can scarcely be said that he clung to the North. The North rewarded his constancy by elect­ ing him to the Vice-Presidency. But,now that the convulsion is over, he and the country are discovering that sudden chan­ ges are rarely 'thorough. So, in the present controversy on negro-suffrage, President Johnson takes the side that might be expect­ ed of a Tennessean Democrat, and opposes the party which elected him. Of course his cabinet are with him. Nevertheless President Johnson and his cabinet see that either by conceding the last hope of slave­ ry — “a white man’s government ” — or by some other means, this controversy must ter­ minate, at least for the present, in order that reconstruction, clamorously demanded by the national exchequer and by trade, may take place. If it has been determined that negro-suf­ frage shall not be conceded, what “ other means ” remain ? Suppose some great and overpowering national emergency were to occur— one involving the national pride or interest — would it not at once divert at­ tention from the sectional issue ? If the �JjjaHfrffii' jwiiuiriiiwij » AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. I 547 Northern and the Southern man should fight mise of the negro questibn; and if their Gov­ side by side for a common cause, against a ernment should attempt to bring on a for­ common foe, for some years—the longer eign war for the purpose of suppressing the the better — would not old differences be agitation of that question, there would not healed ? And if to carry on such a war be wanting clear-headed men to repeat Southern States as well as Northern must throughout the country the story of how furnish quotas of men and money, and raise the original colonies compromised on the crops for food, then Southern States must be negro question in ord er that they might form at once reconstituted; and to effect this at a Union “for the common defence,” — that once, must not the country be persuaded to ■ is, present an unbroken front to George III. compromise on the negro-suffrage question ? should he seek to subjugate them,—and The influence at Washington—I need how that compromise has proved to have not mention names — which four years ago been pregnant with wrongs and agonies * urged these considerations to prevent utter which make the tea-tax of our fathers ridic­ rupture between North and South, survives ulous. To keep off King George they to suggest them as furnishing a possible es­ bowed to King Slavery: their posterity, still cape from the dilemma of the administra­ groaning under the terrible results of that tion which is hardly strong enough to en­ “policy,” will be very unlikely to extempor­ counter the present Congress—the most ise a King George for the purpose of re­ radical one that has ever assembled • in peating the blunder. When, however, the America. And to this influence is now add­ restoration of the Southern people and lead­ ed another, urging a new classof considera­ ers, and the re-pledging them to the Union, tions in favour of a foreign war .; chiefly are added to the first consideration, the this: there are a number of able leading men North-West, to whose prosperity the loyalty in the South, each influential in his com­ of the Mississippi river and of both its banks munity, who are now in disgrace, and who, to the Gulf is esseMQl may not prove to be if the country settles down to peace, have (^inflexible virtue. A third reason why a foreign war might nothing left but to live on in obscurity, una­ ble to hold office, and without anything to not be unwelcQme to the Washington Gov­ mitigate the deep sense of humiliation or the ernment is, that it has now a large army al­ wounds of pride. The flag at which Lee, ready collected and to a certain extent Beauregard, Johnstone, Mosby, and many drilled, which it is deemed inexpedient, for others struck, can float only to bring a shad­ reasous connected with the internal condi­ ow upon them. The greatest of them has tion of the country, to dissolve at once, and already hidden himself in a fourth-class col­ which is likely to be demoralized if it has lege. Already the North asks, Which shall nothing to do. Nor would the people of we prefer, the negro who defended, or the America be willing to support a large army white who trampled upon, our flag ? A and navy in idleness. And in this connec­ foreign war would be the rehabilitation of tion it may be said that whilst the rank and these Southern men. Indeed, emigration file of the Americm military force would be seems to be almost the only alternative glad to remain, for a loDg time certainly, in which would enable them to emerge from their homes, a war would be more welcome to their disgrace with the American people, the vast number of officers whom the late con­ recover position, and claim rights as defend­ flict raised from obscurity, and for the most ers of the nation. Moreover, it is not at all part created, and to the large majority of certain but that they mi"ht— particularly- whom peace is sure to bring the obscurity in the case of a war with England — be able which it brought them six years ago. The , ■ to cast a part of the cloud under which they prominent generals of the United States now sit upon the people and leaders of New were before the war railroad-presidents, sur­ ' England, who have never applauded the veyors, lawyers, &c.; hardly one of them, motto, “ Our country, right or wrong,” and excepting Fremont, had a national reputa­ • who assuredly could not be brought to fight tion. It need not be a matter of wonder with anything like the earnestness lately dis-1 that so many among them, General Grant played in their war with slavery, in an un- ; being of the number, are already widely necessary or a doubtful war — not at all in ; and justly quoted as favourable to a foreign I one whose political objects would be precise­ war policy. As crowning all these considerations it ly those which are most repulsive to the strong moral sense of that section. must not be forgotten that the old undying My belief is that New England and the dream of continental occupation, of which North-West may be relied upon to oppose the “ Monroe doctrine ” is the familiar but any undisguised postponement by compro- , inexact label, is at present producing more �548 AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. exasperations and is under fewer restraints than ever before. The Romulus of the United States, whoever he may have been, did not surround the country with any fur­ row, and the Remuses had not in the first years even to leap, so long as their filibus­ tering expeditions respected those bounda­ ries which the average American regards as the natural ones of his country —i.e. the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Atlantic on the east, the Isthmus of Panama on the south, and the North Pole on the north. Since the Mexican war, and in recoil from the mean­ ness and criminality which led to and at­ tended the seizure of Texas, there has been in the United States a moral sentiment able to hold in check the disposition to encroach upon its neighbours, as those representa­ tives of a Democratic administration who met at Ostend a few years ago and pro­ posed to obtain Cuba by fair means or foul, discovered to their cost. But the moral sen­ timent which would have continued to shel­ ter Mexico would not find a single American to plead its applicability to Maximilian, unless in the reverse of the obvious sense. And since it is understood, that the exci­ sion of Maximilian by the power of the Unit­ ed States means the grateful self-annexation of Mexico (in some way) to the Union, it will be at once seen that the passion for ex­ pansion and the moral sentiment of the country jump together in a way that they never did before. On the other hand, whilst the desire for Canada is much feebler than that for Mexico, the restraint of inter­ national morality which would have protect­ ed it has been removed by the general sense of wrongs received at the hands of England, and the representatives of England in Cana­ da, and by a current belief that annexation to the Union is desired by nearly all of the French Canadians and the Irish. Whilst these considerations are being urged at Washington, those who are most strongly opposed to a foreign war, and were among the most trusted advisers of Presi­ dent Lincoln — as, for example, the Chair­ man of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, before alluded to — are now without the ear of the President, and range in hostility.to his plan of reconstruction. Of all the rea­ sons that have been mentioned, the consid­ eration which will weigh most strongly with the President and his Cabinet will be the hope of starving off the negro-agitation, and of securing the ret urn of the Southern States without negro-suffrage. If negro-equality were to be placed beyond question by the present Congress, every cloud of war would clear away tor the present, and the Mexican Empire would be the only thing concerning which one could anticipate, even at a distant period, any collision between the United States and any nation of the Old World. Hence the friends of peace in America are as anxiously hoping for the settlement of the negro question on the only basis which can be final, and that will not remit the country to the bitter animosities and agitations of the past, as the friends of war are indiffer­ ent to or anxious to' evade such settlement. The particular danger is that the Congress will decide to keep out the Southern States without imposing negro-suffrage as a condi­ tion of their return, in which case the Presi­ dent might be induced to try and alter the conditions under which the question would come before another Congress, by seeking, as above indicated, to weld the two sections, and purge the South of the stain upon its loyalty, with the fires of a foreign war. I confess that the probabilities affecting the question of war or peace between Ameri­ ca and France or England seem to me slightly inclining to the side of war; and I am sure that the internal considerations enumerated, much more than the claim against England, or the Monroe doctrine — whose importance in the case I am far from undervaluing — will be the mainspring of the war policy, if it be adopted. The next question of interest is whether a hostile movement, if determined upon, will be directed against France or against Eng­ land. ~ There is in America a traditional friend­ liness towards France. At a celebration of the national American Thanksgiving-day, by Americans in Paris, December 7, the heartiest applause was awarded to a toast proposed by General Schofield in these words: — “The old friendship between France and the United States; may it be strengthened and perpetuated ! ” At the same festival the Hon. John Jay, the chair­ man, alluded to some of the associations which are stirred in every American’s mind when France is mentioned. “ Our patriotic assemblage,” he said, “ in this beautiful Capi­ tol, amid the splendours of French art and the triumphs of French science, recalls the infancy of our country, and the various threads of association that are so frequently intertwined in the historic memories of America and France. The French element was early and widely blended with our transatlantic blood, and it is a fact that two of the five commissioners wdio in this city signed the Treaty of Paris in 1783 —that treaty by which England closed the war and recognised the American Republic — were �< AMERICA, FRANCj AND ENGLAND. \ 549 of Huguenot descent. In the war now ever, his perception of a growing feeling for closed, as in that of our Revolution, French territorial expansion among the Americans. and American officers fought side by side, But an element of .even paramount import­ and side by side in our House of Representa­ ance in this feeling was a dread that the tives hang — and will continue to hang, as a American Republic might have to struggle perpetual memento of the early friendship with powerful and hostile forms of govern­ between the countries — the portraits of ment. The Monroe doctrine was really Washington and Lafayette. The territory that for which few Europeans would give it . of Orleans, including that vast and fertile credit — a conservative policy. Explicitly valley extending from the gulf to the limits respecting powers already planted on that of Missouri, was ceded to us by the First continent, it affirmed the limits of the right Napoleon almost for a song, and there are of intervention for itself, as well as for lorstill perpetuated in its names, habits, and eign powers. It was meant to be, and was, traditions, pleasant memories of France.” an especial check upon the westward ag­ Mr. Jay did not, in Catholic France, hint gressions of American filibusters, by imwhy the Huguenots happened to be in plying that only their unjust encroachments America; he did not bring to any rude test from aBtid could justify interference with ■of historic criticism the part played, literal- other nations. It recommended <tself to . ly, by the Marquis de Lafayette in the first, the most thoughtful men of the last genera­ or by the young French chevaliers, who en­ tion in the United SffieB as the means of joyed their cigars and champagne with keeping for ever out of the Western hemi­ McClellan whilst the soldiers of the Union sphere that grim political idol to which the were being massacred before Richmond, in peace of the old world had been so often the second revolution; neither did he in­ sacrificed — the “ balance of power.” It as­ quire whether at that time the Emperor of sumed, indeed, the Predominance of the the French was making proposals to Eng­ United States on that continent, but then land to join him in an inte wention favoura­ the United States open® its arms, its lands, ble to the South, nor remenfter the Jiisses its honours to the people of all nations. and cries in the French Assembly which The Monroe doctrine was, then, conserva­ drowned M. Pelletan’s voice when he an­ tive, in that it put a defiq^M check upon the nounced the downfall of Richmond (which idea of absorbing surrounding countries, and M. Pelletan declared — mistakenly, it would limited the United States wtheidea of pre­ appear — were so loud, tha®they would be dominance. Even this may seem arrogant, heard across the Atlantic). But, in ignor­ but it is difficult to see by what other means ing such questions and crowning his address the New World could have been saved from with tue toast “ The Empgror of the becoming the mere duplicate of the Old. French,” Mr. Jay undoubtedly represented To permit the occupation of countries, the general determination of his country­ ■ which the United States has restrained her­ men to put the best construction possible self from occupying, by foreign governupon everything that France does, and their, nlents of formstessentially hostile, necessi­ instinctive disposition to wink at her plain­ tates an injurious modification of her own. est offences. This disposition must be con­ Any such Power, once admitted and estab­ sidered prominently in our calculations of lished, must be Watpied; and to watch it the probable action of the United States implies Expensive fortifications of long fron­ upon the Mexican Empire. There can be tiers, standing armies, and young men sup­ no doubt that if any other nation than plying them — things utterly opposed to France had established that Empire, the end the spirit in which the American Republic of the rebellion in -America would have been was founded. A few ships might prevent swiftly followed by the march of Federal the landing on those shores of a Power troops across the Rio Grande. which, once fixed there, would require that The Monroe doctrine was of gradual and the Union should become a centralized and natural development. The earliest ex­ military nation. Thus there is no principle pression of the sentiment out of which it that would protect California, or Texas, or grew was given by the First Napoleon, Louisiana from French encroachment, that when he assigned as a chief reason for dis­ would not haye equally have protected posing of the territory of Orleans — the Mexico. The south-western states have greater part of the Mississippi Valley — on only to be weak to become food for the fur­ the easy terms in which President Jefferson ther growth of “the Latin race/’and the obtained it, that it was the manifest destiny glory of its new Cmsar. Hence garrisons, of that territory to become a portion of the .under General Weitzel, and others, are al- ■ United States. . He did but express, how- ready on the south-western border, where �550 AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. x they must stay so long as the representative of French power stays. The best men in America, are persuaded that it would be more favourable to the peace of the world if such garrisons should cease to exist, through the removal of the occasion for them. ‘ . The traditional friendship of the United States with France has undoubtedly, been strained to the utmost by this invasion of Mexico, and by the circumstances under which it occurred. The subversion of the Mexican Republic was consummated in the face of three unequivocal declarations to the American Minister at Paris, that the Government then existing in Mexico should not be altered by the invasion; it was. ac­ complished at a time when, the United States was prevented from having any voice in the matter by the gigantic war which tied her hands; it was for the avowed pur­ pose of building up a rival power on the North American continent; and it selected as the representative of that flagrant de­ fiance of the principle which in America has a sanctity corresponding to that of .the “ balance of power ” in Europe, a prince belonging to a House more unpopular among Americans, and more associated with the oppression of weaker peoples, than any that has reigned on the continent of Eu­ rope. ' If it should ultimately appear that only by war can the empire thus attempted be expelled, war will surely come. But there are reasons why the United States will strain every nerve to secure that object by negotiation before resorting to armed force. The friendly feeling towards France already adverted to, the equally strong feeling among the Irish and the Roman Catholics generally, and the especial affection and gratitude to France of the Southerners — whom the foreign war, if undertaken, is ex­ pected to rehabilitate —• would all make the conflict one for which the American people tiould have little heart. It would require repeated refusals of any other set­ tlement on the part of Louis Napoleon to generate the amount of popular exaspera­ tion requisite for the war. At the same time I doubt not but that General Scho­ field and others will sufficiently convince the Emperor of the French that the Ameri­ can Government and people will never con­ sent to the permanent existence of a for­ eign monarchy in Mexico. The willingness to postpone positive action in the matter is enhanced by the consideration that non-re­ cognition and hesitation on the part of the United States, encouraging as they do the Juarists to continue their resistance, in­ juriously affecting the Mexican loan, and accumulating the expenditure of France, constitute in themselves almost a forcible attack upon Maximilian. There is also something like a superstitious belief among the people that no government will stand long in Mexico until it is consigned by des­ tiny to the United States; and I venture to predict that in that direction the United States will pursue the Micawber policy of waiting for something to turn up, and that this policy will be presently justified by the evacuation of Mexico by French troops, with Maximilian close upon their heels. Much as I regret to say it, I cannot deny to myself that a war with England — were there any pretext for it, or anything to be gained by it — would unite all sections and classes in America more effectually than one with any other Power. The reasons for a war, so far as they are external, weigh against France; the feeling., against Eng­ land. The traditional feeling in America toward England has been the reverse of what it has been toward .France. The ori­ gin of this anti-English feeling is not won­ derful. NextMo those portraits of Wash­ ington and Lafayette, mentioned by Mr. Jay as hanging side by side in the Hall of Representatives at Washington, may be found several pictures of the American gen­ erals and English generals standing in less gentle relations to each other. But the resuscitation and increase of the ill-feeling toward England are due to causes which it may be well to explain, for there have been strong commercial and other reasons why all animosities between the countries should Jong ago have passed away. The jealousies which existed after the separation of 1782, were such as are often witnessed between parties just near enough to each other to make differences irritating—as the right and left wings, or old and new schools of Churches — but these tend to subside as the parties become more and more set and se­ cure in their respective’positions. As a matter of fact these jealousies had almost disappeared, and but few traces of them can be found in the generation that preceded this. The cause of the animosity between the Northern and Southern States was the cause also of the revival of an anti-English feeling in America—Slavery. English Quakers were among the first agitators for emancipa­ tion in the Union. The first abolitionist in America — Benjamin Lundy — had. by his side Fanny Wright, who established in Ten. nessee a colony of liberated negroes with the intent of proving that they were fit for �AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. 551 freedom. The Anti-Slavery Society, which to his immediate withdrawal from that city, sprang up in the North, was materially as­ and a determination to proceed no farther sisted by the English societies ; its watch­ into the Slave States. But meanwhile this words were taken from the great anti-slave­ feeling had a strong reinforcement. The ry leaders of England, and the utterances Irish were thronging to America by thou­ of Sharpe, Clarkson, Wilberforce, and oth­ sands, and the Irish vote had become the ers, were hurled with tremendous effect deciding power in every general election. against the Southern institution. The It is a dreary fact that the Irish elected * Methodists were made to remember that every America^ President from 1844 to Wesley had pronounced slavery to be “the 1860. To win that Irish vote a political sum of all villanies ; ” and everywhere it party had simply to take the ground of was held up as a token of the superiority violent antagonism to England: that sure of England that her air was “ too pure for card the Democratic party had always been a slave to breathe.” When the “ pro­ willing to play, and the Irish, almost with­ slavery re-action,” as it is termed, set in — out exception, voted for it and its protege, that is, when the invention of the cotton- Slavery. The denouncers oft England in gin (about the first part of this century) the North were notoriously the leading had gradually quadrupled the value of Democrats, who, for party purposes, fanned slaves, and the Southern politicians began the hatred of this country which every Irish­ to reverse the verdict of Washington, Jeff­ man was sure to bring with him to the Unit­ erson, and Henry against slavery per se — ed States. I have no idea that these dema­ mutterings against “ English Abolitionists” gogues really felt any sympathy with the began to be heard. The anti-slavery ggsits, Irish, or that they knew anything whatever in later times, of William Forster, Joseph about Ireland or its relations to England^ Sturge, George Thompson, and other distin­ whilst pouring out their invectives against guished abolitionists, led to a fierce outcry “British Tyranny.” The Fenians have, in the South that her rights and institutions perhaps, by this time learned (if a Fenian were threatened by “ British abolitionists,” can learn anything) how much reality there “ British emissaries,” and “ British gold.” was in this profuse Democratic sympathy The writer can remember when every po­ for Ireland ; but when it is considered that litical gathering in Virginia, his native there are five million Irish haters of Eng­ State, was lashed into fury by the use of land in America, and that to obtain this these phrases. President Jackson, in a great electoral power the Democratic party Message to Congress, denounced the inter­ has committed itself to every anti-English ference of “foreign emissaries” with the policy, it will be seen how vast an. addition institution of slavery. Boston, because of to the hatred of the enraged pro slavery its anti-slavery character, was scornfully men has thus been made in these later years. called “ that English city.” The pro-slave-S In all this time the only section of Ameri­ ry re-action gained a complete sway of the ca that could be called friendly to England Union about twenty years ago ; since which was New England, such friendliness having time, until 1860, slavery elected every Presi­ been frequently made the occasion for dent, and was represented by large though denouncing thatByoup of States. The gradually diminishing majorities in Con­ leading men of New England — Emerson, gress. ,The commercial classes of the North Channing, Phillips, Sumner, Garrison, Low­ were its violent adherents on account of ell — had been guests in the best English the immense value of the Southern trade; homes, and had entertained English gen­ and if any merchant became tarnished by a tlemen. The youth of the colleges and suspici on of his pro-slavery soundness, the universities of New England were kindling New York Herald published his name—a with enthusiasm for Carlyle, Tennyson, proceeding which withdrew all dealings Mill, and the Brownings. Along with her from him, and threatened him with ruin. anti-slavery influence there, went forth also Thus a vast majority, North and South, from. New England editions of English came to nourish a deep hostility toward books and English modes of thought; and as England, for her policy of emancipation in the country at large was, in the years im­ her own colonies, and for her alleged inter­ mediately preceding the war, gradually won ference with slavery in America. How to an anti-slavery positions^ England be­ furious the South was toward England was came, if not generally liked, at least the shown in those disgraceful scenes — not to most respected of foreign nations. The be reported here — which are said to have virtues of Queen Victoria were especially attended the attempt of the Prince of a subject of frequent eulogium throughout Wales to visit Richmond, Virginia, and led the North; and everything bade fair tO’ �552 AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. bring about a reaction in the feeling to­ wards the people over whom she ruled. Indeed the welcome given to the Prince of Wales at the time of which I now write, bore witness to the existence of a friendlier spirit regarding “ the mother country ” than any one would have ventured to predict a few years before. The gradual repres' sion of the anti-English prejudice cost the ' Republicans of the North a long period of political weakness (for they too might have bid for the Irish vote) ; it was the result of the laborious diffusion of English literature, and I know that it was esteemed by the reflecting Americans to be a victory for mankind. The reasons why this friendliness has been of late replaced by indignation and an­ ger, in New England as well as elsewhere, are too well known to require much elucida­ tion here. I am quite sure that if England had known as much about the United States five years ago as she knows now, the pres­ ent unhappy relations between the two coun­ tries could not be subsisting. England sneered at those who had been her friends, who were fighting the last battles of a con­ flict begun by herself, and gave her sympa­ thies to those who had denounced her for her love of freedom. Not going far enough to do more than repress for a moment the traditional animosity of the South, she went far enough to fill the North with in­ dignant surprise, and has left in both sec­ tions a sentiment which might easily find vent in war, if any sufficient object to be gained thereby should present itself. If it were England that had occupied Mexico, war would have been declared against her ere now; hitherto, as I have intimated, whilst the war-interest has pointed to France, the war feeling in America has been toward England. The feeling of an­ ger towards this country is so universal in the United States that I believe it would be impossible to find amongst its public men, or even its literary men, a single ex­ ception from it, — unless it be among a few who, having constant personal intercourse with England, know how little any quick generalisations concerning this country, its character, or its feeling, are likely to be correct. A few protests against the very general denunciation of England may have been uttered there, or sent there by Ameri­ cans resident here; but they have been lost like chips in the rapids of Niagara. I write these things with profound regret; but I think the facts should be known. There have been many instances in his­ tory where such a condition of popular feeling has required the merest pretext to initiate war. In the present case there is something which is already regarded in America as a sufficient occasion for war (were war desirable), and may be presently regarded as an adequate cause for it. The United States has, although so young as a nation, presented more than a score of “ claims ” against other nations; and in every case, I believe, these claims have been ultmately adjusted to its satisfaction, though now and then refused at first. The late claim upon the English Government for damages committed by the Alabama —■ for those alone would probably have been insisted upon-—meant much more than a pecuniary matter to the Americans. As * foi the merchants who had suffered losses by Confederate cruisers they were gener­ ally men who a few years ago were so pa­ tient and resigned when slavery was scut­ tling human hearts and homes, that many of us smiled with a grim satisfaction at their ' pathetic emotions when some defenceless sloop with its innocent family of bags and barrels was sent to the bottom. But withal the Alabama was regarded as the palpable symbol of that anti-American sentiment which had appeared at the outbreak of the war — a symbol which not the Kearsage, but England alone, could sink; and the claim for the losses by hei’ ' signified also a reclamation for wounds rankling in every American heart. I have no intention of discussing here the case of the A liibama; but the legal case as it stands in the correspondence between Earl Russel and Mr. Adams is so different from the moral case which is at this moment powerfully agitating the American mind, that it seems to me important to mention a few points recently laid by Mr. George Bemis, the eminent jurist of Boston, before his countrymen, which are more likely to poison the future relations between the two countries than any question raised in the diplomatic discussion referred to. This hitherto unwritten, or rather uncollected, chapter in the history of the Alabama is derived from the English Blue Boole, and refers to the last two days’ stay of that cruiser in British waters, after the Govern­ ment had decided upon her detention, and after the alleged telegraphic order for her seizure had been sent to the officials of Liverpool. . The Alabama left Laird’s dock in Liver­ pool in July, 1862, under pretence of tak­ ing out a pleasure party, and went to sea without ever returning to that port again. The American Minister having called upon �I AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. 553 Earl Russell for an explanation of this, be well to remind the reader here that, so wrote home the following as the statement early as July 4th, the British Government he received at that interview : — "had promised Mr. Adams that the Custom House officials at Liverpool should keep a “ His lordship first took up the case of the strict watch on the movements of the ex­ ‘290’ [the name by which the Alabama was pected Alabama, and report any further in­ first known], and remarked that a delay in de­ formation that could be collected concern­ termining upon it had most unexpectedly ing her.) The Hercules proceeds to fulfil been caused by the sudden development of her errand, but has not completed her ship­ a malady of the Queen’s Advocate, Sir John D? Harding, totally incapacitating him for the ping of men and warlike equipment until transaction of business. This made it neces­ sometime during the morning of the 30th. sary to call in other parties, whose opinion had During the forenoon, some hours before the been at last given for the detention of the gunboat, Hercules starts, the AmcMn Consul has but before the order got down to Liverpool the vessel placed the following note under the eye of was gone.” * the head of the Custom House : — In the debate on the escape of the Ala­ “U. S. Consulate, Liverpool, bama, which occurred in the House of July 30, 1862. Lords, Aprd 29, 1864, Earl Russell gave f“Sir,—Referring to myaPMions communi­ cation to you on the subject of the gunboat .' this further explanation : — ■‘No. 290fl|fitted out by Mr. LaiM at Birken­ “ The United States Government had no head, I beg now to inform you that she left reason to complain of us in that respect [in the Birkenhead dock on Monday night [the ves^mHmorningMrthe 29th] left regard to the escape of the Alabama], because 28thl we took all the precaution we could. We col­ M^M^^^ycomi^wed by the steilm-tug Hercu­ les. The Hercules returned last evening, and lected evidence, but it was not till it was com­ was cruising off plete that we felt ourselves justified in giving the her master stated orders for the seizure of the vessel. These orders, Port Iypias, that she had six guns on board however, were evaded. I can tell your lord ship concealed below, and was taking powder from from a trustworthy source how theyiwere evaded!?’ another vessel. The Hercules is now alongside the Wood_[Eaii Russell then proceeded to quote a pass­ age from Fullam’s ‘ Cruise in the Confederate side landing-stage, taking on board men (forty States War Steamer Alabama ’ (p. 5), of which or fifty), beams, evidently for guiMcarriages, and other things, to convey down to the gunthe last paragraph ran as iollows] : — “Our unceremonious departure [from Liver­ bo® A quantity of cutlasses was taken on pool] was owing to the fact of news being receiv­ board on Friday last. These circumstances all go to confirm the ed to the effect that the customs authorities had orders to board and detain us that morning.” representations heretofore made to you about this vessel, in the face of which I cannot but [Upon which Earl Russell adds] : — “ That was the fact. However the owner regret she lias been permitted to leave the port, ,and I report them to youH^M you may take came to be informed of it, it is impossible for me to say. There certainly seems to have been such steps as you may deem necessary to pre­ treachery on the part of some one furnishing the vent this flagrant violation of neutrality. Respectfully, I am your obedient servant, information.” “ Thomas H. Dudley, Consul. On the morning of July 29th, 1862, the “ The Collector of Customs, Liwrpool.” Alabama put out from the Liverpool docks, In response to this urgent appeal, Mr. E. having on board several ladies,and gentle­ men of the family of Mr. John Laird, M. P., Morgan, Surveyor of the Port, seems to and enough of other invited guests to make have been sent to visit the Hercules. The a show of a pleasure party, and was towed following is the record of his labours: — by a steam-tug, the Hercules, to a point Copy of a Letter from Mr. E. Morgan, Sur­ fourteen miles from Liverpool. There the party was transferred to the Hercules, and veyor, to the Collector, Liverpool. “ Surveyor’s Office, 30 July, 1862. the Commander of the Alabama made an “Sir, — Referring to the steamer built by appointment with the Hercules to return to the Liverpool and bring a large portion of hjs boat Messrs. Laird, which is suspected to be a gun­ intendedfor some foreign government, — crew to Beaumaris Bayljabout forty miles ■ “ I beg to state that since the date of my distant from ’ the town. The Hercules last report concerning her she has been lying reached Liverpool on the evening of the in the Birkenhead docks fitting for sea, and 29th, and anchored for the night. (It may receiving on board coals and provisions for her *The itaZzes here and elsewhere, in paragraphs crew. “ She left the dock on the evening of the quoted from the Blue Book,.are, of course, not in the originals. 28th instant, anchored for the night in the i �554 . AMERICA, FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. Mersey, abreast the Canning Dock, and pro­ ceeded out of the river on the following morn­ ing, ostensibly on a trial trip, from which she has not returned. X “ I visited the tug Hercules this morning, as she lay at the landing-stage at Woodside, and strictly examined her holds, and other parts of the vessel. She had nothing of a suspicious character onboard —no guns, no ammunition, or anything appertaining thereto. A consider­ able number of persons, male and female, were on deck, some of whom admitted to me THAT THEY WERE A PORTION OF THE CREW, AND WERE GOING TO JOIN THE ‘GUNBOAT.’ “ I have oniy to add that your directions to keep a strict watch on the said vessel have been carried out, and I write in the fullest confidence that she left this port without any part of her armament on board; she had not as much as a single gun or musket. “ It is said that she cruised off Point Lyna,9 1st night, which, as you are aware, is some fifty miles from this port. “Very respectfully, (Signed) “ E. Morgan, Surveyor. The Foreign Enlistment Act says very plainly, that every ship “ having on board, conveying, carrying, or transporting ” any person or persons “ enlisted, or who have agreed or been procured to enlist, or who shall be departing from his Majesty’s domin­ ions for the purpose or with the intent of enlisting,” “ shall and may be seized by the Collector,” &c., (Stat. 59 George III. c. 69, s. 6). Mr. Morgan says some of the men on the Hercules admitted to him “ that they were a portion of the crew, and were going to join the gunboat;” he knows that it is a gunboat, and that it has gone off “ osten­ sibly on a trial trip and yet we find the following letter sent to the Commissioners of Customs in London: — “ Custom House, Liverpool, 30th July, 1862. “Honourable Sirs,—Immmediately on re­ ceipt of the aforegoing communication [not given, or perhaps Consul Dudley’s, qu. ?], Mr. Morgan, Surveyor, proceeded on board the Hercules, and I beg to enclose his report, ob­ serving that he perceived no beams, such as are alluded to by the American Consul, nor any­ thing on bourd that would justify further action on my part. “ Respectfully, . (Signed) “ S. Price Edwards.” The following • telegram was laid before The Lords Commissioners of her Majesty’s Treasury on the morning of July 29 : — “Liverpool, 29th July, 1862. “ ‘ No. 290.’ “Sir, — We telegraphed you this morning that the above vessel was leaving Liverpool. She came out of dock last night, and steamed down the river between 10 and 11 a. m. “ We have reason to believe she has gone to Queenstown. “ Yours obediently, “Duncan, Squarey, & Blackmore.” Lastly, here is the record of how, when the horse was stolen, the stable-door was locked: — I “ Thirty-first July, 1862, at about | half-past seven, p. m. “ Telegrams were sent to the Collectors at Liver­ pool and CorL [at above date] pursuant to Treasury Order, dated 31st July, to seize the gun­ boat (290) should she be within either of those ports. • , -- “ Similar telegrams to the officers at Beaumaris and Holyhead were sent on the morning of the 1stAugust. They were not sent on the 3ist July, the telegraph offices to those districts being closed. ' “ And on the 2d August a letter was also sent to the Collector at Cork, to detain the ves­ sel should she arrive at Queenstown.” It is noticeable that only on the evening of the 31st of July was any word sent to Queenstown, where, according to the tele­ gram of the 29th, the American agents in Liverpool “ have reason to believe she (the Alabama) has gone ! ” And why was no telegram sent to Point Lynas on the night of the 30th ? Three days were lost when all depended upon hours. Nay, there have been cases when England, feeling herself aggrieved by such ships, has — as those who remember the cases of the Terceira and the Heligoland know — pursued and destroyed them even in foreign waters. The feeling was of another kind in this case: the Ala­ bama .was followed through English and other waters, but with plaudits. Now all this is far lrom pleasant read­ ing to an American. Earl Russell him­ self, as quoted above, has said that there seems to have been “ treachery ” in the proceeding. Nay, in “ Hansard ” for Feb­ ruary 16, 1864, he will be found to have classified it as a “ belligerent operation,” and as “ a scandal and in some degree a re­ proach to British law.” Is it wonderful then that the United States should prefer a claim, accompanied by a suggestion of ar­ bitration, for the losses by this cruiser, which for a time swept American ships from the seas ? Is it wonderful that it should in­ terpret the refusal to admit the claim or the suggestion as a moral confession of judg­ ment ? Is it wonderful that, irrespective of the legal points of the case, Americans should perceive in the above facts the ex­ �janet’s 555 questions. pression of a hostile animus toward her, as yet unlaid, so far as any official act is con­ cerned, and that they, should, with their deep sense of wrong, be eager to seize an oc­ casion for retaliation ? The liberation of John Mitchell, at the request of the Fenians, by President John­ son, after he (Mitchell) had rendered himself so especially odious to the people of the United States by his treason, was attended with no popular outcry. ' It could never have been done had there not been a gen­ eral feeling of resentment toward England. It is a straw only, but it shows the wind to be setting from a tempestuous quarter. It may be supposedEhat the very causes which have operated to alienate the Northern States from England would im­ ply a friendship for her in the South; but besides the old animosity of the South toward England, on account of her influence against slavery, she feels bitterly the sym­ pathy of the English masses for the North, the cold shoulder given to her agents at the English Court, the repeated refusals of the British Government to join France in an in­ tervention, and its refusal of any aid to prevent the South being crushed. Thus every class and section in America has a grievance against England. There are, indeed, men in that country whose thoughts reach beyond the vexations and passions of the moment, who may be counted on to do what they can to prevent such a dire calamity as a war between the two great branches of the Anglo-Saxon race would be. But the fact may not be concealed that by the refusal to submit the case of the Alabama to arbitration, in the present state of American feeling, the wildest Irishman who would fire a hemi­ sphere to boil his potatoes is made stronger than the most thoughtful statesman. To a point of ministerial dignity — for the dignity of a nation cannot depend upon shielding the blunders of a Cabinet or the “ treachery” of its subordinates — it must be ascribed, that the entrance into Parliament of such friends of the United States as Mill, Hughes, and Fawcett, and of Forster into the Gov­ ernment does not mark the meginning of an era of good-will between the two na­ tions; that the sunken AZaframa leaves a brood of her kind to be hatched out by the heat of the next English war, and to resuscitate a semi-baiMSrs mode of war­ fare which had seemed about to pass away; and that even this ugly programme is the least disastrous alternative to which the friends of peace can look forward. Moncuke D. Conway. / ! X JANET’S QUESTIONS. Janet ! my little Janet! You think me wise I know; And that when you sit and question, With your eager face aglow, I can tell you all you ask me : My child, it is not so. I can tell my little Janet Some things she well may prize; I could tell her some whose wisdom Would be foolish in her eyes; There are things I would not tell, her, They are too sadly wise. I can tell her of noble treasures Of wisdom stored of old; To the chests where they are holden I can give her keys of gold ; And as much as she can carry She may take away untold. But till her heart is opened, Like the book upon her knee, What is written in its pages She cannot read nor see : Nor tell till the rose has blossomed If red or white Twill be. And till life’s book is opened, And read through every age, Come questions, without answers, ■ Alike from child and sage : Yet God himself is teaching His children page by page. I still am asking questions With each new leaf I see ; To your new eyes, my Janet, Yet more revealed may be. You must ask of God the questions I fail to answer thee. — Good Words. �556 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND From the Quarterly Review. A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art. By Thomas Wright, Esq.; with Illustrations from various sour-, ces, drawn and engraved by E. W. Fair­ holt, Esq. Among the many contributions which Mr. Thomas Wright has made towards Eng­ lish antiquarian research, and, in particular, towards the familiar delineation of the man­ ners and customs of our ancestors, none is, perhaps, so popular or so well known as his two volumes entitled ‘ England under the House of Hanover, illustrated from the Car­ icatures and Satires of the day.’ The very spirited woodcuts with which this book is adorned by Mr. Fairholt might alone have sufficed to make its fortune. Published only in 1848, it is already difficult to pro­ cure a copy. Encouraged by his success in this line, Mr. Wright has now attempted the wider enterprise announced in this title­ page. Wd fear that in'doing so he has been somewhat over ambitious. A history of the ‘ caricature and grotesque in literature and art,’ extending over all countries and all time, comprising not only pictorial represen­ tations, but poetry, satire, the drama, and buffoonery of all descriptions, is a subject which, if it be attempted at all in a single octavo volume, could only be so in the form of a compact and well-reasoned essay, to which Mr. Wright’s entertaining fragmen­ tary sketches bear little resemblance. The ‘immeasurable laughter’ of nations, ancient and modern, cannot be reduced within so small a compass. We must therefore con­ tent ourselves with thanking Mr. Wright for his desultory but agreeable attempts for our enlightenment. And we propose, on the present occasion, to confine ourselves entirely to the artistic portion of them: en­ livened, as it is, by a new series of Mr. Fair­ holt’s excellent illustrations. Our inability to transfer these to our own pages places us, as we feel, at a great disadvantage: many words are required to explain to the reader the contents of a picture, which a few outlines by an able hand impress at once visibly on the recollection. De­ prived of this advantage, we must confine ourselves as well as we can to the points on which caricature touches the history of social and political life, rather than those by which it borders on the great domain of Art, properly so called. GROTESQUE course, an Italian word, derived from the verb caricare, to charge or load; and therefore it means a picture which is charged or exaggerat­ ed. [“Kitratto ridicolo,” says Baretti s Dic­ tionary, “in cui fiensi grandemente accresciuti i difetti.” The old French dictionaries say. “ c’est la meme chose que charge en peinture.”] The word appears not to have come into use in Italy until the latter half of the seventeenth cen­ tury, and the earliest instance I know of its em­ ployment by an English writer is that quoted by Johnson from the ‘ Christian Morals ’ of Sir Thomas Brown, who died in 1682, but it was one of his latest writings, and was not printed till long after his death: “ Expose not thyself by fourfooted manners unto monstrous draughts (i. e. drawings) and caricatura representations.” This very quaint writer, who had passed some time in Italy, evidently uses it as an exotic word. We find it next employed by the writer of the Essay, No. 537, of the ‘ Spectator,’ who, speaking of the way in which different people are led by feelings of jealousy and prejudice to detract from the characters of others, goes on to say “From all these hands we have such draughts of mankind as are represented in those burlesque pictures which the Italians call cari­ catures, where the art consists in preserving amidst distorted proportions" and aggravated features, some distinguishing likeness of the person, but in such a manner as to transform the most agreeable beauty into the most odious •monster.” The word was not fully established in oqr language in its English form of carica­ ture until late in the last century.’ — p. 415. This, no doubt, is a serviceable, artistic definition of the word; but • its popular meaning is, perhaps, a little more limited. It would be difficult accurately to distin­ guish ‘caricature ’in composition, accord­ ing to the above description, from what we simply term ‘ grotesque ; ’ exaggeration, that is, of natural effects for the mere purpose of the ludicrous. In using the word caricature, we generally add to this notion that of satire; and the best definition for our purpose, as well as to suit ordinary ap­ prehension, though not at all originating in the primary meaning of the word, will be, that ‘ caricature ’ implies the use of the grotesque for the purpose of satire : satire, of course, of many kinds, individual, moral, political, as the case may be. Looking at our subject from this point of view, we must never eliminate from it all those amusing details respecting classical ‘ caricature,’ to which Mr. Wright has de­ voted the first part of his work, and which a clever French writer, M. Champfleury, hasjust illustrated inalittle book, superficial, ‘ The word caricature is not found in the dic­ entertaining, and ‘ cock-sure of everything,’ tionaries, I believe, until the appearance of that as the manner of his nation- is, entitled of Dr. Johnson, in 1755. Caricature is, of ‘ Histoire de la Caricature Antique.’ The �IN LITERATURE AND ART. 557 ancients were passionately fond of the gro­ erical creatures.’ In others, the desired tesque : the Greeks intermingled it strange­ effect is produced, not by these mere fabri­ ly, but gracefully, with their inimitable cre­ cations, but by grouping men and animals ations of beauty: the Romans, after their together in fanciful or ridiculous conjunc­ nature, made it coarse and sensual, where tions. And these — conceived and execut­ not merely imitative of the Hellenic. ed with a prodigality of imagination _ ‘ The discourses of Socrates resemble the amounting in many instances to genius — pictures of the painter Pauson.’ Some one constitute, perhaps, the favourite, though had ordered of Pauson the picture of a by no means the only, style of comic art horse rolling on the ground. Pauson paint­ familiar to the classical ancients; one of ed him running. The customer complained which the known examples have of late that the condition of his order had not been years greatly multiplied, owing to the disfulfilled. ‘ Turn the picture upside down,’ cowries of ancient paintings at Pompeii and said the artist, ‘ and the horse will seem to elsewhere. There is a pretty description roll on the ground.’ From this moderately of a picture of this sort in» the ‘ leones ’ of facetious anecdote of Lucian Mlom a pas­ Philostratus. It represents a ‘number of sage of Aristotle, in which it is said that BQpids riding races on swans: one is tight­ ‘ Polygnotus painted men better thanBjley ening his golden rein, another loosening"it; are; Pauson;. worse than they are; PionHSisI one dexterously wheeling round the goal: such as they are ; ’ and, lastly, from a few you might fancy that you could hell them lines of Aristophanes, in which some Pau­ encouraging their birds, and threatening son or other is jeered at for his poverty, as­ and qtSffilling with one another, as their sumed to be the lot of Bohemian artists in very faces represent: one is trying to throw general; M. Champfleury has arrived at the down his neighbour j another has just thrown rapid conclusion, that Pauson was the doyen down his; another is slipping off his steed, of all caricaturists. And he vindicates him, in order to bathe himself in the basin of the eloquently, from the aspersions of the Sta- hippodrome.’ * gyrite. ‘ Aristotle,’ says he, ‘ preoccupied But, to revert to our original distinction, with the idea of absolute beauty, has not ancient art. though rich in the grotesque, expounded the scope of caricature, and its does not produce on us the effect of carica­ importance in society. This thinker, plun­ ture ; either it has no definite satirical aim, ged in philosophical abstractions, despised orDM® has such, the satire is lost .upon our as futile an act which nevertheless consoles ignorance. The attempts of antiquaries to the people in its sorrows, avenges it on explain its productions byraWig them a its tyrants, and reproduces, with a satirical supposed libellous meaning are among the pencil, the thoughts of the multitude.’ most comical efforts of modern pedantry. Pliny the elder, after mentioning the seri­ A laughable scene on an Etruscan vase, repous compositions of the painter Antiphilus, resenting a lover. climbing |l ladder to his informs us that ‘ idem (Antiphilus) jocoso. mistress’s casement,' figures, we are told, nomine Gryllum deridiculi habitus pinxit. Jupiter and Alcmena. The capital travesUndb hoc genus picturse Gryll^voeabantur. tie of fEneas and Anchises as monkeys The meaning of this obscure passage — (PQm») is meant tolMBfee the imitative whether Grylluswas a ridiculous personage style of Virgil! The well-known and amus­ who had the misfortune to descend to posteri­ ing seejSeifn a paMs studio (tW.) is ‘ an ty in some too faithful portrait byAntiphibus,' allusion to the deMkiM of art.’ A pigmy or whether Grvllus was a serious person a.jgl and a fox (GreoorBn Museum) are a phi­ perhaps the son of Xenophon and hero of losopher and flatterer. An owl cutting off Mantinea, whose portrait was placed by the the head of a cock is Clytemnestra mur­ Athenians in the Ceramicus, whom Anti­ dering AgameAon; a^shopper philus had the audacity to caricature — driving a parrot in a car (Herculaneum) is has exercised. the wits of plenty of anti­ quaries, and will no doubt give occupation The ‘ leones. of Flavius Philostratus, a to many more. However, it seems to be of*the age of the’ Flavian Emperors, contain writer a rhe­ from this anecdote of Pliny that grotesque torical description of a series of pictures which he figures engraved on ancient gems have re­ saw, or feigns himself to have seen, in, a ‘ stoa,’ or colonnaded four or ceived the name of ‘ Grylli ’ among the ated ‘in a building® ofthe city live stories,’situ­ suburb of Neapolis.’ The curious in modern times. This title has subjects described are partly mythological, partly landscape. Someof them are identical with those been particularlyKapplied to those which of frescoes of Pompeii, overwhelmed at the same represent figures ‘ composed of the heads period; and the general description of the style of and bodies of different animals capriciously treatment such as to remind the reader closely of united, so as to form monstrous and chim- | those beautiful and singular Specimens of the art of a world gone by. �558 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND GROTESQUE Seneca conducting Nero! Such are a few I tians, they still found pagan emblems and figamong the solemn interpretations which I ures in their models, and still went on imitat­ modern sagacity has put on these ‘ capricci, ing them, sometimes merely copying, and rather than caricatures,’ as M: Champfleury at others turning them to caricat ure or burlesque. long that, a truly calls them, with which the spirit of And this tendency continued sostill existedatre­ much later date, where there Greek antiquity, as playful as it was daring, mains of Roman buildings, the mediaeval archi­ loved to decorate the chamber and engrave tects adopted them as models, and did not hesi­ the gem. tate to copy the sculpture, although it might It is painful, and in some degree humiliat­ be evidently pagan in character. The accom­ ing, to note the transition from the light and panying cut represents a bracket in the church comparatively graceful character of ancient of Mont Majour, near Nismes, built in the tenth art, even in its comic forms, to the excessive century. The subject is a monstrous head eat­ grossness, meanness, and profanity, which ing a child, and we can hardly doubt that it characterised the corresponding branch of it was really intended for a caricature on Saturn in the middle ages in Western Europe. No devouring one of his children.’ — pp. 40-49. doubt this change was partly a continuation For our own parts, we should doubt of that which took place when the brief im­ portation of Grecian models into the West greatly whether the sculptor in question had had ceased, and the coarser Roman style Saturn in his mind at all, any more than Dante had when he imagined Satan devour­ succeeded it. ing a sinner with each of his three mouths: ‘ The transition from antiquity to what we the illustrations of which passage, in early usually understand by the name of the middle illuminations and woodcuts, are exactly ages,’ says Mr. Wright, ‘ was long and slow : like the copy in Mr. Wright’s work of this it was a period during which much of the tex Mont Majour sculpture. And generally, we ture of the old society was destroyed, while, at doubt whether Mr. Wright does not attri­ the same time, a new life was gradually given bute to classical recollections .too large a to that which remained. We know very little share in the production of that monstrous of the comic literature of this period of transi­ style of art which furnishes our next re­ tion ; its literary remains consist chiefly of a markable chapter in the history of carica­ miss of heavy theology or of lives of Saints. . . . The period between antiquity and the ture — the Ecclesiastical Grotesque, such middle ages was one of such great and general as it exhibited itself especially in France, destruction, that the gulf between ancient and England, and Germany. It has to our mediaeval art seem to us greater and more ab­ minds very distinctive marks of a rougher rupt than it really was. The want of monu­ Northern original. However this may be, ments, no doubt, prevents our seeing the gradu­ there is something humiliating, as we have al change of the ooe into the other; but enough, said, in the degradation of skill and esthet­ nevertheless, of facts remain to convince us ic perception which is evinced by these rel­ that it was not a sudden change. It is now, ics of generations to which we so often as­ indeed, generally understood that the knowledge cribe a peculiarly reverential character. and practice of the arts and manufactures of the Romans were handed onward from master No doubt its elements, so to speak, may be to pupil after the empire had fallen ; and this traced in part to some very ordinary pro­ took place especially in the towns, so that the pensities of the human mind. It has been workmanship, which had been declining in said, probably with some truth, that when character during the later periods of the em­ the most prevailing of all common motives pire, only continued in the course of degrada­ was an intense fear of hell and of evil tion afterwards. Thus, in the first Christian spirits, the most natural mode of relief, by edifices, the builders who were employed, or at reaction, was that of turning them into least many of them, must have been pagans; ridicule. And however impossible it may­ and they would fodow their old models of or­ namentation, introducing the same grotesque be, to intellects cultivated after the modern figures, the same masks and monstrous faces, fashion, to reconcile these propensities with and even sometimes the same subjects from the a strong sense of the majestic and the beau­ old mythology, to which they had been accus­ tiful, yet we cannot doubt the fact that they tomed. It is to be observed, a so, that this kind were so reconciled. As. Dante could inter­ of iconographical ornamentation had been en­ mingle his unique conceptions of supernatu­ croaching more and more upon the old archi­ ral grandeur with minute descriptions of tectural purity during the latter ages of the the farcical proceedings of the vulgarest Empire, and that it was employed more pfo- possible fiends with their pitchforks, so the •fusely in the later works, fro n which this task same artists who produced, or at least orna­ was transferred to the ecclesiasical and to the domestic architecture of the middle ages. Af­ mented, our cathedrals, with those glorious ter the architects themselves had become Chris- | expressions of thought sublimed at once by �IN LITERATURE AND ART. 559 the love of beauty and the love of heaven, I pride, envy; in fact, all the deadly sins comcould furnish them out with the strangest, I bined in one diabolical whole? — p. 74. meanest, often filthiest images which a de­ The goat-like countenance of the arch­ based imagination might suggest. Fortu­ nately, age has done so much to veil these fiend is a common mediaeval, as well as mod­ debauches of skill with sober indistinctness, ern German, type; but whoever wishes to that they seldom strike the eye of a casual tracq backward the conception of Retsch’s observer, in a sacred edifice, very offen­ Mepnistopheles, should look in particular at sively. But they lurk everywhere, and in an ivory carving, in the Maskell collection ' disgusting multitudes; in the elaborate at the British Museum, of exquisite work­ stonework of ceilings, windows, and' col­ manship, styled the Temptation of Christ, by umns ; in battlements, bosses, and corbeils ; Christoph Angermair, 1616. One more instance, and a very striking in the wood-carving of stalls, misereres, and often on the lower surface of folding one, may be mentioned by way of exception subsellia; while they are equally to be found, to the ordinary meanness and vulgarity strangest of all, where the Donna Inez of which characterise the mediaeval representa­ Lord Byron’s ‘ Don Juan ’ found them, in tions of the supernatural. It is noticed and the illuminated pages of missals, destined for engraved by Malcolm, in his ‘ History of purposes of daily devotion. So long as Caricature? The missal of King Richard these were confined to mere burlesque, no II., preserved in the BrMRi Museum, is full great harm was done, and certainly non,e of grotesque illustrSions ofEhe ordinary cast, though beautifully executed. But intended. among them is one of a higher and stranger turn of invention, the exact meaning of ‘ The number and variety of such grotesque which is unknown. It Represents the choir faces/ says Mr. Wright, ‘which we find scat­ of a solemn Gothic chapel. A white monk tered over the architectural decoration of our old is celebrating mass at the altar; another lies ecclesiastical buildings, are so great that I will prostrate before it; ten of order, seated not attempt to give any more particular classifi­ in iSir stalls, sing the service. Above these cation of them. All this church decoration was intended especially to produce its effect upon the appearEeated in a higher range of stalls, middle and lower classes, and mediaeval art was, five figures dimly drawn, which on examina­ perhaps more than anything else, suited to nga tion appear to be robed skeletons — two diaeval society, for it belonged to the mass and with the Papal tiara, two with coronets, one not to the individual. The man who could enjoy with a cardinal’s hat. The effect of the a match at grinning through horse collars, must whole is very terrific, after the fashion of have been charmed by the grotesque works of the the ghostliest conceptions of Jean Paul meidteval stone-sculptor and wood-carver; and, Richter, and otheiEGerman masters of the we may add, that these display, though often spectral and calling back to mind, at rather rude, a very high degree of skill in art, a the same: time,(the coincidence the the lines of great power of producing striking imagery? — which Shakspeare has put into the mouth of p. 1.48. ‘ In all the delineations of demons we have the same monarch — yet seen,’ he says elsewhere, ‘ the ludicrous is the spirit which chiefly predominates; and in no ‘For within the hollow crown one instance have we had a figure which is real­ That wreathes the mortal temples of a King, ly demoniacal. The devils are droll, but not Keeps Deith his court: and there the antic sits, frightful; they provoke laughter, or at least ex­ Scoffing his state, and grinning at his pomp? cite a smile, but they create no horror. Indeed, But when the prevailing and violent quar­ they torment their victims so good-humouredly that we hardly feel for them. There is, howev­ rels between different classes of religious er, one well-known instance in which the me­ persons in the Church perverted the same diaeval artist has shown himself thoroughly suc­ tendency into a taste for licentious ribaldry cessful in representing the features of the spirit — when it was no longer the Devil who was of evil. On the parapet of the external gallery piously laughed at in these compositions, of the cathedral church of Notre Dame in Par­ but monks, nuns, hermits, and so forth, who is, there is a figure in stone, of the ordinary were introduced as symbols of everything stature of a man, representing the demon, ap­ parently looking wi;h satisfaction upon the in­ degrading — when grotesque, assuming the habitants of the city as they were everywhere in­ attitude of satire, turned, according to our dulging in sin and wickedness. The unmixed suggested distinction, into caricature prop­ evil — horrible in its expression in this coun­ erly so called — then the practice in ques­ tenance — is marvellously portrayed. It is an tion assumed a much darker complexion. absolute Mephistopheles, carrying in his features The foulest of these representations, and a strange mixture of hateful qualities — malice, they are only too numerous, can be barely �560 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND alluded to in a work like Mr. Wright’s. Au older publication, already noticed, Mal­ colm’s very imperfect ‘ History of Carica­ ture,’ goes into more details respecting them. We will only say that those who enter on the subject had better not carry into the in­ quiry exaggerated notions respecting the decorum or the piety of the so-called ‘Ages of Faith,’ lest they should be too abruptly dispelled. Gradually, and with the progress of en­ lightenment, a somewhat more serious, though still familiar, mode of dealing with subjects of this description became general; but the change was not so early as has been sometimes supposed, since the stalls of Hen­ ry VII.’s chapel at Westminster exhibit some of the very worst of this class of offen­ ces against taste and religious feeling. But in the fifteenth century, under the hands of its artists, the supernatural, though still tainted with the grotesque, germinated into the awful. The union of the two may still be traced in that marvellous but perishing series of representations, ranging over all the known and conjectured regions of life and eternity, which decorates the Campo Santo of Pisa—that ‘‘Antechamber of Death,’ as the Italians call it. From the same sources of thought arose the profuse crop of ‘ Danses Macabres,’ dances of death, coarsely painted on thousands of cemetery walls, and drawn and engraved by number­ less artists, with more or less of spirit; phan­ tasmagorias, in which the love of the horri­ ble was repulsively mixed with that of the ludicrous, but still far less ignoble in taste and character than those early grotesques of ecclesiastical sculpture, to which our atten­ tion has been hitherto drawn. It is refreshing, however, to turn from this disagreeable class of subjects to the few specimens of a freer and healthier turn for the ludicrous, unmixed with profanity, which mediaaval art has left us. Probably one of the earliest specimens of English caricature drawing, as distinguished from mere gro­ tesque, is that described by Mr. Wright, as follows: — ‘It belongs to the Treasury of the Exchequer, and consists of two volumes of vellum, called Liber A and Liber B, form­ ing a register of treaties, marriages, and sim-, ilar documents of the reign of Edward I. The clerk who was employed in writing it seems to have been, like many of these of­ ficial clerks, somewhat of a wag, and he has amused himself by drawing in the margin figures of the inhabitants of the provinces of Edward’s crown, to which the documents referred. Some of these are plainly designed for caricature.’ Two of themare evi­ GROTESQUE dently Irishmen, their costume and weapon, the broad axe, exactly answering to the de­ scription given of them by Giraldus Cambrensis. Two are Welchmen — ludicrous figures enough, whose dress is equally in ac­ cordance with contemporary description, except in one curious particular, which writers have not noticed. The right legs are naked, like those of the German hackbutteers in the ‘ Lay of the Last Minstrel ’:— ‘ Each better knee was bared, tr aid The warrior in the escalade.’ ‘ When the official clerk who wrote this tran­ script came to documents relating to Gascony, his thoughts wandered naturally enough to its rich vineyards and the wine they supplied so plentifully, and to which, according to old re­ ports, clerks seldom showed any dislike; and accordingly, in the next sketch, we have a Gas­ con occupied diligently in pruning his vine tree.’ From the sculptured and illuminated re­ ligious-grotesque of the Middle Ages to the German and Dutch woodcut-literature of the period of the Reformation, the transition is not a very wide one. The style is pretty similar, the profanity much the same, only a fiercer element has been added by contro­ versial bitterness. Perhaps this class of works may be justly cited, in chronological series, as affording the real commencement of the art of modern political caricature, properly so called. On both sides of the question this method of ridiculing antago­ nists was most profusely resorted to. The jovial, popular figure of Martin Luther, in particular, formed, as it well might, a very favourite piece de resistance for pictorial sa­ tirists in the old interest to work upon. One cut, preserved by Mr. Wright, ‘ taken from a contemporary engraving in wood, presents a rather fantastic figure of the demon play­ ing on the bagpipes. The instrument is formed of Luther’s head, the pipe through which the devil blows entering his ear, and that through which the music is produced forming an elongation of the reformer’s nose. It was a broad intimation that Lu­ ther was a mere tool of the evil one, created for the purpose of bringing mischief into the world.’ — p. 251. But, continues Mr. Wright, the reformers were more than a match for their opponents in this sort of warfare. Doctor Martin had been identi­ fied, for various cogent reasons, with Anti­ christ : — . • ‘ But the reformers had resolved, on what ap­ peared to be much more conclusive evidence, �/! . 561 IN LITERATURE AND ART.- that Antichrist was only emblematical of the [ he chose, to rank among the most original papacy : that under this form he had been long | as well as powerful of modern artists — the dominant on earth, and that the end of his reign I famous Jacques Callot, born at the end of was then approaching. A remarkable pamph­ I the century, in 1592 — a man, as Mr. let, designed to bring this idea pictorially before i Wright truly observes, who was destined the world, was produced from the pencil of Luther’s friend, the celebrated painter Lucas j not only to give a new character to the Cranach, and appeared in the year 1521, under ! then recent art of engraving on copper, the title of “ The Passionale of Christ and An­ | but also to bring in a new style of ludic­ tichrist.” It is a small quarto, each page of rous and fanciful composition. Inimita­ which is nearly filled by a woodcut, having a ble, however, as Callot’s works are, they few lines of explanation in German below. The belong rathesl to the class of ‘ caprices,’ cut to the left represents some incident in the or ‘ ex-travaganzas,’ than of caricature in life of Christ, while that facing it to the right the sense in which we have used it; for his gives a contrasting fact in the history of Papal genius had not the satirical turn, properly tyranny. Thus, the first cut on the left repre­ speaking: and the same may be said of his sents Jesus in His humility, refusing earthly dignities and power, while on the adjoining page most successful copyisfflDella Bella, a clever ) we see the Pope, with his cardinals and bishops, artist, but who never succeeded in equalling . supported by his hosts of warriors, his cannon his origin IM The works of Romain de and fortifications, in his temporal dominion over Hooghe, who, brought up in the merely exsecular princes. On another we have Christ travagant school of Callot, was extensively washing the feet of his disciples, and in con­ employed in producing ^satirical and em­ trast the Pope compelling the Emperor to kiss blematic representations of English political his toe. And so on, through a number of illus­ events after the Restoration, perhaps serve trations, until at last we come to Christ’s ascen­ sion into heaven, in contrast with which a troop as the connecting link between the old of demons, of the most varied and singular ‘ caprice ’ and the modern political carica­ forms, have seized upon the Papal Antichrist, ture. The need for pictorial representations to and are casting him down into the flames of hell, where some of his own monks wait to re­ stimulate the political feelings of the public, in times when literature was comparatively ceive him.’— p. 254. scanty, had been of course as keenly felt in This style of pictorial satire, as the ad­ England as in c®Br errantries $ but it was * vancing art of wood-engraving began more kept in check, through the public contests > and more to multiply specimens, attained, of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as we have said, much popularity in the six­ by the great inferioritjalof our artists, and teenth century in Germany, and extended particularly our engravers, to those of the itself from religious to political and purely Continent. Here and there we meet with social subjects. Its latest employment in ’striking exceptions. The vwodcuts to the those regions on a large and popular scale first edition of ‘Fox’s Martyrs’ contain, was perhaps during the Thirty Years’ War ; among the fearful scenes which they gener­ but the extremity to which that country was ally representkjcaricature likenesses of Gar­ reduced by that dreary contest seems to diner, Bonner, and other well-known per­ have extinguished its very life. The works sonages of the time, and are singularly pow­ of this class, disseminated through broad­ erful in execution. But the like of these sides, printed sheets, large illustrated folios are very few. One odd illustration, per­ and popular duodecimos, are frequently ex­ haps, of the need felt for these pictorial rep­ ecuted with considerable spirit as well as resentations, and the defectiveness of the humour. But often, and especially towards ordinary means for supplying it, is to be the latter portion of the period, they exhibit found in the peculiar taste of that age for a strong tendency to become pedantic and employing elaborate devices on banners allegorical. When the art of caricature, borne in procession or carried in the field, becoming over-learned, addresses itself to in order to stimulate the ardour of partisans. particular classes only, and requires a spe­ It will be remembered how the Scottish cial education in order to make its products Protestant lords took the field against understood, it may be-safely pronounced in Queen Mary with (among others) a great a declining condition. standard, on which the catastrophe of the Perhaps the most successful result of the Kirk of Field was represented, with the fig­ early wood cut-grotesque was, that it led the ure of Darnley lying on the ground, and. way for greater achievements in art; and the words ‘ Judge and revenge my cause, O its influence may be especially traced in the Lord.’ In the Great Rebellion such stand­ designs of one who deserves, notwithstand­ ards were abundantly used, chiefly on the ing the inferiority of the department which Royalist side, with devices both serious and THIRD SERIES. LIVING AGE. VOL. XXXII. 1476. V $ t �562 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND GROTE.SQUE of the caricature order. Here is an ex­ English specimens of art, at first few and ample of the latter, taken by the Round­ far between, began to make their way into heads at Marston Moor, described by Rush­ favour among these foreign importations; worth : — and it is just at this period (the reign of George I.) that we find them first exhibiting ‘ A yellow coronet: in its middle a lion couch­ the well-known advertisements,4 Printed for ant, and behind him a mastiff seeming to Carington Bowles, next the Chapter House snatch at him, and in a label from his mouth written, Kimboltoq: at his feet little beagles, in St. Paul’s Church Yard, London,’—a and before their mouths written, Pym, Pym, house famous in the same line for full a cen­ Pym : and out of the lion’s mouth these words tury afterwards. 4 It was a defect of the earlier publica­ proceeding, Quousque tandem abutere patientions of this class,’ says Mr. Wright in his tia nostra ? ’ earlier work, 4 that they partook more of Another curious vehicle of political cari­ an emblematical character than of what we cature in England, in the seventeenth cen­ now understand by the term 44 caricature.” tury, generally of very inferior order, was Even Hogarth, when he turned his hand to that of playing-cards. 4 The earliest of politics, could not shake off his old preju­ these packs of cards known,’ says Mr. dice on this subject; and it would be diffi­ Wright, is one which appears to have been cult to point out worse examples than the published at the very moment of the restora­ two celebrated publications which drew tion of Charles II., and which was perhaps upon him so much popular odium,44 The engraved in Holland. It contains a series Times.” ’ The reader will easily under­ of caricatures on the principal acts of the stand the distinction, though^it cannot of commonwealth, and on the parliamentary course be traced out with absolute accuracy leaders.’ The ace of diamonds, for instance, in comparing different pieces. A design, : represents 4 The High Court of Justice, or for example, in which political characters Oliver’s Slaughterhouse.’ Among other are represented under the guise of various packs of a" similar character which have animals, is generally emblematic or sym­ been preserved, one relates to the Popish bolical in character. This is a simple in­ Plot, another to the Ryehouse Conspiracy stance ; but the symbolism is often compli­ (published in Holland), another to the cated, and not easy of • comprehension. South Sea Bubble. Hence a necessity for long letterpress ex­ Romain de Hooghe, already mentioned planations in the form of labels issuing as a follower of Callot, became, together from the mouths of the characters, or other­ with others of his countrymen, as we have wise — a device showing inferiority of skill. seen, the great exponent of English political The most effective caricature explains it­ satires during the events of the last Stuart self, and exhibits point instead of allegory. . reigns. Their productions must have been The favourite plates of the first part of the widely circulated in England ; and, in fact, Georgian era, which appeared periodically, , superseded in public estimation the very about 1740, styled 4 The Series of Euro­ . inferior articles of domestic manufacture. pean State Jockies,’ and so forth, were This period of Dutch supremacy among us compositions of many figures, as hiero­ may be said to have continued down to the glyphical as the frontispiece to a prophetical • date of the South Sea Bubble aforesaid ■— almanac. The gradual way in which Eng­ ‘ the time,’ says Mr. Wright, 4 in which lish comic art became emancipated from ■ caricatures began to be common in Eng­ this somewhat pedantic mould may be illus­ land ; lor they had been before published at trated by a later instance, out of Gillray’s rare intervals, and "partook so much of the works. Charles Fox was represented by character of emblems that they are not the caricaturists of his youth with a fox’s easily understood.’ The earliest of these, head, as his father, Lord Holland, had al­ and the best, were of Dutch manufacture, most invariably been before him. And so yet these were negligently executed. 4 So he is in one or two of Gillray’s first prints. little point is there often in these carica­ But Gillray almost immediately abandoned tures, and so great appears to have been the the old usage, and gave the patriot his own call for them in Holland, that people seem burly physiognomy. The gradual passage to have looked up old engravings destined from the emblematic to the simply satirical ■ originally for a totally different purpose, completes the establishment of the modern . and, adding new inscriptions and new ex- English school of caricature. The nature of the change cannot be bet­ j planations, they were published as carical tures on the Bubble.’ * ter exemplified than by reference to a piece which had prodigious vogue in its day, and * House of Hanover, i, 71. �IN LITERATURE AND ART. / x , ■ • i ■ < ■ 563 is repeatedly mentioned with interest by described in the .verses accompanying the Horace Walpole and other contemporaries. print, which are wittier than the print Copies of it are still common in collections : itself. Its great success, however, was we have seen it even jconverted into the evinced by the numerous rival works of art mounting of a lady’s fan. This is headed of both political colours which it called, ‘ The Motion, 1741/ and commemorates the forth, ‘ the Reason, ‘ the Motive/ ‘ the failure of a famous attempt to upset Sir Grounds,’ &c. It may perhaps be said with Robert Walpole’s government. The back­ truth to be the prototype of that whole ground represents Whitehall, the Treasury, class of pictorial satires, great favourites and the adjoining buildings as they then | with Englishmen, in which the small revo­ stood. (The spectator is looking down lutions of ministries and oppositions are Whitehall from a point nearly opposite travestied as scenes of popular life. the modern Admiralty : to his left is a dead We need not delay over the other innu­ wall along the east side of the street, be- merable caricatures of the same reign; • hind it private buildings, Scotland Yard, they are generally very ignoble ones; but &c., extending as far as the Banqueting ghe comparative novelty of the fashion in House; in front, the gateway over the en­ England rendered them extremely popular, trance of what is now Parliament Street, and there was a kind of frank jollity pre­ with the inscription ‘ Treasury.’) dominant in the English body corporate *> just at that epoch — the epoch, as Hallam ‘Lord Carteret, in the coach, is driven to­ satisfied himself, of the maximum of physi­ ward the Treasury by the Duke of Argyll as cal well-being to be traced in our history coachman, with the Earl of Chesterfield as among the mass of the people — which postilion, who, in their haste, are overturning peculiarly suited this development of broad the vehicle; and Lord Carteret cries “ Let me get out!” The Duke brandishes a wavy national humour. One or two specimens sword, instead of a whip; and between his may detain for a moment the eyes of those legs the heartless changeling, Bubb Dodington, who turn them over, rare as they have now sits in the form of a spaniel. . i. . ' Lord generally become, in the collection at the Cobham holds firmly by the straps behind, as British Museum, or in that far more valua­ footman; while Lord Lyttelton follows on ble one amassed in many a year of busy horseback, characterised equally by his own collectorship by Mr. Hawkins, formerly of lean form, and that of the animal on which that establishment. There is a wild force he strides. ... In front, Pulteney, drawl in the very rough execution of the print on ing his partisans by the noses, and wheeling a barrow laden with the writings of the Opposi­ the original broadside of Glover’s famous tion, the Champion, the Craftsman, Common ballad, ‘ Hosier’s Ghost,’ in which the spirits Sense, &c., exclaims, “ Zounds, they’re of ‘ English captains brave,areally form a ours ! ’” * very spectral crew. Another may be noted for the quiet savageness of its insult to This once famous squib affords, as we Lord George Sackville: it is entitled, ‘ A have said, a good exemplification of the Design for a Monument to General Wolfe passage from the old and formal to the (1760), or, a Living Dog better than a Dead modern style of political caricature. It Lion.’ The dead lion reclines below a bust bears strongly the type of Dutch origin, of this hero : the living dog at his side is a but without the carefulness of Dutch ex­ greyhound, and on his collar is the word ecution. The idea is clever and suggestive, ‘ Minden.’ And, lastly, one more, for the but the workmanship at once artificial and very oddity of the conception : ‘ Our late feeble. The likenesses were no doubt Prime Minister,’ 1743. It is simply the jolly sufficiently good to amuse the public of that face of Sir Robert Walpole, without any day; Horace Walpole calls them 1 admira­ accessories whatever, thrown back as against ble ; ’ but they are inexpressive. The wavy a pillow, and the jaws relaxed into a most sword, a relic of the emblematic school, is contagious yawn, with the words, ‘ Lo, a clumsy piece of allegory, spoiling the what are all your schemes come to ? ’ and realism of the piece; and so is the figure the lines from the Dunciad : — of Pulteney, leading the Tory squires by cords passed through their noses. The ‘ Ev’n Palinurus nodded at the helm only fun in the composition is to be found The vapour mild o’er each Committee crept, in the figures of Bubb Dodington as a Unfinished treaties in each office slept, spaniel, and Lord Lyttelton on horseback And chiefless armies dozed out the campaign, — ‘ so long, so lean, so lank, so bony,’ as And navies yawned for orders on the main.’ * House of Hanover, i. 179. i We cannot, however, pass over the period �564 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND of George II. without noticing that it seems to us to be the first in which that much enduring animal, the British lion, figures extensively as a popular character. As yet, people’s eyes were not open to his ludicrous side, and artists accordingly made free with him in every variety of emblema­ tic action. We have him roaring with in­ dignation at the misdeeds of various Minis­ ters ; ‘ hocussed ’ apparently, and with the Spaniard paring his claws, in allusion to the matter of Jenkins’s ears: frightening the Gallic cock, defending the Austrian eagle, led passive in a leash by the Duke of Newcastle; and, lastly, ‘ embracing George II.’ (1745), to the discomfiture of the Pope and Pretender, who exclaim: ‘ We shall never be a match for George while that lion stands by him I ’ Some of the names of the hack carica­ turists of this epoch are preserved by Mr. Wright; most of them of as little notoriety as merit. Among them< however, are some amateurs of social position ; and one dame of quality—a Countess of Burlington. ‘ She was the lady of the Earl who built Burlington House in Piccadilly; was the leader of one of the factions in the Opera disputes at the close of the reign of George I.; and is understood to have designed the well-known caricature upon Cuzzoni, Fari­ nelli, and Heidegger, which was etched by Guppy, whom she patronised.’ Such were the very undistinguished characteristics and history of English art in the grotesque and comic line, when the appearance of Hogarth on the stage marked an entirely new epoch in its history. It would be superfluous here to recapitulate the details of the life or achievements of our great domestic painter; the more so, as his powers in the line of caricature, pro­ perly so called, though very great, were subordinate to his far higher merits as a painter of ‘ genre,’ as the French phrase it,1 a delineator of popular scenes and incidents into which the humorous only entered as an ingredient, although a very important one. As a political caricaturist poor Hogarth made a fatal mistake: he took the wrong side:— .. 4|< tjUlW ‘It appears evident,’ says Mr. Wright, ‘that before this time (October, 1760) Hogarth had gained the favour of Lord Bute, who, by his interest with the Princess of Wales, was all powerful in the household of the young Prince. The painter had hitherto kept tolerably clear of politics in his prints, but now, unluckily for himself, he suddenly rushed into the arena of political caricature. It was generally said that Hogarth’s object was, by displaying his; GROTESQUE 1,4 zeal in the cause of his patron, to obtain an in­ crease of his pension; and he acknowledges himself that his object was gain. “ This,” he says, “being a period when war abroad and contention at home engrossed everyone’s mind, prints were thrown in the background; and the stagnation rendered it necessary that I should do some timed thing to recover my lost time, and stop a gap in my income.” Accordingly he determined to attack the great minister Pitt, who had recently been compelled to re­ sign his office, and had gone over to the oppo­ sition. It is said that John Wilkes, who had previously been Hogarth’s friend, having been privately informed of his design, went to the painter, expostulated with him, and, as he con­ tinued obstinate, threatened retaliation.’ ‘ The Times, No. 1,’ was the first fruit of Hogarth’s unlucky fit of loyalty ; a labour­ ed emblematic print, after the. older fash­ ion, to the glory of Lord Bute and discredit of Pitt. Wilkes attacked the artist in the ‘ North Briton; ’ Hogarth retorted — only too successfully—in this admirable print of Wilkes with the cap of liberty: ‘ eventu­ que impalluit ipse secundo,’ for Wilkes, with all his apparent firn and bonhomie, was a deadly enemy. The nettled patriot brought his friend Churchill, and a host more of libellers in letterpress and in cop­ perplate, on the back of his unfortunate as­ sailant : — ‘ Parodies on his own works, sneers at his personal appearance and manners, reflections upon his character, were all embodied in prints which bore such names as Hogg-ass, Hoggart, O’Garth, &c. . . . The article by Wilkes in the “ North Briton,” and Churchill’s metri­ cal epistle, irritated Hogarth more than the hostile caricatures, and were generally believed to have broken his heart. He died on the 26 th of October, 1764, little more than a year after the appearance of the attack by Wilkes, and with the taunts of his political as well as his professional enemies still ringing in his ears.’ — pp. 446-449. Hogarth left no school of followers; his genius was of too independent and peculiar an order to admit of this. Perhaps the nearest to him was Paul Sandby; described by Mr. Wright as ‘ one of those rising artists who were offended by the sneering terms in which Hogarth spoke of all artists but him­ self, and foremost among those who turned their satire against him.’ Sanby was one of the original members of the Royal Ac ardemy, and is best known as a topographical draughtsman; but Mr. Wright terms him the father of water-colour art in England. As a caricaturist he led the attack against Lord Bute and the Princess Dowager, as �I' * > IN LITERATURE AND ART. well as against Hogarth ; his sketch of the two Scotchmen travelling to London on a witch’s broomstick, with the inscription, ‘ the land before them is as the Garden of Eden, and behind them a desolate wilder­ ness,’ is one of the best of the witticisms provoked by the miso-Caledonian movement of that day. We cannot quite dgree with Mr. Wright when he says that, ‘ with the overthrow of Bute’s Ministry (1763) we may consider the English school of caricaturists as completely formed and fully established.’ On the con­ trary, it seems to us, from such collections as we have examined, that the political branch of the art was at a particularly low standard for nearly twenty years after that event. The American war produced very little amuse­ ment of this kind; it was an affair into which the nation entered with a dogged and reluctant seriousness: and Washington and Franklin, Silas Deane and John Adams, afforded but drab-eoloured subjects for the facetious limner. Social topics were just then much more in vogue ; the extravagances in dress of the Macaronies and high-flying la­ dies'of the day (the acme of absurdity, in modern costume, was certainly reached in the years 1770-1780), the humours of Vauxhall,.and Mrs. Cornely’s masquerades, di­ verted men’s minds from the bitter disap­ pointment of a contest in which nothing was to be gained either by persevering or giving way. * Perhaps the best specimen of the pictorial humour of that time was to be found, not in the shop window prints! but in the pages of the numerous magazines; some of these never appeared without an illustration or two of the jocose order, like the comic newspapers of our time. But when the incubus of the American war was removed, and domestic faction reappeared on the stage in all its pristine vivacity, the simultaneous appearance of the ‘ Rolliad ’ and its fellow satires in literature, and of Gillray and his fellow-workmen in art, heralded the advent of a new era. We must hasten to him whom Mr. Wright terms, with perfect justice in our opinion, 1 the greatest of English caricaturists, and perhaps of all caricaturists of modern times whose works are known — James Gillray.’ His father was an out-pensioner of Chel* In one of the caricatures of this period (repro­ duced by Mr. Wright in his former work) Lord Sandwich is represented with a bat in his hand, in allusion, we are told, to his fondness for cricket; but it is a curved piece of wood, much more resem­ bling that with which golf is played. And the same peculiarly shaped instrument is put into the hand of a cricket-loving lady in a.print of 1778 (Miss Wicket and Miss Trigger).' What is the date of the bat now used ? . ‘ 565 sea Hospital, and sexton of the Moravian burial-ground at Chelsea, where the carica­ turist was born in 1757. Belonging by his origin, and still more by his loose and Bohe­ mian habits, to a very ordinary sphere of life, it is certainly singular that he should have acquired such a close observation and intimate knowledge of events as they oc­ curred, not only in the political, but in the fashionable world. His great sources of information were, no doubt, the newspa­ pers ; but occasionally he seems even to have anticipated the newspapers; more than one court scandal and state intrigue seems to have been blazoned first to public notice in the well-known shop windows of Hum­ phreys or of Fores, always crowded with loiterers as soon as one of Gillray’s novel­ ties appeared. It is no doubt true, and af­ fords a curious subject of speculation to any one who may think the inquiry worth pur­ suing, that, when Gillray’s fame was estab­ lished, many an amateur of the higher cir­ cles seems to have assisted him, not merely in furnishing hints, but also sketches, which Gillray etched and sold for his own profit. Some of his best caricatures, if we are not mistaken J are from outlines supplied by Bunbury, others were composed by Brown ' low North. But these are exceptions only, and do-not invalidate the general proposi­ tion as to the singularity of the circum­ stance that this drunken son of a sexton was for many years the pictorial Aristophanes of his day, and aided, at least, by those who were behind the sceMs. of much which took place in the inner recesses of high life. His fame as a political caricaturist was first established by his burlesque prints on Rodney’s victory (1782). The rueful figure of the unlucky French admiral De Grasse, in one of them, is among the most charac­ teristic of his performances. As we have said, it was some time before he thoroughly emancipated himself from the allegorical style ; and another peculiarity of inferior ar­ tists haunted him a long' time, the fashion, namely, of overloading his compositions with quantities of letter-press, oratorical or jocose, proceeding from the mouths of his characters, as if his pencil had not been fully powerful enough to speak for itself. He rushed with an energy all his own into the war of squibs which succeeded the Fox and North coalition, and then conceived those ideals of the leading patriot, and of his friend Burke, which he afterwards rendered popular in every corner of the kingdom by a thousand repetitions. A very admirable series of sketches, however, of these two �566 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND GROTESQUE and Lord North, as ‘War, Peace, and Neither War nor Peace,’ portraits scarcely touched with grotesque, though in skilfully exaggerated attitudes, commonly inserted in the bound volumes of Gillray’s works, is, we are satisfied, not his; it bears much more the appearance of Sayer’s workman­ ship. Fox and his personal following were peculiarly the objects of Gillray’s aversion ; and, not many years later than this, the unhappy circumstances of the Prince of Wales’s matrimonial career provoked him into a series of the most popular, daring, and spirited of all his works; some of which, however, it is not easy in our decent age to indicate even by reference, though they seem to have been exposed without scandal in the most frequented thoroughfares of Lon­ don. Gillray, however, was ‘ not a hired libeller,’says Mr. Wright,‘like Sayer and some other of the lower caricaturists of that time: he evidently chose his subjects in some degree independently, as those which offered him the best mark for ridicule; and he had so little respect for the ministers or the court, that they all felt his satire in turn.’ After exhausting his power of picto­ rial invention against the heir apparent, he found a still more congenial subject of 1 satire in the peculiarities of his Majesty George III. himself. Here, however, per­ sonal spite is said to have given the induce­ ment. ‘ According to a story which seems to be authentic, Gillray’s dislike of the King was em­ bittered bv an incident somewhat similar to that by which George II. had provoked the anger of Hogarth. Gillray had visited France, Flanders, >and Holland, and he had made sketches, a few of which he had engraved. He accompanied the painter Loutherbourg, who had left his native city of Strasburg to settle in England, and became the King’s favourite artist, to assist him in making groups for his great painting of the ‘ Siege of Valenciennes,’ Gillray sketching groups of figures while .Loutherbourg drew the landscapes and build­ ings. After their return, the King expressed a desire to see these sketches, and they were placed before him. Louthesbourg’s landscapes and buildings were plain drawings, and easy to understand, and the King expressed himself greatly pleased with them. But the King’s mind was already predjudiced against Gillray for his satirical prints : and when he saw his hasty and rough, though spirited sketches of the French soldjers, he threw them aside con­ temptuously with the remark, “ I don’t under­ stand these caricature fellows.” Perhaps the „ very word he used was intended as a sneer upon Gillray, who, we are told, felt the affront deeply, and he proceeded to retort by a carica­ ture which struck at once at one of the King’s vanities, and at his political predjudices. George III. imagined himself a great connois­ seur in the Fine Arts, and the caricature was entitled “ a connoisseur examining a Cooper’.”' It represented the King looking at the celebrat­ ed miniature of Oliver Cromwell, by the Eng­ lish painter, Samuel Cooper. When Gillray had completed this print, he is said to have ex­ claimed, “I wonder if the Royal connoisseur will understand this!” It was published on the 18th of June, 1792, and cannot have failed to produce sensation at that period of revolu­ tions. The King is made to exhibit a strange mixture of alarm with astonishment hi contem­ plating the features of this great overthrower of kingly power, at a moment when all kingly power was threatened. It will he remarked, too, that the satirist has not overlooked the royal character for domestic economy; the King is looking at the picture by the light of a candle end stuck on a save-all.’ If there is any truth in the story, certainly never was artist’s revenge more completeThe homely features of the poor old king — his prominent eyes, light eyebrows, pro­ truding lips, his shambling walk, his gaze of eager yet vacant curiosity — are even now better known to us through Gillray’s carica­ tures than through anything which theMuses of painting and sculpture, in their serious moods, could effect for him or against him. Gillray’s etchings, and Peter Pindar’s verses, were for years among the minor plagues of royalty. Not, indeed, in the estimation of the stout-hearted monarch himself, as impervious to ridicule as to argument whenever he thought himself in the right; no man in his dominions laughed more regularly at each hew caricature of Gillray than he ; and a whole set, inscribed ‘ for the king,’ forwarded to him as they came out, is said to be preserved at Wind­ sor. But they were more keenly felt by his little knot of attached courtiers, and also by sober-minded people in general, seriously apprehensive, in those inflammable times, of anything which might throw ridi­ cule on the Crown. One of the coarsest and most powerful, and which is said to have given especial offence at head-quarters, is that which represents Queen Charlotte as Milton’s Sin, between Pitt as Death and Thurlow as the Devil. Others, of less virulence, such as ‘ Affability,’ or the King and the Ploughman ; the ‘ Lesson in Apple Dumplings ; ’ the conjugal breakfast scene, where George is toasting muffins, and Char­ lotte frying sprats; the ‘ Anti-Saccharites,’ where the Royal pair are endeavouring to coax the reluctant princesses (charming figures) to take their tea without sugar, — these, and numbers more, held up the Royal �IN LITERATURE AND ART. 567 peculiarities, especially the alleged stingi­ wild and extravagant now grew on him. ness of the Court, in a manner in which the Doubtless it was sharpened by the effect on usual coarseness of the execution rather his brain of constant potations, which grad­ tended to heighten the exceeding force and ually brought on delirium tremens. His latest art-debauches — if such we may term humour of the satire. But when this country became seriously them — have often a touch of phantasma­ involved in hostilities with France, repub­ goric-pictorial nightmare, like those of Callot, lican, and afterwards imperial, a change Teniers, and Hollenbreughel. His last draw­ came over the spirit of Gillray’s satire. ing is preserved in the British Museum, exe­ Thenceforth he gradually ceased his at­ cuted when he was quite out of his mind — a tacks, not only on the Royal family, but on madman’s attempt at a portrait, said to be domestic objects of raillery in general, and that of Mr. Humphreys, the printseller. He applied himself almost exclusively to sharp­ died in 1815 ; and the inscription 4 Here lies ening the national spirit of hostility against James Gillray, the caricaturist,’ marks, or the foreign enemy. His caricatures against lately marked, the spot of his interment in the French are those by which he is best the Broadway, Westminster. His works, known, especially abroad, and occupy the once so popular, had fallen so much in greatest space in his works. This was, no fashion a few years ago that the plates were doubt, the popular line to take, and Gillray about to be sold for old copper, when they worked for money; but it would be doing were rescued by Mr. J. H. Bohn, the pub­ great injustice to the poor caricaturist’s lisher, who gave to the public those now memory to suppose that money was his well-known re-impressions which have pro­ main object. The son of the old pensioner cured for the artist a new' lease of fame. Gillray was the Rubens of caricature, and was full of the popular instincts of his class. It was not the French revolution or con­ the comparison is really one which does no quests that he opposed; it was the French injustice to the inspired Fleming. The life­ themselves, whom he hated with all the ve­ like realism of the Englishman’s boldlyhemence of a Nelson or a Windham. rounded, muscular figures, and the strong These later compositions of his are, indeed, expression communicated to them by a few marvellous performances. But they are so strokes of the pencil, are such as Antwerp rather from the intensity of imaginative fu­ in all her pride might not disdain. Any ry with which they are animated, than from one who has studied some of Rubens’s crowds of nude figures which approach the ordinary qualities of the caricaturist. They are comparatively destitute of his nearest to the order of caricature — his old humour and fun. Not that he had out­ sketches of the4 Last Judgment,’for instance, grown these. His few domestic caricatures in the Munich Gallery —■ will appreciate the are still full of them; such are those on justice of the parallel. Gillray was undoubt­ 4 All the Talents ’ (1806), one of which, the edly coarse to excess, both in conception 4 Funeral of Baron Broadbottom,’ is among and execution ; so much so, as to render his the most comic of all his productions. The last works mere objects of disgust to many ed­ survivor of its procession of mourners, the ucated in the gentler modern school. But late Marquis of Lansdowne, has now been there are also numbers of a taste more re­ dead for some years ; the features of the re­ fined than catholic, who disclaim all admira­ mainder are quite unfamiliar to this genera­ tion for Rubens on the very same grounds. tion ; and yet it is scarcely possible to look And one quality Gillray possessed which at it even now without a smile, such as we was apparently discordant from his ordinary bestow on the efforts of our cotemporaries character. Many of his delineations of female Leech or Doyle. But when Gillray tried beauty ■ are singularly successful, and he his vein on a French subject, he passed at seems to have dwelt on them with special once from the humourous to the grotesque, pleasure, for the sake of the contrast with and thence to the hideous and terrible. his usual disfigurements of humanity. His One of his eccentric powers, amounting heroines are certainly not sylphs, but they certainly to genius, comes out strongly in often are, like the celestials of Rubens, un­ these later caricatures ; that of bringing to­ commonly fine women. Let us refer to a gether an enormous number of faces, dis­ few well-known instances only ; such as his torted into every variety of grimace, and representations of Mrs. Fitzherbert at her yet preserving a wonderfully human ex­ best time, notwithstanding the. prominence pression. We would signalise particularly of the aquiline feature, which it was his two, one almost tragical, thh 4 Apotheosis of business to enhance ; of George III.’s daugh­ Hoche;’ one farcical, the ‘Westminster ters in the 4 Anti-Saccharites,’ and other Election’ (1804). The tendency to the prints; the Duchess of Richmond as the �.. 568 1 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND GROTESQUE ‘ Height of Fashion; ’ the charming seated figure entitled ‘ Modern Elegance,’ 1795 (said to be Lady Charlotte Campbell, but is it not an older person ?), in which, though the costume is playfully exaggerated, the features are finely drawn; the beauty (evi­ dently a portrait also) who is reading Monk Lewis’s ‘Tales of Wonder’ to a' bevy of I very homely gossips (1802); and even the I common ball-room figures, in ‘ A Broad 1 1'Hint of not meaning to Dance’ (1804), in which, however, the design is Brownlow North’s. Still, we fear that Gillray must be gener­ ally comprehended in the somewhat auda­ cious assertion of M. Champfleury, that ‘satirists, from Moliere down to Prudhon, only recognise two conditions for women — those of courtezan and housewife.’ It will be seen that several of our instances are taken from what may be termed social, in contradistinction to political, caricatures, many of which are quite equally worthy of the master, although not those on which his popularity mainly rests. They are often of a libellous boldness, inconceivable now-adays, and equally so in earlier times; for the generation to which Gillray belonged stood out in bad pre-eminence among all others in English domestic history in respect of this particular kind of coarseness — a generation which could see exposed in the shop-windows such shameless pictorial sa­ tires as those directed against Lady Arch­ er, and other dames of gambling celebrity; or the representation of the dashing daugh, ters of a countess as the ‘ Three Graces in a High Wind; ’ or of a titled beauty nurs­ ing her infant in a ball-dress, as the ‘ Fash­ ionable Mamma; ’ or of Lady Cecilia John­ ston, an inoffensive lady, of unobtrusive style as well as character, against whom it is said the artist had conceived some grudge, which induced him spitefully to represent her in all manner of ludicrous situations. Others of this class, it may be added, related to darker scandals behind the scenes, and may not now be met with in the ordinary collections of Gillray’s works, though they excited little comment, and no disgust, in his day. To pass again, for one moment only, from Gillray’s merit as an artist, to his specialty as a caricaturist; his strong i power of seizing likenesses, and giving them ! a ludicrous expression, was, no doubt, the 1 chief element of his popularity. In this he surpassed all his predecessors, though he has been equalled by one or two of his succes­ sors. But in one bye-quality we are in­ clined to think him unrivalled: the faculty of giving by a few touches a kind of double expression to a countenance; cowardice underlying bravado; impudence, affected, modesty. See, as a specimen, the exceedingly comic representation of Addington and Napoleon, sword in hand, daring each other to cross the Channel which flows between them. A single figure of Burke as an ‘Uniform Whig’ (1791), admirably drawn in other respects, conveys much of this mingled meaning, though not quite so easily decipherable. The sage is lean­ ing against a statue of George III.; he holds in one hand Burke’s ‘ Thoughts on the Revolution,’ in the other a cap of liber­ ty ; the motto, ‘ I preserve my consistency, by varying my means to secure the unity of my end.’ The caricaturist’s experience had attained for once to ‘something like prophetic strain.’ His facility of execution was wonderful. It must, no doubt, be added, as a natural qualification of such praise, that his drawing is often incorrect and careless in the extreme, even after all allowance for what we have never seen fully explained, the vast difference, in point of excellence, between various copies of what is apparently the same print. He is said ‘to have .etched his ideas at once upon £he copper, without making a previ­ ous drawing, his only guides being sketches of the distinguished characters he intended to produce, made on small pieces of card, which he always carried about with him.’ Of Rowlandson (born 1756, died 1827), Mr. Wright speaks in high terms of praise, saying that he ‘ doubtlessly stands second to ■ Gillray, and may, in some respects, be con­ sidered as his equal. . He was distin­ guished by a remarkable versatility of tal­ ent, by a great fecundity of imagination, and by a skill in grouping quite equal to that of Gillray, and with a singular ease in forming his groups of a great variety of figures. It has been remarked, too, that no artist ever possessed the power of Rowland­ son of expressing so much with so little ef­ fort.’ We are sorry that we cannot, for our own parts, subscribe to these eulogies. As a political caricaturist — to which line he resorted as a matter of trade, espousing the Whig side as others did the Tory — he seems to us dujl enough. In general sub­ jects he succeeded better, yet appears to us endowed with all Gillray’s coarseness, but with little of his satirical power and none of his artistic genius. James Sayer, cotemporary with these two as an artist, deserves mention as pos­ sessed of a certain amount of original tai-' ent, though not of a very high order. He was ‘ a bad draughtsman,’ says Mr. Wright �IN LITERATURE AND ART. —- surely too sweeping a criticism — ‘ and his pictures are produced more by labour than by skill in drawing, but they possess a considerable amount of humour.’ His like­ nesses, generally produced by a small num­ ber of hard and carefully-executed lines, seem to us of great merit as such, though wanting in life and energy. He was almost exclusively a political caricaturist, and, unlike the reckless ^but independent Gillray, he turned his talents to good ac. count, devoting himself to the cause of Pitt, who bestowed on him in return the ‘ not , unlucrative offices of Marshal of the Court of Exchequer, Receiver of the Sixpenny Dues, and Cursitor.’ His most famous production was the well-known ‘ Carlo ' Khan’s Triumphal Entry into Leadenhallstreet’ (on the occasion of Fox’s India Bill, 1783), still common in collections. Butthis succeeded chiefly because it fell in with the humour of the time; though the idea is good, the execution is cold, and it is encum­ bered with symbolical accessories, after the older fashion which we have described. Among his minor works, an unfinished proof of Boswell, Mrs. Piozzi, and others of the Johnsonian clique, with the ghost of the Doctor himself scowling at them from above, exhibits a good deal of his peculiar laborious talent. Our catalogue of cotemporaries would hardly be complete without including in it the clever and goodhumoured amateur Henry Bunbury, though no dabbler in State affairs, like jGillray and Sayer. Bunbury had (as Mr. Wright says) ‘ little taste for political caricature, and seldom meddled with it. He preferred scenes of social life and humourous incidents of cotemporary manners, fashionable or popular.’ It may be added that he does not seem to have often inserted portraits in his .pieces. He was rather the forerunner of the modern French ' school of grotesque artists ‘ de genre,’ of whom we shall have a word to say presently. His drawing, says Mr. Wright, ‘ was often bold and good, but he had little skill in etching.’ After some early essays in that line, “ his designs were engraved by various persons, and his own style was sometimes modified in this pro­ cess.’ We have ourselyes seen original drawings by his hand, very superior both in force and refinement to the coarse style of the ordinary plates which bear his name. z Perhaps the best known and most ludicrous t of his compositions are his illustrations of ‘ Geoffry Gambado’s Art of Horsemanship.’ Bunbury was brother to the baronet who married Lady Sarah Lennox, and himself 569 husband of one of Goldsmith’s’ favourite Miss Hornecks. He died in 1811, the date of his last work, ‘ A Barber’s Shop in Assize Time,’ engraved by Gillray. Passing over Isaac Cruikshank — a very prolific artist of the same period with Gill­ ray, of whom he was a pretty close imitator — we arrive at his illustrious son George, who still survives to connect our era with the last. He is now almost forgotten as a political caricaturist, in which line he em­ barked, fifty years ago, under the auspices of his father, but soon abandoned it to achieve his peculiar andaunique celebrity as an etcher of small figures, chiefly in the way of illustrations to letterpress, in which humour and the most exquisite appreciation of the ludicrous alternate with beauty and pathos of no common order. ‘ The ambi­ tion of George Cruikshank,’ says Mr. Wright, ‘ was to draw what Hogarth called moral comedies, pictures of society through a series of acts and scenes, always pointed with some great moral; and it must be con­ fessed that he has, through a long career, succeeded admirably.’ Every one is aware of the zeal with which the amiable artist has devoted himself to promote the public good by this employment of his brain, of which an amusing illustration is furnished by the current story — for the truth of which, however, we will by no means vouch — that he insisted on formally presenting his ‘Drunkard’s Progress’ to her Majesty! And yet, to our taste, George Cruikshank’s most ambitious attempts in this line are scarcely equal to the trifling productions which he has now and then thrown off in mere exuberance of genius and animal spirits. The first edition of a little book, entitled ‘ German Popular Stories,’ which appeared in 1834 (the letterpress was by the late Mr. Jardine), contains, on the mi­ nutest possible scale, some of the most per-1feet gems, both of humour and gracefulness, which are anywhere to be found. The reader need only cast his eye on ‘ Cherry, or the Frog-Bride ; ’ the ‘ Tailor and the Bear-; ’ ‘ Rumpelstiltskin,’ and the inimi­ table procession of country folks jumping into the lake after the supposed flocks of sheep in ‘ Pee-wit,’ to learn how much of fun, and grotesque, and elegance of figures also, and beauty of landscape, may be conveyed in how few lines. The history of English caricature of the Georgian era would be incomplete without a notice of the various printsellers who supplied the material to the public, and whose shop-windows furnished, not so many years ago, favourite stages or stations, as it �570 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND were, for the wandering Cockney, on his peregrinations between East and West; and with this Mr. Wright has accordingly fur­ nished us. Perhaps the most celebrated were Humphreys, of New Bond-street and Piccadilly (whom, however, Mr. Wright does not mention), and Fores. ‘ S. W. Fores dwelt first at No 3, Piccadilly, but afterwards establishe i himself at No. 50, the corner of Sackville Street, where the name still remains. Fores seems to have been most fertile in ingenious expedients for the extension of his business. He formed a sort of library of cari­ catures, and other prints, and charged for ad­ mission to look at them; and he afterwards adopt­ ed a system of lending them out in portfolios for evening parties, at which these portfolios of car­ icatures became a very fashionable amusement in the latter part of the last century. At times some remarkable curiosity was employed to add to the attractions of his shop. Thus, on carica­ tures published in 1790, we find the statement that “ In Fores Caricature Museum is the completest collection in the kingdom. Also the Head and Hand of Count Struenzee. Admit­ tance, one shilling.” Caricatures against the French revolutionists, published in 1793, bear imprints stating that they were “ published by S. W. Fores, No. 3 ,Piccadilly, where may be seen a Complete Model of the Guillotine. Ad­ mittance, one shilling.” In some this model is said to be six feet high.’ Mr. Wright closes his list with George Cruikshank, as the last representative of the great school of caricaturists formed in the reign of George HI. But there is anoth­ er, still living among us, whose experience as an artist goes very nearly back to that reign, and who may be in the most literal sense called the last of the political caricatu­ rists as he is considered by many the best — Mr. Doyle, the world-famous H.B. of the past generation. Those who belonged to it can well remember the height of popularity which his lithographed sketches achieved, the little blockades before the shop-windows in St. James’s-street and the Flaymarket whenever a new one appeared, and the con­ venient topic of conversation which it was sure to afford to men of the clubs, when meet­ ing each other on the pavement. For it was to critics of this class that H.B. particularly addressed himself. His productions wanted the popular vigour of those of Gillray and his school. But it is to Mr. Doyle’s high honour that they were also entirely free from the scandalous coarseness of his predecessors, and that he showed the English public how the purposes of political satire could be fully se­ cured without departing a hand’s breadth from the dignity of the artist or the charac­ GROTESQUE ter of the gentleman. As a delineator of figures, we cannot esteem him very success­ ful. They run too much into the long and lanky; portions of the outline, the extremities in particular, are often almost effeminate in their refinement: when he attempts a really broad, bluff personage, he is apt to produce the effect of a fine gentleman masquerading as a Falstaff. But it was in the likeness of his portraits, and their expression, that his chief and singular merit consisted. And in these, again, his success was extremely va­ rious. His fortune, in a professional sense, may be said to have been made by three faces — those of the Duke of Wellington, King William IV., and Lord Brougham. The provoking, sly no-meaning, establishing itself on the iron mask of the first; the goodhumoured, embarrassed expression of the second; the infinite variety of grotesque fancies conveyed in the contorted features of the third ; these were reproduced, week after week, for years, with a variety and fertility perfectly astonishing. In other cases he never could succeed in hitting off even a tolerable likeness : of his hundred or so representations of the late Sir Robert Peel, we do not recollect one which conveys to us any real remembrance of the original. The Peel of caricaturists in general, not only of H.B.,was a conventional person­ age ; .as is, though in a less marked degree, the Gladstone of our present popular artists. Still more remarkable was the failure of H.B., in common with his predecessors, in catching the likeness of Gtsorge IV. In all the countless burlesque representations of that personage, from the handsome youth of 1780 to the puffy veteran of 1827, there are scarcely any which present a tolerable re­ semblance. The courtly Lawrence suc­ ceed in portraying him well enough ; the caricaturists, usually so happy, never. H. B.’s published sketches amount to some nine hundred, and afford a capital key to the cabinet and parliamentary history of Eng­ land, from the Ministry of Wellington to the end of Lord Melbourne’s. While num­ bers of them *o credit to the artist’s politi­ d cal sagacity as well as his skill, we cannot forbear to notice one which, to our present notions, illustrates the ‘ nescia mens hominum fati sortisque futurse ’ — produced when the Tories, to whom H.B. appertain­ ed with all his heart, anticipated the tri­ umphs of French over English diplomacy under the conduct of our then Foreign Sec­ retary : it is No. 171 in the series, ‘The Lame leading the Blind: ’ Lord Palmers­ ton, guided into a ditch by Talleyrand. With the renowned H. B. the line of regu- �IN LITERATURE AND ART. lar British caricaturists closes. The taste of the nation has sought another direction. But do not let us be misunderstood. The spir­ it of the' art survives, and will do so as long as England is a free country and Englishmen retain a sense of the ludicrous ; but its form is so completely changed, by the substitu­ tion of the cheap illustrated newspaper for the comparatively expensive broad-sheet of the last century, that a more convenient moment could not be found, for closing the old chapter in artistic history and beginning a new one, than that in. which Doyle ceas­ ed his labours and the ‘ Punch ’ school of satirists began theirs. The very distinct mode of treatment which the small size of the modern comic newspaper, compared with the old sheet, necessarily requires, combines with other causes of difference to render this new school something quite apart from the old one. Its success must needs be obtained more through skill in the delinea­ tion of individual faces, and compactness of wit in the 1 motive ’ of the composition, than through breadth of treatment, or (generally speaking) through talent for grouping. In the delineation of faces, however, and es­ pecially in portrait, which is the specialty of political caricature, the designers with whom we are now dealing have an immense advantage over those of former times, in being able to use the results of the art of photography. Photographs of faces and fig­ ures, always at hand, are a very superior class of auxiliaries to those hasty ‘ drawings on bits of card ’ with which Gillray was wont to content himself. The popularity which our present favourites have earned is prob­ ably more real, certainly much more exten­ sive, than that gained by their most success­ ful predecessors, from Hogarth to Cruik-1 shank : with whose names that of Leech, so lately lost to us, and of his living associates and rivals, of whom we need only name Doyle the younger and John Tenniel as specimens, will assuredly find their places in the future annals of art. But, arrived at this turning point, we must take farewell of our subject, devoting only a few pages more to the cotemporary history of modern French caricature, on which Mr. Wright (to our regret) does not enter. We had hoped to derive considerable assistance for this purpose from a new publication of our friend M. Champfleury, entitled ‘ Histoire de la Caricature Moderne,’ which has just fallen into our hands ; but although the title is thus comprehensive, the contents reduce themselves to a few lively pages of panegyric on two or three recent artists, which seem to be diotated’in great measure by personal feelings. I 571 The general subject can be nowhere so well studied in a summary way as in the two volumes of M. Jaime (‘ Musee de la Carica­ ture’), with very fairly executed illustra­ tions, to which we can only apply the an­ cient reproach, ‘ tantamne rem tarn negligenter; ’ for M. Jaime has but treated' the matter in a perfunctory way, as if afraid of dwelling too much on it. It has not, however, the interest which attaches either to the coarser but bolder style of art inaug­ urated by the Germans in the sixteenth cen­ tury, or to that which prevailed in the great English age of political caricature. Callot was indeed aJFrenchman, by race at least, though born in Lorraine, then independ­ ent ; but his associations were more with the school of the Netherlands than that of France. Nor had he any followers of note in the latter country. The jealous wake­ fulness of French government, and the cold and measured style which French art de­ rived from a close addiction to supposed classical models, were both alike unfavoura­ ble to the development of the artistic empire of ‘ Laughter, holding both his sides.’ French artists of the eighteenth century for the most part touched ludicrous subjects in a decorous and timid way, as if ashamed of them. As the literature of theEeountry is said to abound in wit, while it is poor in hu­ mour, so its pictorial talent found vent rath­ er in the neat and effective K tableau de genrejlthan in the irregularity of the gro­ tesque ; or, to employ another simile, French cbmic art was to English as the genteel comedy to the screaming farce. And the same was the case (to treat the subject briefly) with that of other nations over which France exercised predominant influ­ ence. Chodowiecki was the popular Ger­ man engraver of domesti(?fecenes in the last century, and his copper-plates have great delicacy of execution and considerable pow­ er of expression. He was in high vogue for the purpose of illustrating with cuts the novels and the poetry of the great age of German literature, and his productions are extraordinarily numerous. But he habitu­ ally shrank from the grotesque. His ad­ mirers styled him the German Hogarth — a comparison which he, we are told, rejected with some indignation, and which Hogarth, could he have known it, would certainly have rejected likewise; for Chodowiecki, with all his other merits, very seldom ap­ proaches the ludicrous, and never soars to the height or descends to the depth of cari­ cature. The unbounded licence of the first French Revolution, and the strange mixture of the burlesque with the terrible which attended �572 A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND its progress, gave of course for some years the most favourable opportunities possible for the exercise of pictorial wit, so far as the nation possessed it. There can be no great­ er treat to one who loves to tread the by­ ways of history, often the shortest cuts to truth, than to turn over the series of those magnificent volumes in the Imperial Libra­ ry of Paris, in which the whole pictorial an­ nals of the last century or so in France are preserved; everything arranged as nearly as may be in order of date, and not of sub­ jects : portraits, festal shows and triumphs, processions, battles, riots, great events, rep­ resented under every form down to the rough newspaper woodcut and street carica­ ture, unrolling in one vast phantasmagoria before the eye. We have much that is val­ uable and useful in our Museum, but noth­ ing, in the matter of historical art, compara­ ble to this collection. An inadequate idea of it only can be formed from the miscella­ neous contents of the well-known three fo­ lio volumes of prints, entitled ‘ Tableaux de la Revolution Francaise.’ The earlier part of the caricatures of that age are the most humourous and also the best executed. As the tragedy deepened, fun became more and more out of place; and the satirists who had seen its outbreak having most of them lost their heads or fled the country, the business fell into the hands of more vulgar workmen. One of the first (1788) may be mentioned, not so much for its execution, which is tame enough, as because it is (as far as we know) the real original of a piece of wit which has since made its fortune in every language, and been falsely attributed to many facetious celebrities. Calonne, as a monkey, has assembled his 1 notables,’ a flock. of barn-door fowl. ‘ Mes chers administres, je vous ai rassembles pour savoir a quelle sauce vous voulez etre manges.’ ‘Maisnous ne voulons pas etre manges du tout.’ ‘ Vous vous ecartez de la question.’ But French art, as we have seen, refined and softened into effeminacy under the class civilization of the ancien regime, and ren­ dered prudish also by its adherence to classi­ cal models, had its decorum soon shocked by too coarse intermixture of the grotesque. In­ deed, the reason often given by Frenchmen of the last generation for the acknowledged inferiority of their caricatures to ours, was the superiority of French taste, which could not accommodate itselfto ‘ignoble’ exaggeration. On the whole, therefore, those of the revo-< lutionary series of which we have been speaking are more interesting, historically, and also from the keen wit of ten developed in them, than from their execution. There GROTESQUE is no French Gillray or Rowlandson. Here and there, however, among a multitude of inferior performances, the eye is struck by one really remarkable as a work of a higher order than our English cotemporary series could furnish. Such is the famous ‘ Arresta-' tion du Roi d Varennes,’ 1791. The wellknown features of the Royal party, seated at supper with lights, are brought out with a force worthy of Rembrandt, and with slight but marked caricature; while the fierce, excited patriotic figures, closing in on them from every side, have a vigour which is really terrific. Another, in a different style, is the ‘ Interieur d’un Comite Revolutionnaire,’ 1793. It is said, indeed, to have been designed by a first-rate artist, Fragonai’S, one who doubtless wrought with a will, for he had prostituted his very considerable talents to please the luxurious profligacy of the last days of the ancient regime, and the stern Revolution had stopped his trade, an­ nihilated his effeminate customers, and re­ duced him to poverty. Fragonard’s powers as a caricaturist are characterised by a wellknown anecdote. He was employed in painting Mademoiselle Guimard, the famous dancer, as Terpsichore; but the lady quar­ relled with him, and engaged another to complete the work. The irritated painter got access to the picture, and with three or four strokes of his brush turned the face of Terp­ sichore into that of a fury. The print now in question is a copper-plate, executed with exceeding delicacy of touch. A dozen fig­ ures of men of the people, in revolutionary costume, are assembled round a long table in a dilapidated hall of some public building. A young ‘ ci-devant,’ his wife and child, are introduced through an open door by an ush­ er armed with a pike. If the artist’s inten­ tion was to produce effect by the contrast of these three graceful figures with the vulgar types of the rest of the party, he has suc­ ceeded admirably. They are humbly pre­ senting their papers for examination ; but it is pretty clear that the estimable commit­ teeman, to whom the noble is handing his passport, cannot read it. The cunning, quiet, lawyer-like secretary of the commit­ tee, pen in hand, is evidently doing all its work. At the opposite end of the table an excited member is addressing to the walls what must be an harangue of high elo­ quence ; but no one is listening to him, and the two personages immediately behind him are evidently determined to hear no noise but their.own. But our favourite figure — and one well worthy of Hogarth — is that of the sentinel off duty: he is seated beside a bottle, pike in hand, enjoying his long pipe, �iwinM i^i i IN LITERATURE AND ART. 573 and evidently, from the expression of his tember. It had a brief and feverish revi­ face, far advanced from the excited into the val under the Republic of 1848 ; some of meditative stage of convivial patriotism. A its productions in that period are worth a placard on the door announces, somewhat moment’s notice, both from their execution contradictorily as well as ungrammatically, and good humour: we remember two ‘ Ici on se tutoyent: fermez la porte s’il vous of the class of general interest; the 1 Ap­ plait! ’ Altogether there is much more of parition du Serpent de Mer,’ a boat full of the comic than the ferocious about the pa­ kings, startled by the appearance of the new triots ; and one may hope that the trembling Republic as the problematical monster of family, for whom it is impossible not to feel the deep ; and the ‘ Ecole de Natation,’ in an interest, will this time be ‘ quittespourla which the various Kings and Emperors.of peur.’ Europe are floundering in a ludicrous, variThe popular governments — Revolutiona­ ety of attitudes among the billows of revo­ ry and of the First Empire — easily tamed lution, while the female rulers of Britain, the spirit of caricature, as they did that of Spain, and Portugal are kept afloat by their more dangerous enemies, and it only revived crinolines. But under the decorous rule of when France was replaced under the. tyran­ the Empire, no such violation of the re­ ny of legitimacy. There is a great deal of spect due to constituted authorities at home merit in those on the Bonapartist side, of is any longer tolerate^, while ridicule, 1814 and 1815 ; many of them appear to be even of foreign potentates, is permitted executed by some one clever artist, to us un­ only under polite restrictions. Debarred known. We will only notice one of them,' from this mode of expressing itself, French the ‘Voeu d’un Royaliste, ou la seconde en­ gaiety finds one of its principal outlets, in tree triomphante.’ Louis XVIII. is mounted the more innocent shape of social carica­ behind a Cossack — the horse and man are ture, which was never so popular, or culti­ admirably drawn—while the poor King’s vated by artists of so much eminence, as expression, between terror and a sense’ of within the last thirty years. And here we the ludicrous of his position, is worthy of the must notice a singular change in French best efforts of Gillray or Doyle. workmanship, which appears to us to have Caricature continued to be a keen party been occasioned chiefly or wholly by the weapon in France through the period of introduction of lithography. We have al­ the Restoration, and in the early years of ready observed how much difficulty its art­ Louis Philippe. The latter monarch’s head ists found in departing from the rules of especially, under the resemblance of a pear, classical outline and correct drawing, so which Nature had rendered appropriate, long as the old-fashioned line engraving was popularised in a thousand ludicrous or prevailed, and the consequent inferiority of ignominious representations; his Gillray French to English caricature in breadth, was Honore Daumier, a special friend and its superiority in congjlmess. The intro­ favourite of M. Champfleury, but in whom duction and great popularity of lithography we are unable ourselves to recognize more in'France seems to have altogether changed than secondary merit. ‘ Entre tous, Dau­ the popular taste. Artists now dash off, mier fut celui qui accommoda la poire aux rather than embody, their humorous con­ sauces les plus diverses. Le roi avait une ceptions in the sketchiesLof all possible honnete physionomie, large et etouffee. styles, and that which affords the greatest La caricature, par l’exageration des lignes licence for grotesque distortions of figure \ du masque, par les differents sentimens and face. Boilly, a clever and fertile lithog­ qu’elle preta a l’homme au toupet, le ren- rapher, was perhaps the first to bring dit typique, et laissa un ineffa?able relief. this style of composition into vogue. But Les adversaires sont utiles. En politique, to such an extent has the revolution now un ennemi v.aut souvent mieux qu’un ami.’ gone, while we, on the other hand, have The genius of Daumier had some analogy been pruning the luxuriance of the old with that of the sculptor-caricaturist Dan- genius of caricature, that the positions of tan. the two countries seem to have become re­ But, the liberty of art, like that of the versed, and England to be now the country Tribune, degenerated into licence, and of classic, France of grotesque art; in the France has never been able in her long age comic line of which any reader may judge of State tempests to maintain the line be­ for himself, by comparing the style of the tween the two. Political caricature was cuts in ‘ Punch,’, for instance, with those in once more extinguished in the Orleans the ‘ Charivari.’ We cannot say that we reign, with the applause of decent people find the change on the other side of the in general, by the so-called laws of Sep- Channel an improvement, or that we have �I 574 / A HISTORY OF CARICATURE AND GROTESQUE. been enabled to acquire a taste for the hasty lithographed caricatures of popular figures and scenes which encumber French print-shops. The works of Bunbury, among English artists of this kind of renown, per­ haps most nearly approach them ; but these, rough though they are, have, at all events, a body and substance, and consequently a vigour, which their Gallic successors appear to us to lack, and which they endeavour too often to supply by loose exaggeration. However, it is idle to set up our own canons of taste in opposition to that of a nation, and a foreign nation into the bargain ; and we may do our readers more service by giving them a few short notices of the leading artists who have risen to popular­ ity in modern France by this style of com­ position. Nicolas Toussaint Charlet had an educa, tion and parentage somewhat like those of our Gillray; born in 1792, the son of an old dragoon of Sambre-et-Meuse, he began his career in a not very noble occupation, being employed in the office where military recruits were registered and measured: and it was in that function, possibly, that he picked up and stored in his memory those thousand types of grotesque young con­ scripts and old grognards, ‘ enfants de troupe,’ ‘ tourlourous,’ and ‘ gamins,’ with which he filled the shop-windows while amusing the multitude with their darling ‘ scenes populaires.’ He was not exactly a caricaturist in the peculiar sense which we have given to the word, but an artist‘de genre; ’ in his own peculiar line few have surpassed him. It must be noticed that his sturdy Bonapartism evinced itself in some ambitious attempts at more serious compo•sitions ; one of which, ‘ La Garde meurt et ne se rend pas,’ established his fame in 1816, while an ‘ Episode de la Campagne de Russie ’ (1836) is ranked at the head of his works by some of his admirers. But for our part, we greatly prefer the exquisite naivete, though without much of the Eng­ lish vigour, which characterises some of his popular scenes; such — to quote one among a thousand — as that in which a peasant, looking down with the utmost gravity on a comrade who is lying in the road, helplessly drunk, exclaims, ‘ Voilh pourtant comme je serai dimanche ! ’ Charlet, who died in 1845, left some two thousand lithographed designs, besides numerous water-colours and etchings. Paul Chevalier Gavarni, born in 1801, ranks at the head of the living caricaturists of France, unless the Vicomte Amedee de Noe (under his nom de plume, or rather de crayon, of ‘ Cham,’ Ham the son of Noah) be supposed to contest with him that eminence. The journal ‘ Les Gens du Monde ’ (1835), and subsequently the ‘Charivari,’ owed to him the greater part of tlaeir celebrity. If not equal to Charlet in the ‘ naif’ and simply popular style, Gavarni excels him in satiri­ cal force and in variety. Twenty-five years hence (says Theophile Gautier) ‘ it is through Gavarni that the workhwill know of the existence of Duchesses of the Rue du Helder, of Lorettes, students, and so forth.’ Gavarni visited England in 1849, where, according to his biographer M. de Lacaze (in the ‘ Nouvelle Biographie Ge­ nerale ’), he took so profound a dislike to our English aristocratic social system (it was the year, be it remembered, in which the doctrine ‘la propriete c’est- le vol,’ took some short hold on Parisian spirits), that he fell into a fit of‘le spleen,’ became misanthrophic, and produced nothing fora long time but sketches of ‘ gin-shop frequent­ ers, thieves, street-sweepers, Irishmen, and the beggars of St. Giles’s and Whitechapel;’ but we are happy to learn, from the same authority, that he soon recovered his gaiety in the less oppresive atmosphere of Paris. His ‘ CEuvres Choisies’ were published as long ago as 1845, in four volumes. ‘ Deja,’ says Champfleury, ‘ son oeuvre est curieuse h consulter comme l’expression d’un peintre de moeurs epris d’ideal elegant dans une epoque bourgeoise.’ Completing these brief notices of modern French caricaturists with the mere mention, of the great artist Gustave Dore, who has lately condescended to some clever extrava­ gances allied to caricature, and of that ec­ centric novelty Griset,.we must now con­ * clude our hasty retrospect of the art in general. The institution of the ‘ comic illustrated newspaper ’ has now made the tour of the world ; the United States fur­ nish abundant specimens; Germany and Italy toil manfully in the wake of France and England; we have even seen political carica­ tures from Rio de Janeiro nearly as good as the ordinary productions of either. But it is impossible to follow a subject so greatly widening in its dimensions; and as cheap­ ness of execution, while it extends the popularity of this class of compositions, diminishes the labour expended on them, we have not to expect for the future either productions of so much interest, or artists of such celebrity, as some of those dealt with in this article. �575 REST FOR THE WEARY. I ,arest for the weary. “ TRere remaineth therefore a rest to the people of God/’— Heb. iv. 9. Dear the storm-won calm of autumn Brooding o’er the quiet lea; Sweet the distant harp-like murmur Trembling from the charmed sea. Nestling breezes clog the branches; Leaves lie swooning on the air; Nature’s myriad hands are folding O’er her gentle heart, for prayer. Make the lean grave sleek with treasn Whilst they, weary, take their rest. Dead they are not; only sleeping, Dull although their senses be, Yet they for the summons listen, Calling to eternity. Brothers, sleeping in the Saviour, Sound their dreamless sleep and ble But we trust, when this is broken, There remaineth still a rest ! New-born on the lap of silence, Cradled on a hoary tomb, Lo 1 babe evening craves a blessing As the day forsakes the gloom; As one lingering sunbeam flushes The grey spire to golden red, And the motto “ peace ” is blazoned Glorious o’er the resting dead. Peace be to the shapeless ashes, Perfect once in valour’s mould; Once on fire for truth and duty, Now without a spark, and cold.. Smiting was the hero smitten, Swordless hands now cross his breast; Share we his mute supplication ; Weary, may the soldier rest! Peace to him who braved the tempest, Polar ice, and tropic wave; Long the homeless sea who traversed, Then came home to find a grave ! In this calmest roadstead anchored, May no more the sailor rove, Till he lose himself for ever “ In the ocean of God’s love! ” Peace to him, the tried and saintly; Wise to counsel, apt to cheer; With a sober smile for gladness, With a hope for every tear. Earth lies lightly on his bosom, Faith bedecks his priestly tomb With the sacred flowers that symbol Life, and light, and deathless bloom. Peace to him who bears no legend Carved above his lowly bed, Save that he was found, unsheltered From the storm and winter, dead. Peace to him, that unknown brother, Quit of want, and woe, and shame; Trust we that the nameless stranger Bears in heaven a filial name 1 From the four winds assembled, Kindred in the fate to die ; Eld and infant, alien, homebred, Neighbours now, how calm they lie! Valour, beauty, learning, goodness, With the weight of life opprest, THE BITTER AND THE SWEET. Come, darling Effie, Come, take the cup: Effie must drink it all — Drink it all up.x / Darling, I know it is Bitter and bad; But ’twill make Effie dear . Rosy and glad. Mother would take it all For her wee elf— , But who would suffer then? Effie herself. If Effie drinks it, Then, I can tell, She will go out to play Merry and well. ' Drink, and then, darling, You shall have this, — Sweet after bitter: Now, first, a kiss. Ah, darling Effie, God also knows, When cups of bitterness His hand bestows, 1 How His poor children need Urging to take Merciful draughts of pain, Mixed for their sake. He, too, gives tenderly Joy after pain, Sweet after bitterness, After loss gain. — Sunday Magazine. I, �WERE WOLVES. From the Spectator. WERE * WOLVES. . A i >; i In this remarkable little book, remarkable for a power its external aspect does not promise and an interest its name will not create, Mr. Baring-Gould, an author known hitherto chiefly by his researches in North­ ern literature, investigates a belief, once general in Europe, and even now enter­ tained by the majority of the uneducated class. In widely separated places, and among races the most distinct, a belief has been traced in the existence of beings who combine the human and the animal char­ acter, who are in fact men changed either in form or in spirit into beasts of prey. The belief, though strong still, was strongest in the Middle Ages, when men were more un­ restrained both in their acts and their cre­ dulities. In the extreme North it was so powerful that Norwegians and Icelanders had a separate name for the transformation, calling men gifted with the power or afflicted with the curse men “ not of one skin.” Mr. Baring-Gould pushes his theory far when he connects the story of the Berserkir with the theory of were wolves, the Berserkir be­ ing extant to this day in Asia, calling them­ selves Ghazis, and keeping up their fury as the Berserkir probably did, with drugs ; but all Scandinavia undoubtedly believed that men had upon occasion changed into ani­ mals, and exhibited animal bloodthirstiness and power. So did the Livonians. So down to the very end of the sixteenth cen­ tury did all Southern Europe, where the Holy Office made cases of metempsychosis subject of inquiry and of punishment. The very victims often believed in their own guilt. One man in 1598, Jacques Roulet, of Angers, stated in his confession that though he did not take a wolf’s form he was a wolf, and as a wolf committed murders, chiefly of children. Even now the peasants in Norway believe as firmly in persons who can change themselves into wolves as the peasants in Italy do in the evil eye, the Danes think persons with joined eye brows liable to the curse, the people of SchleswigHolstein keep a charm to cure it, the Slo­ vaks, Greeks, and Russians have popular words for the were wolf, and Mr. BaringGould was himself asked at Vienne to as­ sist in hunting a loup garou, or wolf who ought to have been a human being. In In­ dia the belief is immovable, more particu­ larly in Oude, where the mass of evidence collected is so extraordinary that it shook -for a moment the faith of a man so calm as the Resident, Colonel Sleeman, and induced him to give currency to a theory that wolves might suckle and rear the children of human beings, who thenceforward would be wolves. Ultimately, we believe, he abandoned that notion, but not before he had puzzled all India with his collection of exceptional facts, and riveted the supersti­ tion of the people of Oude. A belief so universal and so lasting sug­ gests some Cause more real than a supersti­ tious idea, and Mr. Baring-Gould believes he has discovered one. He hold^that in every human being there is some faint trace of the wild-beast nature, the love of destruction and of witnessing the endurance of suffering. Else why do children display cruelty so constantly, string flies on knitting­ pins, and delight in the writhings of any animal ? In the majority this disposition is eradicated either by circumstances, by training, or by the awakening of the great influence we call sympathy. In a minority the desire remains intact but latent, liable to be called out only by extraordinary inci­ dents or some upset of the ordinary balance of their minds. In a few it becomes a pas­ sion, a sovereign desire, or even a mania entitled to be ranked as a form, and an ex­ treme form, of mental disease. It was the latter exhibition which gave rise to the be­ lief in the were-wolves, who were, in Mr. Baring-Gould’s opinion, simply raving mani­ acs, whose wildness took the form either of a desire to murder or of a belief in their own power of becoming beasts of prey. So late as 1848 an officer, of the garrison in Paris was brought to trial on a charge of rifling graves of their bodies and tearing them to pieces, and the charge having been proved on conclusive evidence, his own confession included, was sentenced to one year’s im­ prisonment. He was mad, but had he lived before madness was understood he would have been pronounced either a vampire or a loup garou. Madness miscomprehended was the cause of the facts which supported , the monstrous belief, a theory almost de­ monstrated by the history of the case of Jacques Roulet. The extract is long, but the story is complete: “ In 1598, a year memorable in the annals of lycanthropy, a trial took place in Angers, the details of which are very terrible. In a wild and unfrequented spot near Caude, some coun­ trymen came one day upon the corpse of a boy of fifteen, horridly mutilated and bespattered with blood. As the men approached, two * Were Wolves. By Sabine Baring-Gould. Lon­ wolves, which had been rending the body, bounded away into the thicket. The men gave don : Smith, Elder, and Co. �7 \ WERE WOLVES. 577 chase immediately, following their bloody tracks Jacques Roulet would have been found in­ till they lost them; when suddenly crouching sane by any modern jury, and there is scarcely among the bushes, his teeth chattering with in mediaaval literature a case of lycanthropy fear, they found a man half naked, with long which cannot be explained upon this sim­ / hair and beard, and with his hands dyed in blood. His nails were long as claws, and ple theory, — the one at last adopted, and were clotted with fresh gore and shreds of hu­ in our judgment proved, by Colonel Sleeman flesh. This is one of the most puzzling man in Oude, but a more difficult question and peculiar cases which come under our no­ remains behind. Is it quite certain that all tice. The wretched man, whose name was cases of long-continued and outrageous cruel­ Roulet, of his own accord stated that he had ty presuppose madness ? Is cruelty in fact fallen upon the lad and had killed him by a natural quality, which can be cultivated, smothering him, and that he had been prevent­ or an abnormal desire, the result of extreme ed from devouring the body completely by the and gradual depravation of the passions arrival of men on the spot. Roulet proved and the reason ? Take the well known case on investigation to be a beggar from house to of Gilles de Uetz in 1440. If evidence house, in the most abject state of poverty. His companions in mendicity were his brother John can prove anything it is certain that this and his cousin Julien. He had been given man, head of the mighty House of Laval, lodging out of charity in a neighbouring vil­ lord of entire counties and of prodigious lage, but before his apprehension he had been wealth, did throw up a great position in the absent for eight days. Before the judges, public service to wander from town to Roulet acknowledged that he was able to trans­ town and seat to seat kidnapping children, form himself into a wolf by means of a salve whom he put slowly te death to delight which his parents had given him. When ques­ himself with their agonies. He confessed tioned about the two wolves which had been himself to eight hundred such murders, and seen leaving the corpse, he said that he knew perfectly well who they were, for they were his his evidence was confirmed by the relics companions, Jean and Julien, who possessed found. He was betrayed by his own agents, the same secret as himself. He was shown the and in the worst age of a cruel cycle his clothes he had worn on the day of his seizure, crimes excited a burst of horror so profound and he recognized them immediately; he de­ that he, a noble of the class which was be­ scribed the boy whom he had murdered, gave yond the law, so powerful that he never at­ the date correctly, indicated the precise spot tempted to escape, «vas burnt alive. Was he where the deed had been done, and recognized mad, or only bad beyond all human ex­ the father of the boy as the man who had first perience ? Mr. Baring-Gould inclines evi­ run up when the screams of the lad had been dently to the former theory, and it is at all heard. In prison, Roulet behaved like an idiot. events a pleasing one, but it is difficult for I When seized, his belly was distended and hard; in prison he drank one evening a whole pailful thinking men to forget that power has in oth­ of water, and from that moment refused to eat er instances produced this capacity of cruelty, or drink. His parents, on inquiry, proved to to refuse credence to all stories of the cruelty be respectable and pious people, and they proved of Caesars, and Shahs, and West Indian slave­ that his brother John and his cousin Julien holders. It is possible, and we hope true, had been engaged at a distance on the day of that the genuine enjoyment of pain is rare Roulet’s apprehension. ‘ What is your name, among the sane, though the Roman popu­ and what your estate ? ’ asked the judge, Pierre Herault. — ‘My name is Jacques Roulet, my lace felt something like it, and though we age thirty-five; I am poor, and a mendicant/ are ever and anon startled by cases of wil­ — ‘ What are you accused of having done ? ’ — ful cruelty to animals, but genuine indiffer­ ‘Of being a thief—of having offended God. ence to it is frequent, and granted the in­ My parents gave me an ointment; I do not difference, any motive may give it an ac­ know its composition.’—‘When rubbed with tive form. The thirst for domination is the this ointment, do you become a wolf? ’ — ‘ No • most common impulse, but in well known but for all that, I killed and ate the child Cor­ instances jealousy, fear, hatred, religious nier : I was a wolf.’ — ‘ Were you dressed as a bigotry, and even vanity, have been equal­ wolf?’ — ‘I was dressed as I am now. I had events the passion my hands and my face bloody, because I had ly efficacious. At all that it is restraina­ been eating the flesh of the said child.’ — ‘ Do differs from madness in your hands and feet become paws of a wolf ? ’_ ble. Hardly one genuine case on a great ‘ Yes, they do.’ — ‘ Does your head become like scale has been recorded in a civilized coun­ that of a wolf — your mouth become larger ? ’ — try for many years, and it seems certain ‘ I do not know how my head was at the time; I that the restraints of order prevent it from used my teeth; my head was as it is to-day. I acquiring its full sway, and that therefore it have wounded and eaten many other little is rather the depravation of nature than na­ children; I have also been to the sabbath.’ ” ture itself which is its origin. Gilles de THIRD SERIES. DIVING AGE. VOL. XXXII. 1477. V �578 SCIENCE AND MIRACLE. ,Retz is possible, if he were sane, only in a class which can indulge every impulse with impunity, and at a time when law is no longer to be feared. It may be true that he belonged to the were-wolf genus, the men afflicted with homicidal mania, but he may also have belonged to a class now almost as exceptional, the men in whom unrestricted power has developed that thirst for testing it in its highest, its most frequent, and its most visible form, the infliction of slow death-agonies upon powerless human beings. It was, we fear, the madness of a Ceesar rather than of a were wolf which influenced Gilles de Betz, and Mr. Baring-Gould would, we think, have exemplified his theo­ ry more perfectly had he excluded stories which testify not so much to the instability of human reason as to the depths of evil lurking in the human heart. He argues in­ deed that Gilles de Betz is the link between the citizen and the were wolf, but then in so doing he assumes one tremendous datum, that madness always shows itself in the ex­ treme development of the latent heart, and not in its radical perversion. One of its ■ commonest forms nevertheless is intense hatred of those whom the patient has most genuinely and fondly loved, and the bal­ ance of probability is that insanity as often perverts as intensifies the secret instincts of its victim. Mr. Baring-Gould has, we ■ think, demonstrated that madness misap­ prehended was the root of the were-wolf delusion, but not that homicidal mania is the ultimate expression of an inherent ten• dency in universal human nature. From the Spectator. SCIENCE AND MIRACLE. Professor huxley, in the remarkable lecture on “ improving natural knowledge ” delivered to the working classes at St. Mar­ tin’s Hall, and since published in the Fort­ nightly Review, states with a candour and moderation worthy of all praise, certain notions destructive of all worship, — ex­ cept that very impossible kind of worship recommended by Professor Huxley, worship ■ of the Unknown and Unknowable, — which have been gaining more and more hold of ■ merely scientific men for many generations, and which, we need not say, are absolutely inconsistent with admitting the activity of : any supernatural will in the Universe, and .•.still more the actual occurrence of miracle. Now it is a matter worth a little considera­ tion how far men of pure science are trust­ worthy on matters of this kind, how far their evidence is what we should call on other subjects the evidence of experts, or not. On a medical subject, we should never.think of adopting absolutely any theory rejected by a very large and, perhaps in­ creasing, number of the most eminent men in the medical profession. On a historical subject, we should think it absurd to take up with a view against which every fresh historian of learning and eminence began with clearer and clearer conviction to pro­ test. How far, then, even if it be true, as it possibly may be, that the tendency of the highest and calmest scientific thought is increasingly anti-supernatural, can we con­ sider this the tendency of a class entitled to special intellectual deference, or the re­ verse ? Mr. Brooke Foss Westcott, in a very thoughtful volume which he has just published on the Gospel of the Resurrec­ tion” * freely admits that “ a belief in miracles decreases with the increase of civilization,” but maintains, amidst other weaker and less defensible positions, that the accuracy of comprehensive views of nature as a whole, is not only not secured, but may be even specially endangered, by too special and constant a study of given parts of nature. “ The requirements,” he says, “ of exact science bind' the attention of each student to some one small field, and this little fragment almost necessarily becomes, for him the measure of the whole, if indeed he has ever leisure to lift his eyes to the whole at all.” And undoubtedly the man who has been studying, say, for the sake of a definite example, the chemical effects of light all his life, and who knows that every different substance when burnt yields a different spectrum, so that you may know by the number and situation of the dark lines exactly what substance it is that is burning, might be inclined to look at the possibility of miracle, and at faith in the supernatural will, from a narrow point of view. He will say to himself, ‘If one of these spectra were suddenly to change its appearance, if such a dark line vanished, and such others appeared, should I not know with a certainty to me infallible, — a certainty on the absoluteness of which I should never hesitate to risk my own life or that of my family, — that some other element had been introduced into the burn­ ing substance ? Could anything persuade me that the change was due to divine volition apart from the presence of a new * Macmillan. �SCIENCE AND MIRACLE. ' ' j ■ 579 element or new elements in the burning be equivalent to the positive alteration in substance ? Must not the Almighty him­ the essence of a mighty whole, as really self, if He chose to make the change, make astounding in itself as the change which it by providing the characteristic element could made oxygen burn (that is, oxidize) for the purpose,—just as if He chose to or two and two equal to five. alter the moral traits of a human character, Now this is, we take it, something less He could only do it by a process that would than conjecture, — indeed demonstrable alter the character itself, and not by mak­ scientific error, if science be taken to in­ ing a stupid and ignorant man give out all clude anything more than the laws of physi­ the characteristic signs of wisdom and cal phenomena. It is probably true indeed learning, or a malignant and cruel man put that in some sense the physical forces of the forth all the moral symptoms of warm be- Universe are an invariable quantity, which nevolence and charity.’ Sb the scientific only alter their forms, and not their sum man would argue, and we are disposed to total. If I move my arm, the motion, says think would argue rightly. For, admitting the physiologist, is only the exact equiva­ that the physical qualities of things are lent of a certain amount of heat which has realities at all, we should say that to make disappeared and taken the form of that the physical qualities of one thing inter­ motion. If I do not move it, the heat re­ change with the physical qualities of an­ mains for use in some other way. In either other, without interchanging the things, is, case the stock of force is unchanged. This if it be logically and morally possible, as is the conviction of almost all scientific the Transubstantiationists believe and most men, and is probably true. But whether other men disbelieve, a piece of divine the stock of physical force is constant or magic or conjuring, and not a miracle. But not, the certainty that human will can then, do not many great scientific men like change its direction and application — can Professor Huxley really infer from such transfer it from one channel to another — trains of reasoning far more than they will is just the same. And what that really warrant ? All that such reasonings do tend means, if Will be ever free and uncaused, to show, is, that if you truly conceive the though of course not unconditioned,— natural constitutions of things, there are which is, we take it, as ultimate arid scienti­ changes which you cannot make without fic a certainty as any in the Universe, — is destroying those very things altogether, no less than this, — that a strictly super­ and substituting new ones. As a miracle natural power alters the order and constitu­ which should make two and two five is tion of nature, — takes a stock of physical intrinsically impossible (Mr. Mill and the force lying in a reservoir here and transfers Saturday Review in anywise notwithstand­ it to a stream of effort there, — in short, ing), so also (though less certainly) a mira­ that the supernatural can change the order cle which should make oxygen a combusti­ and constitution of the natural, — in its ble gas instead of a supporter of combus­ essence pure miracle, though miracle of hu­ tion, and quite certainly a miracle which man, and not of divine origin. For ex­ should make it right to do what is known ample, almost every physiologist will admit to be wrong, or wrong to do what is known the enormous power that pure Will has to be right, is intrinsically impossible. But over the nervous system, — that it can pro­ the modern scientific inference goes much long consciousness and even life itself for further than this, and immediately extends certain short spaces, by the mere exertion the conception of these inherent constitu­ of vehement purpose. Physicians tell you tions of certain things and qualities to the constantly that such and such a patient whole Universe, — assuming, for instance, may no doubt, if it be sufficiently impor­ that it is just as impossible, just as much tant, by a great effort command his mind a breach in the inherent constitution of sufficiently to settle his affairs, but that it some one or more things, for one who has will be at the expense of his animal force, been dead to live again, for the phenomena — in short, that it will be a free transfer of of decomposition to be arrested, the heart force from the digestive and so to say vege­ once silent to begin to beat, as for oxygen tating part of his system, to that part of itself to burn without ceasing to be oxygen. his physical constitution, his nervous system, The way in which this view would *e de­ which lies closest, as it were, to the will. b fended would be that all matter and all its Nay, we have heard physicians say that qualities are now almost proved to be modes patients, by a great effort of pure will, of force, and all force indestructible, so have, as they believe, prolonged their own that any kind of supernatural change in life for a short space, that is, have imparted, the phenomena of matter would appear to we suppose, through the excitement pro­ �580 SCIENCE AND MIRACLE. duced by the will on the nervous system and so downwards, a certain slight increase of capacity to assimilate food to the failing organic powers of the body. In other words, we conclude, just as the organism is failing to draw supplies of physical force from the outward world, its power of doing so may be slightly prolonged,—the out­ ward world drained of a small amount of force it would otherwise, have kept in stock, and the organism compelled to absorb it — by a pure volition. Can there be a clearer case of action of the supernatural on the natural, — even granting that the sum total of physical force is not altered, but only its application changed ? What more do we want to conceive clearly the room for Christian miracle, than the application of precisely the same con­ ception to God and Christ ? The students of the Universe appear to us to be in pre­ cisely the same condition with regard to the Universe, as a scientific observing mind secreted in some part of a human body (not the mind moving that body, but some other) would be in with relation to the structural, chemical, mechanical laws of that body. Suppose an atom of your blood able to retain its identity constantly in a human body, and to travel about it on a tour of scientific observation. It would very soon arrive at the conclusion that there were great laws of circulation of the blood and the fluids which supply it,— such as we see in nature in the astronomi­ cal laws, — great laws of force by which the legs and arms are moved, like the forces of tides or falling waters in the Universe, — great structural laws, by which different tissues, like the hair, the skin, nails, the nervous and muscular tissues, grow up out of the nourishment supplied them, just as we notice the growth of trees and flowers out of the earth, —and great though some­ what uncertain laws of alternation between activity and repose, — like the laws of night and day; — and such a scientific particle as we have supposed would undoubtedly soon begin to say that the more deeply it studied these things, the more the reign of pure law seemed to be extended in the universe of the body, so that all those un­ certain and irregular phenomena (which we, however, really know to be due to the changes effected by our own free self-gov­ erning power), must be ascribed, it would say^ not to any supernatural influence, but to its own imperfect knowledge of the more complex phenomena at work. And such a scientific particle would be perfectly justified in its inferences; for we have sup­ posed it only an intellectual observing ma­ chine, not a free will with knowledge of its own that there is a power which is not caused, and which can effect real modificacations in the relation even of physical forces which never vary in amount. But nevertheless it would be wrong, and could never know the truth, namely, that the ordering of the succession in these physical forces, — the interchanges between one and the other, — the physical influences over the body exerted by the command of the appetites and passions, were all of them really traceable in great part to super­ natural power, though to supernatural pow­ er which does not either add to or subtract from the sum total of physical force present in the Universe. And we maintain that the men of pure science, as they are called, —the men who study everything- but Will, — fall into precisely the same blunder as such a rationalizing particle of a human body, and for the same reason. They are quite right in their inferences from their premises, but their premises are radically defective. In truth the room for miracle remains as wide as ever. Admit all the discoveries of science, and still they only prove a cer­ tain constancy in the amount of physical force, and a certain invisible law of suc­ cession between the same phenomena. But just as a man who puts forth a great effort to retain his consciousness and reason or even life for a short time longer than he would otherwise do, may succeed, — suc­ ceed, that is, in pumping up the failing supply of physical force from the Universe to his system for a few minutes or hours, when without such an effort it would have fled from his body and passed away ipto other channels, — so miracle only assumes that a supernatural power infinitely greater than man’s will might, on sufficient reason, — which every Christian believes to be far more than sufficient, — do the same thing infinitely more effectually, and for a far longer time. Miracle is in essence only the directing supernatural influence of free mind over natural forces and substances, whatever these may be. In man we do 'not call this miracle, only because we are ac­ customed to it, — and in nature scientific men refuse to believe that any such direct­ ing power exists at all. But nevertheless, every accurate thinker will see at once, that free will, Providence, and Miracle do not differ in principle at all, but are only less or more startling results of the same fact, — which true reason shows to be fact, — that above nature exist .free wills, pro- �THE DURATION OF OUR SUPPLY OF COAL. shall readily understand that the vital ques­ tions for the wealth, progress, and greatness of our country are these : — “Is our supply1 of coal inexhaustible ? and if not, how long will it last?” — Mr. Jevons enables us to answer both these 'questions. It is very far from being inexhaustible ; it is in process of exhaustion ; and, if we go on augmenting our consumption from year to year at our present rate of increase, it will not last a hundred years. Our geological knowledge is now so great and certain, and what we may term the underground survey of our islands has been so complete that we know with tolerable accuracy both the ex­ tent, the thickness, and the accessibility of our coal fields, and the quantity of coal annually brought to the surface and used up. The entire amount of coal remaining in Great Britain, down to a depth of 4,000 feet, is estimated to be 80,000 millions of tons. Our annual consumption was in 1860 about 80 millions. At that rate the avail­ able coal would last for 1,000 years. But our consumption is now steadily increasing at the rate of per cent, per annum, and will in 1880 be, not 80 millions, but 160 millions ; and, if it continues thus to increase, will have worked out the whole 80,000 mil­ lions before the year 1960. Nay it would reach this climax probably some time earlier ; for our calculation includes all the coal down to 4,000 feet; and no coal mine has yet been worked at a greater depth than 2,500 feet; and we do not believe that mines can be worked profitably, and we have lit­ tle reason to think they can be worked at all, at such a depth as 4,000 feet. Of course we know that, practically, our coal-fields will not be worked out within this period. Of course we are aware that our present rate of annual augmentation cannot. be maintained. Every year we have to go deeper for our supply; and going deeper means incurring greater and greater ex­ pense for labour, for machinery, for ventila­ tion, for pumping out the water, for acci­ dents, &c. Going deeper, therefore, implies an enhanced price for the coal raised, and that enhancement of price will check con­ sumption. But it is precisely this imminent ' enhancement of price, and not ultimate ex­ haustion, that we have to dread; for it is this enhancement which will limit our rate of progress and deprive us of our special ad­ vantages and our manufacturing supremacy. Let us see a little in detail the modus ope­ rands The difficulty of working and raid­ ing coal increases rapidly as the mine grows deeper, or as inferior mines have to be worked ; the heat grows more insupporta­ bably of all orders of power, which do not, indeed, ever break the order of nature, but ’ can and do transform, — as regards man by very small driblets,— but as regards higher than human wills in degrees the extent of», which we cannot measure, — natural forces from one phase of activity into another, so as greatly to change the moral order and significance of the Universe in which we live. ? k THF DURATION k’ From the Economist, 6 Jan. OF OUR SUPPLY OF COAL. U$der the title of “ The Coal Question/ Mr. Jevons * has furnished the public with a number of well-arranged and for the most part indisputable facts, and with a series of suggestive reflections, which every one interested in the future progress and greatness of his country will do well to pon­ der seriously. Few of us need to be re­ minded how completely cheap coal is at the foundation of our prosperity and our com­ mercial and manufacturing supremacy. Coal and iron make England what she is ; and her iron depends upon her coal. Other countries have as much iron ore as we have, and some have better ore ; but no country (except America, which is yet unde­ veloped) has abundant coal and ironstone in the needed proximity." Except in our supply of coal and iron we have no natural suitabilities for the attainment of industrial greatness; nearly all the raw materials of our manufactures come to us from afar ; we import much of our wool, most of our flax, all our cotton and all our silk. Our railroads and our steamboats are made of iron and are worked by coal. So are our great factories. So now is much of our war navy. Iron is one of our chief arti­ cles of export; all our machinery is made of iron; it is especially in our machinery that we surpass other nations ; it is our ma­ chinery that produces our successful textile fabrics; and the iron which constructs this machinery is extracted, smelted, cast, ham­ mered, wrought into tools, by coal and the steam which coal generates. It is believed that at least half the coal raised in Great Britain is consumed by the various branches of the iron trade. With these facts present to our mind we I * The Coal Question. By W. Stanley Jevons, M. A. Macmillan, 1865. 581 �582 THE DURATION OF OUR SUPPLY OF COAL. ble, the shafts and passages longer, the dan­ Nor does there seem any escape from ger greater, the ventilation more costly, the these conclusions theoretically, nor any way quantity of water to be kept out or got out of.modifying them practically. We may, more unmanageable. A very short period it is said, economise in the use of coal. may raise engine coal and smelting coal But, in the first place, the great economies from 5s to 10s per ton. Now a cotton mill that can be reasonably looked for have been of ordinary size will often use for its steam- already introduced. In smelting iron ore power 80 tons of coal per week. This at 5sis we use two-thirds less coal than formerly, l,000Z a year; at 10s per ton, it is 2,000/. and in working our steam engines one-half But the cotton mill is full of machinery; less;. and, in the second place, it is only a and one great element in the cost of this rise in the price of coal that will goad us machinery is the coal used in smelting and into a more sparing use of it; and this working the iron of which the machinery is very rise of price is the proof and the meas­ made. The railroads which bring the cot­ ure of our danger. “ Export no more ton to the mill and take the calico and yarn coal,” it is suggested, and so husband your back to the place of exportation are made stores. But we could not adopt this expe­ of iron and worked by coal: so are the dient, even if it were wise to do so, or con­ steamboats which bring the cotton to our sistent with our commercial policy, without shores and export the yarn to Germany; — throwing half our shipping trade into ton­ the cost of carriage, therefore, which is a fusion by depriving them of their ballast very large item in the contingent expenses trade; and even then the evil would be of our factories, will be greatly increased scarcely more than mitigated ? “ Why,” both directly and indirectly by a rise in the ask others, “ should we not, when our own price of coal. An advance in that price stores of coal are exhausted, import coal from 5s to 10s per ton, maybe estimated to from other countries which will still be rich be equivalent to 2,000/ a year on the work­ in mineral fuel, and thus supply our need ?” ing cost of a good-sized cotton mill. That Simply because of all articles of trade and is,, as compared with the present state of industry coal is the most bulky in propor­ things, and as compared with foreign coun­ tion to its value; and that it is the fact of tries, every manufacturer wouid have a having it at hand, of having it in abundance, burden of 2,000/ a year laid upon him, and of having it cheap, of having it without the would have to raise the cost of his goods to cost of carriage, that has given us our manu­ that extent. .How long could he continue facturing superiority. With coal brought to compete with his rivals under this disad­ from America, with coal costing what coal vantage, or (it would be more correct to then would cost, we could neither smelt our say) with his present advantage taken away iron, work our engines, drive our locomo­ from him ? And how long would coal con­ tives, sail our ships, spin our yarn, nor tinue to be supplied even at 10s a ton ? weave our broad cloths. Long before we And, be it observed, the check to the had to import our fuel the game would be consumption of coal— the retardation i. e. up. in our progress towards ultimate and abso­ Of 136 millions of tons now annually lute exhaustion — can only come from in­ raised throughout the world, Great Britain crease of price, and the moment that it does produces 80 millions and the United States come, the decline of our relative manufac­ only 20. But this is only because we have turing pre-eminence has begun. We shall had the first start, and because our popula­ avoid the extinction of our coal in the short tion is far denser, and because our iron and period of a century ; but we shall do so only our coal lie conveniently for each other and by using less now; — and using less now conveniently for carriage. As soon as means producing less iron, exporting less America is densely peopled, to America calico and woollens, employing less ship­ must both our iron and our coal supremacy ping, supporting a scantier population, — and all involved therein — be trans­ ceasing our progress, receding from our rela­ ferred ; for the United States are in these tive position. We may, it is true, make our respects immeasurably richer than even coal last a thousand years instead of a hun- Great Britain. Their coal-fields are esti­ dred, and reduce the inevitable increase in mated at 196,000 square miles in extent, its price to a very inconsiderable rate; while ours are only 5,400. But this is not but we can do so only by becoming stationary ; all: their coal is often better in quality and and to become stationary implies letting incomparably more accessible than ours, es­ other nations pass us in the race, exporting pecially in the Ohio valley. In some places our whole annual increase of population, the cost at the pit’s mouth even now is 2sjper growing relatively, if not positively, poorer ton in America, against 6s in England. ' and feebler. �HAIR-DRESSING IN EXCELSIS. From the Spectator. '583 a man’s hair is naturally as long as a woman’s strikes them with a sense of surprise, and have almost ceased to dress it. They use It is not easy to understand the differen­ pomade still, or at least hairdressers say ces in the popular appreciation of the mi­ so, and a few of them, unaware that a nor trades. Why is a tailor considered rath­ mixture of cocoa-nut oil and thin spirit is er contemptible, when no idea of ridicule in all ways the absolutely best unguent, attaches to a bootmaker ? Both make waste cash upon costly coloured oils, but clothes, and in trade estimation the tailor, hairdressing for men is out of fashion. The who must always be something of a capital­ average hairdresser contemptuously turns ist, is the higher man of the two, but the over the male head to some beginner, who popular verdict is against him. Nobody snips away till hair and tournure are got calls a hosier the eighteenth part of a man, rid of with equal speed. Up to 1860, too, yet strictly speaking his business is only a women wore their hair, even on occasions minor branch of tailoring. No ridicule at­ demanding a grand toilette, after a very taches to a hatter, notwithstanding the lu­ simple fashion, one which the majority of natic proverb about his permanent mental them could manage very well for them­ condition, but everybody laughs internally selves, and which required only careful as he speaks of a -hairdresser. Is it because brushing. This fashion was not perhaps .hairdressers were once popularly supposed altogether in perfect taste. Simplicity has to be all Frenchmen, and therefore share charms, but still a custom which compelled the contempt with which dancing-masters women with Greek profiles and complex­ are regarded by people who, while they ex­ lions of one shade only and girls with cherry press it, would not for the world fail to profit cheeks and turned-up noses equally to wear by their instructions ? A singing-master is their hair like Madonnas, was open to some allowed to be an artist, often one of the slight attack on artistic grounds. Madonnas first class, but a dancing-master is consider­ should not have laughing blue eyes, or pout­ ed a cross between an artist and a monkey. ing lips, or flaxen hair, or that look of esOr are hairdressers despised, like men mil­ pieglerie which accompanies a properly turn­ liners, because their occupation, especially ed-up nose, — not a snub, that is abomina­ in modern Europe, where men have aban­ ble, but just the nez retrousse which artists doned wigs, long locks, and the careful ar­ detest and other men marry. The Second rangement of the hair, is essentially femi­ Empire, however, does not approve simpli­ nine ? That may be the explanation, for city, and gradually the art of dressing hail' nobody despises the lady’s-maid more or has come again into use. The fashion of less because if she is “ very superior ” she wearing hair a I’Imperatrice was the first - can dress hair as well as any hairdresser. blow to the Madonna mania, and young Or is the sufficient cause to be sought in women with no foreheads, and with pointed their pretensions, in their constant but un­ foreheads, and with hair-covered foreheads, successful claim to be considered artists, all pulled their unruly locks straight back something a little lower than professionals, because an Empress with a magnificent but a great deal higher than mere trades­ forehead chose to make the best of it. Any­ men, a claim which induces them to indulge thing uglier than this fashion in all women in highflown advertisements and the inven­ with unsuitable foreheads and all women tion of preposterous names, usually .Greek, whatever with black hair it would be hard but not unfrequently Persian, for totally to conceive, and the mania did not as a useless unguents ? The claim is allowed in mania last very long. Then came the day France, but in England, like the similar of invention, the use of false hair, the in­ one of the cook and the confectioners, sertion of frisettes, the introduction of gold­ it has always been rejected, a rejection en dyes, the re-entry of the vast combs prized which excites the profession every now and by our great grandmothers, the admiration then to somewhat violent and therefore ri­ of pins stolen from the Ionian and Pompe­ diculous self-assertion. They perceive an ian head-gear, and a general attention to opportunity just at present. For a good the head-dress which we can best describe many years past the business of the coiffeur by quoting from the Manners and Customs has been comparatively a very simple affair, of Ancient Greece a paragraph on the hair­ rising scarcely to the dignity of a trade and dressing of Athenian women : — “ On noth­ entirely outside the province of art.x Men ing was there so much care bestowed as. all over Europe have adopted the fashion upon the hair. Auburn, the colour of Aph­ of the much ridiculed Roundheads, cut their rodite’s tresses in Homer, being consider­ hair habitually close, till the assertion that ed most beautiful, drugs were invented in HAIRDRESSING IN EXCELSIS. �584 HAIR-DRESSING IN EXCELSIS. which the hair being dipped, and exposed incident in the annals of modern folly. Some to the noon day sun, it acquired the covet­ thirty women had their hair dressed in pub­ ed hue, and fell in golden curls over their lic by the, same number of men — not, we shoulders. Others, contented with their,. are sorry to say, to the accompaniment of own black hair, exhausted their ingenuity slow music,— an improvement we recom­ in augmenting its rich gloss, steeping it in mend to Mr. Carter’s attention — and some oils and essences, till all the fragrance of two hundred men and women looked on and Arabia seemed to breathe around them. applauded the result. There was in the Those waving ringlets which we admire in middle of the room a long table covered their sculpture were often the creation of with a white cloth, as it were for some sort art, being produced by curling-irons heated of experiment, but upon the table could be in ashes ; after which, by the aid of jewel­ seen nothing but hand-mirrors, which look­ led fillets and golden pins, they were ed indigestible. So long were other visitors brought forward over the smooth white incoming that one visitor, who was con­ forehead, which they sometimes shaded to scious of wan ting the scissors and of a total the eyebrows, leaving a small ivory space absence of bear’s grease, was afraid that one in the centre, while behind they floated in of the many gentlemen who in winning cos­ shining profusion down the back. When tume, and faultless “ ’eads of air,” and un­ decked in this manner, and dressed for the mistakable hairdressing propensities, hover­ gunascitis in their light flowered sandals ed near the door, would insist upon his and semi-transparent robes, they were having his hair cut and dressed forthwith, scarcely farther removed from the state of merely to wile away the time. But fortu­ nature than the Spartan maids themselves.” nately, just as a gentleman with a “ ’ead of The grand triumph of the Ionic barbers, air” which would have done credit to any the invention of a mode of plaiting which wax figure in any shop window, was ap­ occupied many hours, and could therefore proaching with sinister looks, visitors, mas­ be repeated only once a week, and requir­ culine and feminine began to pour in. Then ed those who wore it to sleep on their backs there was diffused around the room an with their necks resting on wooden trestles, odour of bear’s grease, and probably cost­ hollowed out lest the bed should derange lier unguents, and from the look of the the hair, has not indeed been repeated, ladies’ hair the writer was under the im­ though under the fostering care of Mr. Car­ pression that he beheld the victims who ter even that perfection may one be had been immolated •upon the shrine of attained. Still we have the auburn dyes, hairdressing, and who were to exhibit the and the pins, and all the Athenian devices, effects of the sacrifice. But not so. Awhile, and it is not quite certain that the “ chig­ and then there came in, each leaning upon non,” the nasty mass of horsehair and hu­ the arm of the cavalier who was to “ dress man hair which women have learnt to stick her,” about thirty-two ladies, from an age to on the back of their heads, and which is ac­ which it would be ungallant to allude down tually sold in Regent Street attached to to (one can hardly say “ bashful ”) fifteen. bonnets, is not an additional triumph over Their hair was in some instances apparently nature. We have a picture somewhere of just out of curl-papers, but for the most part a chignon more than three thousand years hanging unconfined except at the back, where old, but if we are not mistaken there are it was fastened close to the crown, and then feathers on it as well as hair, the very idea hung down like a horse’s tail. Among the which the President of the Hairdressers’ thirty were one or two magnificent cheveAcademy on Tuesday reinvented, and for lures, but we did not see one that quite which he was so heartily applauded. Of realized the painter’s ideal, one which the course, with the new rage for artificial ar­ wearer could have wrapped round her as rangement, false hair, dyes, chignons, hair Titian’s model must have done, or one on crepe, hair frise, and we know not what, the which the owner could have stood, as on a hairdresser’s art is looking up, and the sen­ mat, as Hindoo women have been known to sible tradesmen who practise it, sensible in do. Their comic appearance, and the clap­ in all but their grandiloquence — which is, ping of hands which arose thereat, showed we take it, half-comic, half a genuine effort one at once that they were the victims or at self-assertion — are making the most of (if you please) the heroines. They sat at the their opportunity. white-cloth-covered table, and the cavaliers The soire'e, or “ swarry,” as the doorkeep­ drew from black bags combs, arid puffs, and er persisted in calling it, of the Hairdress­ hair-pins, and what looked like small roll­ ers’ Academy, held in the Hanover Square ing-pins, and tapeworms, and bell-ropes, Rooms on Tuesday, was really a noteworthy and cord off window-curtains, and muslin �mmM- / ’ ' •. ' ' FRENCH AND AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONS. > 585 and tissue-paper, and flowers and fruits of sheAvould entice oui’ “ golden youth ” (or the earth imitated in green and gold. Then our golden age, for the matter of that) ? the “ dressing ” began, and the spectator What manner of woman, then, would set saw with awe and amazement what art can the fashion in hairdressing ? And we do for hair, then one repented of ever hav­ know what has been the consequence in ing doubted the truth of ladies who at balls France (if we are not nearly as bad here) say, with a significant glance at head-dresses, of following in small matters the lead of the “ Why, how do you do, dear ? I really did demi-monde. On the other hand, two con­ not know you.” Some people may think victions at all events we acquired from the that hair, however plenteous or however spectacle. One is that modern hairdressing scanty, looks better in its natural state than in its highest form is a branch of jewelling, when it is made into a flower garden ; and the real art being shown not in the arrange­ others may hold that no kind of hair is im­ ment of the hair, but in the addition of proved by being interwoven with tape­ things which are not hair — combs, rib­ worms or bell-ropes, or even the cord off bons, flowers, dewdrops, and gilt insects — window-curtains. But it is certain that by the last a taste essentially inartistic and de­ the use of muslin and other materials already praved. The other was that it is not safe spoken of a result may be obtained which for any man to make a proposal in the would justify a man in cutting his mother evening. So utterly were some of the (on the score of non-recognition, if on no “ subjects” changed by the act of the ope­ other), and which would lead one to believe rators, that the possibility of not knowing that so long as a lady has a couple of hand­ in the morning the betrothed of the even­ fuls of hair left she may, with the help of ing seemed very real indeed, and the mis­ art, hold her own against Berenice. When take would be an awkward one for both all the ladies were “ dressed ” one of the parties. “ dressers ” made an unexceptionable little speech in unexceptionable English (for which our experience of hairdressing had not prepared us), concluding by saying that the ladies in their “ dressed ” state would walk round the table each leaning From the Economist, 27 January. on the arm of her “ dresser,” so that the spectators might all have a full view. As THE ANALOGY BETWEEN THE FRENCH he said, so did they; nay, they went fur­ AND AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONS. ther, and walked round twice, amidst the applause of (he assembled witnesses. We The Emperor of the French has said were disappointed that no prize beyond many remarkable things, but few more applause was given; we had thought that remarkable than the short sentence in at least a small-tooths comb, after the fash­ which he hints that there is some analogy ion of those said by Miss Emmeline Lott to between the Constitution of France and be used in the Turkish harems, would have that of the United States. The statement been bestowed. But perhaps it would have has been received in England with an been dangerous to have given so decided a impatience which is. a little unjust, and preference to the hair of one lady over that is caused by too exclusive an attention of another, for after all it must be with some to surface differences. Those differences difficulty that the subjects of the exhibition are of course patent to every one ; but the ■ are collected. After the b< swarry ” came a analogy is not the less real and striking. ball, at which whosoever danced with the The key-note of the American Constitution ladies who had their heads powdered was, is the existence of an Executive which dur­ if he disliked dust, to be pitied. The com­ ing its term of office is irresponsible to the pany seemed to be, for the most part, or at people, which acts by its own volition, any rate to a considerable extent, connect­ which can pursue if necessary a policy dia­ ed with the hairdressing interest, and that metrically opposed to the wishes of those they should do all they could to bring their who elected it. That also is the key-note craft to perfection is not only pardonable, of the system established by the Second but commendable. Would it, however, be Empire. The President does as he pleases well if society in general should patronize in all matters within his province just as such exhibitions ? Opinions happily differ, the Emperor does, and like him is irrespon­ but we cannot help thinking evil would come sible to the Legislature — need not, indeed, of it. What manner of woman, is it that explain to the representatives of the people must study such matters as hairdressing, if | his own official acts. His ministers are his �586 FRENCH AND AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONS. ministers or clerks, bound to obey his or­ ders; not bound to pay any heed, and fre­ quently not paying any heed, to votes passed by the popular body. Of course, in America as in France this absolute disunion between the Executive and the body which controls the purse is very inconvenient, and it has in each country been met in the same way. In France the Minister without a portfolio explains to the Corps Legislatif the plans of depart­ ments which he does not control, and in America a friend or connection or political ally of the President performs the same function, Mr. Raymond for example occupy­ ing as nearly as possible that position in Congress, which M. Rouher occupies in the French Chamber. It is true the French spokesman is a recognised official, and the American spokesman is not, but the recog­ nition does not diminish “ responsibility ” in the English parliamentary sense, but rather increases it. It is true Mr. Johnson cannot effect through Congress what the Emperor can effect through his Legislature, but that is because he has not a majority and the Emperor has. In theory the French Cham­ ber has as much right to reject a bill pro­ posed by the Imperial Government as Con­ gress has, and were the Emperor less dread­ ed it would frequently do so. At the pres­ ent moment Mr. Johnson is trying to “ make a majority ” to support his policy b^ means quite as strong as those used in French elections. He has ordered that no radical recommendation for office shall be listened to, and has it is said threatened that unless his opponents give way he will dismiss every official throughout the Union who owes his election to the recommenda­ tion of an opponent, a measure which has daunted his stoutest adversaries as fatal to their re-election. They will be in fact, as in France, struck out of the Government list. Indeed the prerogative of the Presi­ dent is in many ways greater than that of the Emperor. Each is commander-inchief, but the President can deprive any officer of his commission by decree, and the Emperor cannot. A French officer’s grade is his “property,” and though the law has once or twice been violated, it /could not be broken through except for a State necessity. Emperor and President are alike masters of the Civil Service, but the President can and does dismiss at will, and the bureaucracy of France is perma­ nent. An order, such as Mr. Johnson is said to have threatened to give, would in France have aroused an unconquerable re­ sistance. No doubt the Emperor of the French can do things infinitely more highhanded than the President could attempt, but that is not by virtue of the idea of the French Constitution, but by reason of his control over a system essentially and radically despotic, which he did not make, and which his predecessors also used, the French police. Mr. Johnson has no such organisation at his disposal, but when it ex­ isted during the first two years of the war it was used without much regard to anything but the safety of the Federation. Without the police aud the immense army, and with a hostile majority in the Chamber, the Em­ peror would be almost precisely in the po­ sition of the President. But the latter is subject to removal at the expiration of his term ? No doubt Mr. Johnson is, and has therefore a great temp­ tation to make his policy accord with the policy approved by the electors, and so has the Emperor Napoleon, who follows opinion quite as anxiously; but. that deference is no part of the Constitution, which provides for change in the individual, but not for change in the absolute independence of the office. In changing our Premier, we ensure a Change of policy, because if the new man disobeys, he also can be dismissed next day; but in changing the President, America merely places one independent and irre­ movable official in place of another. The theories of the Imperial and Republican sys­ tems are identical, except in the illogical peculiarity of the French Constitution, that it introduces the hereditary element into the Executive, whereas the right of election logically includes a right of dismissal at periods fixed by mutual agreement. But the freedom of the Press, of speech, of asso­ ciation ? Well, these things exist in Amer­ ica and do not exist in France; but it is not in consequence of the Constitution, but of the popular will. Nothing prevents an American President, with Congress at his back, from subverting the freedom of the Press, by means, for example, of remissible taxes, if they think that policy sound. The Emperor and his first Chamber did think it sound, and so freedom in France ended, a fact greatly no doubt to be regretted, but in, no way proving that the principles of the American and French Constitutions are not analogous. One very remarkable power indeed is possessed by the American Legis­ lature which is not possessed by the French, and that is the right of passing a law by a two-third vote, in defiance of the President. But the French Chamber is theoretically just as strong, for it could insist on a certain law being passed, under penalty of a rejec­ �/ / xico. s 587 tion of the Budget, and the Emperor must by which alone a constitutional monarch . either yield, or appeal to a plebiscitum, that can acquire great individual power. At all is, strike a coup d’etat upsetting the Consti­ events, should circumstances ever compel tution, which gives the Chamber such a the Emperor to relax the overstrictness right of control. That the two sets of insti­ of his regime, it is to the American rather tutions are worked in a different way, and than to the British form of freedom that with a different spirit, is too obvious for re­ he appears likely to feel his way. mark ; but that does not destroy the theo­ retic analogy to which the Emperor points. The truth is that apart from the operation ..of the State system, which with many faults ' still organises popular resistance, the Presi­ dent of the United States is, during his From the Saturday Review, Jan. 27. term of office, an excessively powerful mon­ MEXICO. arch, and the fact, revealed only by the war, has evidently struck forcibly on the The position which the Government of imagination of the Emperor of the French. the United States is prepared to take up As he acknowleges in his speech he still dis­ with regard to Mexico is at last clearly and likes Parliamentary Government, for which finally established, and it is one that is cal­ he is himself singularly unfitted, and he culated to excite some apprehension for the glances at the Union with a passing thought future peace of the world. During the au­ that if he ever grants “ liberty,” it will be in tumn months of last year, Mr. Seward was the American and not in the English form. continually urging on the Federal Govern­ Should the thought ever become active, it ment the expediency of the speedy with­ is astonishing how little he will have to do drawal of the French troops; and, with to restore “liberty” after the American many sincere protestations of the most frienimodel as it would appear were the Union ly feeling towards France, he gave the Em­ a republic one and indivisible. He would peror to understand that, if his troops were have to introduce laws establishing the free­ to stay much longer where they were, a dom of the press, and the right of associa­ rupture between the two countries was inev­ tion, and the liability of all officials to pros­ itable. The Emperor would be only too ecution for illegal acts done in their official glad to get his troops away if he could do so capacities; and the exemption of all citizens without compromising his own honour, and from arrest except on criminal charges, and that of France ; and it seemed to him that the constitutional change would be theoret­ the best way of arranging the matter would ically alinost complete. The remaining bethat the French troops. should go, and changes which would be necessary — such that the United States should recognise the as abstinence from interference in the elec­ Emperor Maximilian. • The Mexican Em­ tions, recognition of the right of debate, pire, being thus placed on a friendly footing and restoration of the legislative initiative with the only Power it has to dread, might to individual members — are scarcely con­ hope to establish itself and prosper, if pros­ stitutional. These changes once accom­ perity in Mexico is possible for it. France plished, France would be in possession of a would have succeeded, or, at least, would great amount of practical liberty, of the not have openly and conspicuously failed; control of her own Legislature, and of an and all jealousy between Washington and Executive terribly strong indeed, but not Paris would have been at an end. But Mr. stronger than that of the American Union; Seward has distinctly and decisively re­ rather less strong, because hampered by the jected this proposal. The United States legal rights of the army, and the customary will not recognise the Emperor Maximil­ rights of the civil bureaucracy. That is not ian, nor treat him on any but a hostile foot­ a form of Government we admire, because ing. lathe eyes of the Americans, he is it lacks the one strength of the Parliamen­ an intruder, and an enemy of an injured and tary system, the absolute identity of the friendly Republic, and they can never be Legislature and the Executive power; but content until his enterprise has wholly failed. it is one which might suit France for a time, Congress, as Mr. Seward remarks, must and would have the immense advantage of exercise its legitimate influence on the Gov­ permitting free thought and its expression, ernment of the President ; and the Pres­ and some activity of Parliamentary life ident has not only to announce his own de­ without the previous dismissal of the Napo­ cision, but that of the American people and leonic dynasty, which will never, we fear, its representatives; and the opinion of the consent to that incessant intellectual conflict American people is violently against the �588 MEXICO. Mexican Empire. Of this there can be no withdrawn; but if this is not done, the time doubt; for even if the accusations continu­ must come when they will insist on having ally brought up in Congress against the Em­ their wishes fulfilled. peror Maximilian were true, instead of This uncompromising language of the being, as for the most part they are, gross American Government has placed the Em­ misrepresentations, still the vehemence and peror of the'French in a very difficult po­ pertinacity with which they are urged show sition. He cannot seem to yield to threats; clearly enough how deep is the animosity but still he knows that, if any way of with­ that prompts them. If the whole question drawing his troops with honour can be found, were simply one of the continuance of the he must use it. He has, therefore, set ear­ Mexican Empire, it might be worth while nestly to work to disprove the view which to discuss these accusations, and to show how the American Government has adopted. very slight is the basis on which they have He denies altogether that he ever wished to been reared ; but all matters of detail are set up a Monarchy in Mexico, or to crush a swallowed up in the gravity of the declara­ Republic. But the Republican Govern­ tion which the United States have now is­ ment had insulted and offended him, plun­ sued. The view of the Government of the dered and murdered his subjects, gave no United States is, that the French have vio­ compensation, and perhaps was too weak, lated the Monroe doctrine in its proper poor, and anarchical to give any. He inter­ and original sense. There was a Republic fered merely to get redress, but he did not established in Mexico, holding its territory see how it was possible to hope for redress unopposed, in harmony with the country, from, such a Government as then existed in dear to the inhabitants, and in the most Mexico. Several leading Mexicans pro­ friendly relations with the United States. posed to establish a Monarchy, and he con­ The French came to pull down this Repub­ curred in the idea because he thought a Mon­ lic, and to set up a Monarchy, and they per­ archy, which had long been a favourite no­ sist in remaining in Mexico to force this tion of many Mexicans, offered the best alien Empire on an unwilling Republican chance of getting a Government strong, du­ people. This is the mode in which the rable, and enlightened enough to pay him United States have determined, after full what he was owed. This is all. He no deliberation, to regard the recent history of more wishes to put down a Republic in Mexi­ Mexico; and they will not allow any com­ co than he does to put down a Republic at promise by which their adherence to this Washington; he merely wished, and wishes, view might seem to be weakened. So long to have an instrument ready to provide him as France stays in Mexico, forcing an Em­ with the redress he asked. The Emperor pire on the Republicans of a contiguous Maximilian and his Court, and his Orders State, America will treat France exactly as of the Eagle and Gaudalupe, are only pret­ she would expect France to treat her if ty bits of machinery for the recovery of she sent a fleet, and landed troops, to set up money owing to Frenchmen; and it must a Republic in Belgium. Much, it is ac­ be owned that, if this is all, they are about knowledged, is to be borne from France, as expensive a pi^ce of machinery, in com­ which would not be borne from any other parison with the object to be effected, as country. It will be only in the last resort was ever invented. But then, as the Em­ that the language of America would be­ peror said in his speech, this machinery come hostile to a country endeared to her has answered, or very nearly answered. by so many traditions, and bound to her by There is now in Mexico an enlightened so many ties. The tone of Mr. Seward’s Government triumphant overall opposition, letter is very conciliatory, and the Govern­ with a French commerce trebled in an in­ ment of President Johnson has been reso­ credibly short space of time, plentifully sup­ lute in preventing any indirect breaches of plied with troops, and quite ready to pay off amity. The export of arms from California all that is due to France. A few more ar­ has been prevented, and still more recently rangements have still to be made with the a considerable portion of the troops in Tex­ Emperor Maximilian, so that the stipulat­ as has been disbanded. France has nothing ed payments may be fully secured, and then to complain of in small things; there is only the French troops will be finally and hon­ the one great point of difference between her ourably withdrawn. The ecstatic visions of and the United States, that she has violated M. Chevalier, and the ardent proclama­ a doctrine to which the United States at­ tions of Marshal Forey, are forgotten, or tach the greatest importance, and which utterly neglected. We hear no more of the they are resolved to uphold. They now spread of French influence over the West­ merely ask that the French troops shall be ern hemisphere, of the necessity of enabling �MEXICO. tv * 589 the Latin race to confront the Anglo-Saxon his own resources. If the Emperor Maxi­ race in the New World. The Americans milian would but announce that he was are told that all that has been done in Mexi- now quite, sure of his throne, and that . Co has been done simply to redress the French aid was no longer necessary to him, wrongs and support the claims of French­ the French might undoubtedly retire with­ men; the French’themselves are told that out dishonour. They could not retire at this most desirable end has been accom­ once, but it may be presumed that the plished, and that the troops who have ren­ Americans would be quite satisfied if a Con­ dered its accomplishment possible may soon vention like the September Convention be expected home. But it is scarcely neces­ with Italy were agreed on, and if it were sary to say that neither the Americans nor arranged that all French troops should have the French will be satisfied. The Ameri­ quitted Mexico by the end of the present cans think, and think with perfect truth, year. If the French went, the Austrians that the experiment of recovering French and Belgians must go too— not necessarily debts by shooting Republicans until the at the very same time, but before very long; Austrian Archduke was made Emperor as it is obvious that, if the French have been would never have been tried unless it had guilty of coming to American soil to tram­ been supposed that it could be tried with­ ple down a Republic and set up a Monarchy, out the United States being able to inter­ so have they. The Emperor Maximilian fere with it. The French know that at least would therefore have to decide whether he twenty millions of French money have been could possibly hold his own with native sunk in the experiment, and that if their troops against his domesticV’enemies; and troops were withdrawn it would be a great secondly, whether, if he thought it possible deal more difficult to"recover the new debt to succeed, he would also think it worth than it was to recover the old one. The while to try. It may be assumed, perhaps, that Emperor, by adopting the view that he is the Emperor of the French would be able merely trying to get his just dues from Mexi­ to provide that Mexico should be left alone, co, has done something to conciliate the and that, if he did not go there, neither Americans; yet he has made it even harder would the Americans. But if all foreign than before to justify to France the with­ troops were withdrawn, the Emperor drawal of the troops. To throw away twen­ would have to fight Mexicans with Mexi­ ty millions in the attempt to get back a cans. His Mexicans would feel no enthusi­ tenth of that sum is as deplorable an invest­ asm for him, would regard him as a foreign­ ment, and as conspicuous a failure, as he er, and would with difficulty be induced to could well make. The last Mexican loan of believe that his cause was the winning one. about six millions sterling was almost entire­ His adversaries would be ardent, stimulated ly subscribed by the French poor, on the by the encouragement of the Americans, direct solicitation of the local officials of the panting for revenge, and able to take ad­ Government, and it would most seriously vantage of that general disposition to go impair the confidence of the lower classes in against the existing Government, whatever the Emperor’s policy if it ended in a loss it may be, which pervades all nations of to them of money which they only sub­ Spanish descent. But even if the Emper­ scribed because he seemed to ask for it him- or thought that, after a very long and pro­ self. tracted fight, he might possibly hold his own, The Emperor must, therefore, risk some­ and retain a precarious possession of some thing. He might risk either a war with of the richer parts of the Mexican territory, America, or a blow to his prestige in France. he might very probably hesitate before he His speech was very judiciously worded, and embarked on so dangerous an adventure, he seemed to be preserving a firm attitude, and might begin to examine whetherit could and consulting the dignity of his country, possibly answer to him to take the risk. If while he prepared a mode of escape from his he stayed as long as the French stayed, and Embarrassment by asserting that his work found that the pressure of the Americans was done in Mexico, and that the Emperor was depriving him even of his Austrians 1 Maximilian was firmly established there. and Belgians, he would incur no- disgrace It will now naturally be his first object to by resigning a position that he might fairly get the Emperor Maximilian to share this consider untenable. But the French could opinion ; and the story may be true that he .scarcely withdraw altogether if he went. has sent over a special envoy to represent They could not acknowledge that their at­ to the Emperor of Mexico that he must tempt to obtain redress had been entirely in consent to the withdrawal of the French vain, and all their money wasted ; and they troops, and tTy his chance of empire from would naturally seek to make some arrange- �THE EMPERORS SPEECH. From the Spectator, 27th January. ment with the United States by which, if a Government favoured by the United States THE EMPEROR’S SPEECH. was set up, a return to mere anarchy should be prevented, and the right of the French The Emperor of the French has opened to enjoy some sort of guarantee for the settle­ the Session of his Chambers for the thir­ ment of their claims should be recognized. teenth time, and for the thirteenth time his ' speech is the political fact in the European history of the week. Its interest turns mainly upon three paragraphs, those relating [From another article in the same paper, we to Mexico, to Italy, and to his pledge of one copy the French Emperor’s address.] day “crowning the edifice” by conceding liberty. Of course he says other things, The French Emperor’s address to his but they are so vague or so formal that they Legislature is generally an interesting study. add nothing to our knowledge either of his It is feebler and less clever this year than purposes or his position. He will “ remain usual, but still it is interesting/ The au­ a stranger” to the internal disputes of Ger­ gust author of these compositions has the art many, “ provided French interests are not of touching all great questions of European directly engaged,” but as he is the sole concern in a tone of frankness and gener­ judge whether they are so or not, this osity, and noble sentiments in a Royal or amounts only to a pledge that France will Imperial speech are always pleasant and re­ not interfere with Prussia until her Em­ freshing. What, for example, can be more peror chooses, an assertion which makes a considerate or delicate than the manner in very small draft upon our political faith. which he handles the Americans? They He promises to restore the right of associa­ are reminded of a century of friendship, and tion for industrial purposes, but the liberty it is politely suggested that Imperialism is thus regained is to be “ outside politics,” only the Constitution of the United States and to be limited “ by the guarantees which in a French Court dress. The Mexican ex­ public order requires ” i. e., by any guaran­ pedition is explained in a manner that tee the Emperor thinks expedient. He an­ ought to disarm the most suspicious Yankee, nounces a reduction of the Army, but it has and it seems as if all had been a mistake been effected without a reduction of num­ about the Latin race, as it was about the bers, and declares that a financial equili­ proposed recognition of the South. Some­ brium has been secured by the surplus of body did say something about the Latin revenue, for which surplus his Minister of race, which has evidently been misconstrued Finance only just ventures to hope on con­ a good deal; but the “ American people” dition that everything goes right for two will now comprehend that “ the expedition, more years. He suggests that France is in which we invited them to join, was not governed very much like the United States, opposed to their interests.” France “prays” but does not attempt to explain wherein he sincerely for the prosperity of the great Re­ finds the analogy between a Constitution public, and, just as a French Emperor is only which changes its Executive every four an American President in disguise, so Im­ years, and leaves the entire legislative power perialism in Mexico has been founded “ on to the representatives of the people, and a the will of the people.” Mr. Seward very Constitution which was intended to make Hkely never swears. His talent lies chiefly the executive power hereditary, and which in the line of making other people swear. intrusts the initiative of legislation entirely But it is possible that some less courteous to the man who is to carry that legislation Anglo-Saxons in Washington and in New out. On all these subjects, Germany, fi­ York, who are anxious about the Monroe nance, co-operation, and the Constitution, doctrine, after reading all these high-mind­ the Emperor’s utterance is suggestive, with­ ed expressions, and especially the one about out clearly instructing either his subjects or the French praying for them, will feel in­ the world. No one, for example, could tell clined, in the language used in the School without knowing facts which the Emperor for Scandal by the friends of Joseph Sur­ does not reveal whether his paragraph on face, to observe, “ Damn your sentiments.” Germany is a hint to Count von Bismark to However this may be, and whatever may be go on in his course and prosper, or a.men­ the turn the Mexican difficulty is taking, ace that France would not bear a Union, of one thing is clear, that the French Emper­ Northern Germany against which its in­ terests are directly engaged. or puts his sentiments neatly and well. �THE EMPEROR ’S SPEECH. 591 Even on the three points we have excepted die course, and the object of this part of the Emperor, as his wont is, gives the world his speech is simply to soothe Americans a riddle to read. What, for instance, is the into waiting until he can retreat with hon­ meaning of the sentence which says that our. He who three years ago spoke only of France “ has reason to rely on the scrupulous strengthening a branch of the Latin race to execution of the Treaty with Italy of the 15 th resist Anglo-Saxon aggression, now anxious­ September, and on the indispensable main­ ly repudiates any idea of hostility to the tenance of the power of the Holy Father ? ” Union. He recalls to the Americans “ a Does it mean that Napoleon regards the noble page in the history of France,” her temporal power as indispensable, or only assistance to the Republic in its great rebel­ the spiritual; that he will put down internal lion, reminds them that he requested them to revolt in Rome, or suffer Italy to garrison take a part in reclaiming Mexican debts, the city, provided only the Pope is left spir­ and almost implores thein to recollect that itually independent ? Is his dictum a threat “ two nations equally jealous of their inde­ to the Revolution or a threat to the priests | pendence ought to avoid any step which Reading it by the light of the Emperor’s would implicate their dignity and their character, we should believe the sentence honour.” Is that an assurance or a menintended only to ward off opposition until 1 afte ? For a French Sovereign to speak the evacuation of Rome was complete, but of possible contingencies as “ implicating read by the facts in progress, blithe re­ French dignity and honour ” is a very cruiting for Rome going on in France, and ^serious thing, but then why these unusual the pressure employed in Florence to make professions of regard for the Union ? It is Italy accept the Papal debt, we should be­ true in a preceding paragraph Napoleon lieve it implied that while Napoleon will re­ has affirmed that he is arranging with the tire, the Pope must remain independent Emperor Maximilian for the recall of his King of Rome. The maintenance of the army, bumhen their return must be effect-' Pope’s power is declared indispensable, but ed when it “will not compromise the in­ nothing is said of the invisible means by terests which France went out to that dis­ which it is to be maintained. tant land to defend.” When is that ? Do So with the Mexican declaration. The the interests to be defended include the re­ Emperor, we admit, is upon this point placed invigoration of the Latin race ? Nothing is in a most difficult position. He made the clear from the speech, and according to singular blunder made by the Times and by the Yellow Book, which is always supposed the majority of English politicians, but not to explain the speech, the French Army is made by the people he rules. Careless of only to return from Mexico when the Presi­ principle and forgetting precedent, reject­ dent of the Union has recognized the Mexi­ ing the idea that freedom must conquer can Empire, an act which he has refused to slavery, and overlooking his uncle’s adage do, and which Congress has specifically for­ that twenty-five millions must beat fifteen if bidden him to perform. There is nothing in they can once get at them, he convinced the speech inconsiste^; with that interpreta­ himself that the South must break up the tion, and if it is correct the Americans will Union. Consequently he invaded Mexico, simply contrast the compliments offered and placed his nominee on its throne. As them in words with the impossible proposal his subjects, with the strange instinct which submitted in fact, and be less content than supplies to great populations the place of ever. All they obtain is a promise 'that at wisdom, had from the first foreseen, he some time not specified, when a result they erred in his first essential datum. The dislike has been accomplished, the Emperor South did not break up the Union, but the will, if consistent with his honour, withdraw Union broke up the South, and Napoleon the troops through whom he has been able finds himself compelled either to withdraw to accomplish it — not a very definite or from a great undertaking visibly baffled and very satisfactory pledge. repulsed, or to accept a war with the oldest It is on the “ crowning of the edifice ’ ally of France — a war in which, if defeat­ alone that the Emperor is partially explicit. ed, he risks his throne, and if successful, can He will not grant a responsible Ministry. gain nothing except financial embarrass­ That system of government, always abhor­ ment. Neither alternatiye seems to him en­ rent to him, has not become more pleasant durable — the former as fatal to the reputa­ of late years, and he declares for the tenth tion for success which is essential to his per­ time that “ with one Chamber holding with­ sonal power, the latter as bringing him into di­ in itself the fate of Ministers the Executive rect conflict with the wishes of all his peo­ is without authority and without spirit,” the ple. He strives therefore to find some mid- “ one ” being inserted either to avoid a di- �592 BEAU-MONDE AND THE DEMI-MONDE IN PARIS. ers by an anouncement for which, after all, both should have been prepared. No one who is at all conversant with the ordina­ ry course of Parisian life — we do not say familiar with its inner mysteries — ought to have been astonished at hearing that cer­ tain grandes dames of French society had sought for invitations to a masqued ball which was to be given by a distinguished leader of the demi-monde. We have had, in our own country, certain faint and partial indications of the same curiosity, revealed in an awkward and half-hesitating sort of way. English great ladies once made an off-night for themselves at Cremorne, in order to catch a flying and furtive glance, not of the normal idols of those gay gar­ dens, but of the mere scenic accessories to their attractions and triumphs. But as yet we have never heard that the matrons of English society have sought an introduction to the Lais of Brompton or the Phryne of May-fair, even under the decorous con­ cealment of mask and domino. Nor has it yet been formally advertised here that the motive of so unusal a request was a desire to learn the arts and tactics by which the gilded youth — and, it might be added, the gilded age — of the country is subjected to the thrall of venal and meretricious beauty. That such a rumour should be circulated and believed in France is — to use the cur­ rent slang — “highly suggestive.” It sug­ gests a contrast of the strongest, though it is far from a pleasing, kind between the society of to-day and the society of other days. It was long the special boast of the French that with them women enjoyed an influence which in no other part of the world was accorded to their sex, and that this influence was at least as much due to their mental as to their physical charms. The women of other nations may have been more beautiful. To the Frenchwomen was specially given the power of fascination ; and it was the peculiar characteristic of her fascination that its exercise involved no dis­ credit to the sense or' the sensibility of the men who yielded to it. A power which showed itself as much in the brilliance of bons mots and repartee as ip smiles and glances, a grace of language and expression which enhanced every grace of feature and of attitude, a logic which played in the form of epigram, and a self-respect From the Saturday Review. which was set off rather than concealed by THE 1 BEAU-MONDE AND THE DEMI­ the maintenance of the most uniform cour­ tesy to others — such were the arts and MONDE IN PARIS. insignia of the empire which the most cele­ The Paris journals lately surprised their brated Frenchwomen, from the days of French, and startled their foreign, read­ Maintenon and De Sevigne to those of rect sarcasm upon the English Constitution, or from a sudden recollection of the part played by the Prussian Chamber of Peers. He believes that his system has worked well, that France, tranquil at home, is respected abroad, and, as he adds with singular au­ dacity, is without political captives within or exiles beyond her frontiers. Are, then, the Due d’Aumale, M. Louis iBlanc, and the author of Labienus at liberty to return to France ? Consequently nothing will be changed, but the Emperor, resolving to “ im­ prove the conditions of labour,” will await the time when all France, being educated, shall abandon seductive theories, and all who live by their daily toil, receiving in­ creasing profits, “ shall be firm supporters of a society which secures their well-being and their dignity.” No one can complain of any obscurity in that apology for the Empire. Its central ideas are all expressed, and all expressed with truthful lucidity. The Emperor is to rule “ with authority and spirit.” There is to be no political freedom, no discussion even of “ theories of govern­ ment, which France for eighty years has sufficiently discussed.” Intelligence and cap­ ital are still to remain disfranchised, but in return the labourer’s condition is to be im­ proved. “ Bread to the cottage, justice to the palace,” was the promise of the Venetian Ten, and Napoleon, if he changes the second, adheres to the first condition. His offer is also bread to the cottage, provided only that there is silence in the palace. It is for France to decide whether she accepts an offer which is not a small one, which if honestly made is capable of fulfillment, and which would pledge her Government to the best ad interim occupation it could possibly pursue. Only we would just remind her that education in the Emperor’s mouth has hitherto meant only education through priests, and improvement in the condition of the labourer only a vast expenditure out of taxes which the labourer pays, that the first result of these works has been the reckless over-crowding of all towns, and that of these promises there is not one which liberty could not also secure. �BEAU-MONDE ANDTPHE DEMI-MONDE IN PARIS. 593 Madame Deffand and Madame Roland or of the roturier ; the conflicts of science and those of Madame Recamier, exercised over theology — all these furnished materials for the warriors, sages, and statesmen of France. the tongues of the clever women, materials The homage paid by the men to the brilliant of which the clever women fully availed women who charmed the society which they themselves. The final result was not, in­ had helped to create may not always have deed, wholly satisfactory. How many a been perfectly disinterested. The friend­ short sharp sarcasm, shot from the tongue ship of the women for their illustrious ad­ of brilliant causeuses,‘rebounded on the gil­ mirers may not always have been perfectly ded rooms wherein it first hurtled! How Platonic. There may have been some im­ many a satire, sugared with compliment, at propriety—or, as our more Puritan friends which rival beaux chuckled in delight, would say, some sin — in the intercourse of came back with its uncovered venom to the some of the most celebrated Frenchmen hearts of those whose admiration had first and Frenchwomen. Yet even this could provoked it! How many a gibe of reckless not have been predicated of all. Madame truth, aimed at courts and nobles, distilled de Sevigne’s reputation comes out. clear through laquais and waiting-maids into the and spotless even from the foulest assault of streets of Paris, to whet the after-wrath wounded vanity and slighted love. We do of that fierce canaille! Many of those not forget the comprehensive loves and the clever women had better been silent; many deliberate inconstancy of Ninon. But Ni­ of those pungent epigrams had better been non, corrupt, as she may have been, was unsaid. Still, while the spirited talk went not venal. She did not ruin her lovers by her on, life was illumined by no common bril­ covetousness, and then receive their wives liance ; and vice not only decked itself, but and sisters in her salons. She was courted forgot _ itself, in the guise of intelligence by elegant and virtuous women, because she and wit. was the single and solitary instance as yet But what a change is it now! There are known of a woman possessing every grace drawing-rooms in Paris which are more and every charm save the grace and charm brilliant and gorgeous than any that De of virtue. Whatever may have been the Sevigne or Recamier ever satin * But their relations between the sexes in those days, brilliance and splendour are not of such it was at least free from grossness. The airy impalpabilities as genius or wit. They charms which attracted men to the Maison are solid, substantial, tangible. They are Rambouillet were not those of sense alone, the brilliance and the splendour, not of able or in a special degree. They were those of men and clever women, but of the uphol­ conversation at once spirited, graceful, sterer, the mechanician, and the decorator. elegant, and vivacious. To an accom­ There is gold, there is marble, there is lapis plished man there is perhaps no greater lazuli; there are pictures, statues, ormolu­ social treat than to hear good French clocks; there are rich velvets and cloud­ spoken by an educated and clever French­ like lace, and a blaze of amethysts, rubies, woman. In her hands a language of which and diamonds. There are trains of Impe­ both the excellences and the defects eminent­ rial dimensions and tiaras of Ijnperial bright­ ly qualify it for the purposes of conversational ness. And in whose honour is all this grand combat becomes a weapon of dazzling fence. display ? To whom is the court paid by Those delicate turns of phrase which imply this mob of sombre-clad and neatly-gloved so much more than they express fly like men of every age, from twenty to sixty ? Parthian shafts, and the little commonplaces Who have taken the place of the great which may mean nothing do what the female leaders of society whose names have pawns do when manipulated by a clever added lustre to France ? Strange as it chess-player — everything. And in the age may seem, their successors are secondwhen the empire of Frenchwomen rested rate or third-rate actresses, opera-dancers, upon their grace and power in conversa­ and singers at public rooms and public gar­ tion, there was ample matter to task their dens. We do not intend to undertake the remarkable talents. It was an age of new superfluous task of penning a moral dia­ ideas. Government, religion, and philoso­ tribe, or inveighing against the immorality phy: the administration of the kingdom of the age. Sermons there are, and will and the administration of the universe ; the be, in abundance on so prolific and provok­ rights of kings to be obeyed by their people ing a theme. In every age actresses and and the right of the Creator to the adora­ ballet-girls have had their admirers. In tion of his creatures; the claims of privi­ every age, probably, they will continue to lege and the claims of prerogative; the have admirers. But what is worthy of note pretensions of rank and the pretensions is this. Formerly this admiration was of THIRD SERIES. LIVING AGE. VOL. XXXI [. 1478. �594 BEAU-MONDE AND THE DEMIMONDE IN PARIS. an esoteric kind. The worshippers adored their divinities in secret. The temples of the goddesses were, at any rate, not obtrud­ ed on the public eye, nor in possession of the most open, public, and splendid streets. The cult, too, was confined to a narrower circle. But now all this is changed; the fanes of the divinities ‘are splendid and in the most splendid streets ; the cult is open, avowed, public. The worshippers are of every age, and are all equally indifferent to secrecy. There is no restriction and no ex­ clusion, save on two grounds — those of poverty and intelligence. There is a kind of intellect admitted into this gorgeous cote­ rie, but it is intellect in livery. The dra­ matic author and the dramatic critic are now as much appendages to the dramatic courtezan as her coachman and her femme de chambre. Where professional reputation depends on scenic effect, and scenic effect depends upon the equivoque put into the .actress’s mouth, and the applause with Tvhich their delivery is received, the man who concocts the equivoque and the man •who criticises their delivery become equally •objects of attention to the actress who is looking ou^ for a clientele. Saving these necessary exceptions, these assemblies are • comprised of rich old men anxious to dissi;pate the money which they have made, and •rich young men as anxious to dissipate the •wealth which they have inherited. And ;now we hear that the wives and sisters of these men seek admission to these Paphian jhalls. Jt is, indeed, not an unnatural, though it iis far from a decent, curiosity which prompts ladies entitled to the reputation of virtue do examine something of the life and dounestic economy of those ladies whose very • existence presupposes an entire repudiation < of virtue. The married women naturally •■desire to know something of the manners and mein and language of the-rivals whose ■arts have diverted their own husbands’ ■treasures into alien and obnoxious channels. 'When a wife hears that her husband has, at one magnificent stroke on the Bourse, (Carried off one or two millions of francs, ; she is curious to ascertain the process by which no inconsiderable proportion of these -winnings has been “ affected ” to the payiment of Madlle. Theodorine’s debts or to the ■purchase of Madlle. Valentine’s brougham. .And the anxious mother, who has long ■dreamed of the ceremony which might unite the fortunes of her dear Alcide with "the dot of her opulent neighbour’s daughter, Is tortured between the misery of frustrated Slopes and curiosity to understand the mo­ tives which impel Alcide to become the daily visitor of Mdlle. Gabrielle in the Rue d’Arcade, and her daily companion when riding in the Bois de Boulogne. Certainly the subject is a very curious one. But does the solution of the problem quite justify the means taken to solve it? Might not enough be inferred from the antecedent history of those who are the subjects of it to dispense with the necessity of a nearer examination? Take a number of women of the lower classes from the different provinces of France — with no refinement, with a mere shred of education, and with but small claim to what an English eye would regard as beauty — but compensating for lack of knowledge, education, and re­ finement by a vivacity and a coquetry pe­ culiarly French. Take these women up to Paris, tutor them as stage supernumeraries, and parade before them the example of the arts of the more successful Eorettes. The rest may be imagined. From these general premises it is not difficult to conjecture the product obtained; to conceive that manner on which jeunes gens dote, a manner made up of impudence and grimace ; that repar­ tee which mainly consists of ,a new slang hardly known two miles beyond the Made­ line ; those doubles entendres of which per­ haps memory is less the parent than instinct, and that flattery which is always coarse and always venal. It would be erroneous to say that we have here given a complete picture of the class which certain leaders of Paris fashion wish to study. There are, in the original, traits and features which we could not describe, and which it is unnecessary for us to attempt to describe, as they are por­ trayed in the pages of the satirist who has im­ mortalized the vices of the most corrupt city at its most corrupt era. Juvenal will supply what is wanting to our imperfect delinea­ tion. English ladies may read him in the vigorous paraphrases of Dryden and Gif­ ford ; ’ while their French contemporaries may arrive at a livelier conception of what we dare not express, if only they stay till the supper crowns the festal scene of the masqued ball. If they outstay this, they will have learned a lesson the value of which we leave it for themselves to com­ pute. . . . It is idle to say that curiosity of this kind is harmless because it is confined to a few. Only a few, indeed, may have contemplated the extreme step of being present at the Saturnalia of the demi-monde. But how many others have thought of them and talked of them ? To how many leaders of society are the doings of these women the �THE COVERT. subjects of daily curiosity and daily con­ versation ? How many patrician. -— or, at all events, noble — dames regular attend­ ants at mass, arbiters of fashion, and orna­ ments of the Church, honour with their in­ quisitiveness, women of whose existence, twenty years ago, no decent Frenchwoman was presumed to have any knowledge ? And do these noble ladies suppose that this curiosity is disregarded by the adventur­ esses from Arles or Strasburg, Bordeaux or Rouen, whom successful prostitution has dowered with lace, diamonds, carriages, and opera-boxes ? Do they suppose that the professed admiration of the young Sardanapali for the ex-couturieres and bal­ let-girls of Paris has not a more potent ef­ fect when combined with the ill-concealed interest of their mothers and sisters ? And what that effect is on the men in one class, and on the women in another, a very slight knowledge of human nature is sufficient to suggest. That girls of moderately good looks will contentedly continue to ply the shuttle at Lyons, or to drudge as household servants in Brittany, or to trudge home to a supperless chamber in Paris with the bare earnings of a supernumerary or a coryphee at a small theatre, when a mere sacrifice of chastity may enable them not only to ruin young dukes and counts, but to become the theme and admiration of duchesses and countesses, is a supposition which involves too high a U 1 •-■! . belief in human virtue; and the conditions we have named are found to be fatal to the virtue of the poorer Frenchwomen. And as for the men, what must be the effect on them ? Debarred from the stirring conflict of politics; exiled, so to speak, from the natural arena of patriotic ambition ; know­ ing no literature save that of novels in which courtezans are the heroines, and caring for no society but that of which courtezans are the leaders; diversifying the excitement of the hazard-table and the betting-room with the excitement of the coulisses; learning from their habitual asso­ ciations to lose that reverence for women and that courteous attention to them which are popularly supposed to have at one time characterized the gentlemen of France — they partially redeem the degradation which they court by showing that even a mixture of vapid frivolity, sensual indulgence, and senseless extravagance is insufficient to cor­ rupt a nation, unless also the female leaders of society conspire to select for their notice and admiration those creatures for whom the law of the land would better have pro­ vided the supervision of the police and the certificate of professional prostitution. When virtuous women of birth and position rub shoulders with strumpets, protests are useless and prophecies are superfluous; for the taint which goes before destruction is already poisoning the heart of the nation. ',fl. J i. ••• • . ‘ bn . •• ' r ' « ------ — W.’tWUS. •» .(< ‘i {f, • bill f> too’t ito <I> ;!•>.. j vf'jqUiH wto -w . *' fl-r< —W RO­ aw; al p to ’ sir fi: THE COVERT. The eagle beats his way Strong-winged through the burning blue: All through the heat of the day In the covert the wood-doves coo. Take the wings of the dove, my soul! Take the wings of the dove! For the sun is not thy goal, But the secret place of love. < Close to the earth and near, And hidden among the flowers, By the brink of the brooklet clear, The dove in her covert cowers. >‘ni Wq XT . .ih Take the wings of the dove, my soul I Take the wings of the dove! For the sun is not thy goal, But the secret place of love. <• --.ml. Flee not afar, my soul Flee not afar for rest 1 . The tumult may round thee roll, q Yet the dove be in thy breast. Take the wings of the dove, my soul! Take the wings of the dove! --X For the sun is not thy goal, But the resting place of love. "ir Mw U yi iv Good Words' �596 ORATION OF THE HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. IN MEMORY OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN, THE in her inmost nature, she disenthralled re­ MARTYR PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED ligion from bondage to temporal power, STATES. that her worship might be worship only in Oration of the Hon. George Bancroft, at the request of both Houses of Congress, in the Hall of the House of Representa*v lives of the United States, on Monday, Feb. 12, 1866. ! Senators, Representatives, ofAmerica: — GOD IN HISTORY. That God rules in the affairs of men is as certain as any truth of physical science. On the great moving power which is from the beginning hangs the world of the senses and the world of thought and action. Eternal wisdom marshals the great procession of the nations, working in patient continuity through the ages, never halting, and never abrupt, encompassing all events in its over­ sight, and ever affecting its will, though mortals may slumber in apathy or oppose with madness. Kings are lifted up or thrown down, nations come and go, republics flour­ ish and wither, dynasties pass away like a tale that is told; but nothing is by chance, though men in their ignorance of causes may think so. The deeds of time are governed as well as judged, by the decrees of eterni­ ty. The caprice of fleeting existences bends to the immovable omnipotence which plants its foot on all the centuries, and has neither change of purposes nor repose. Sometimes like a messenger through the thick darkness of night, it steps along mysterious ways ; but when the hour strikes for a people, or for mankind, to pass into a new form of being, unseen hands draw the bolts from the gates of futurity; an all-subduing influence pre­ pares the mind of men for the coming revo­ lution ; those who plan resistance find them­ selves in conflict with the will of Provi­ dence, rather than with human devices; and all hearts and all understandings, most of all the opinions and influences of the unwilling, are wonderfully attracted and compelled to bear forward the change which becomes more an obedience to the law of universal nature than submission to the ar­ bitrament of man. GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC. In the fulness of time a republic rose up in the wilderness of America. Thousands of years had passed away before this child of the ages could be born. From whatever there was of good in the systems of former centuries she drew her nourishment: the wrecks of the past were her warnings. With the deepest sentiment of faith fixed spirit and in truth. The wisdom which had passed from India through Greece, with what Greece had added of her own; the jurisprudence of Rome; the mediaaval mu­ nicipalities ; the Teutonic method of repre­ sentation ; the political experience of Eng­ land ; the benignant wisdom of the exposi­ tors of the law of nature and of nations in France and Holland, all shed on her their selectest influence. She washed the gold of political wisdom from the sands whereever it was found; she cleft it from the rocks; she gleaned it among ruins. Out of all the discoveries of statesmen and sages, out of all the experience of past human life, she compiled a perennial political philoso­ phy, the primordinal principles of national ethics. The wise men of Europe sought the best government in a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy; and America went behind t^ese names to extract from them the vital elements of social forms, and blend them harmoniously in the free Com­ monwealth, which comes nearest to the illus­ tration of the natural equality of all men. She intrusted the guardianship of establish­ ed rights to law; the movements of reform to the Spirit of the people, and drew her force from the happy reconciliation of both. TERRITORIAL EXTENT OF THE REPULIC. Republics had heretofore been limited to small cantons or cities and their dependen­ cies ; America, doing that of which the like had not before been known upon the earth, or believed by kings and statesmen to be possible, extended her republic across a continent. Under her auspices the vine of liberty took deep root and filled the land; the hills were covered with its shadow ; its boughs were like the goodly cedars, and reached unto both oceans. The fame of this only daughter of freedom went out into all the lands of the earth; from her the human race drew hope. PROPHECIES ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF SLAVERY. Neither hereditary monarchy nor heredi­ tary aristocracy planted itself on our soil; the only hereditary condition that fastened itself upon us was servitude. Nature works in sincerity, and is ever true to its law. The bee hives honey, the. viper distils pois­ on ; the vine stores its juices, and so do the poppy and the upas. In like manner, every thought and every action ripens its seed, each in its kind. In the individual man, �ORATION OF THE HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. . 597 and still more in a nation, a just idea gives position of Virginia and the South that the life, and progress, and glory; a false j®pn- clause of Jefferson was restored, and the ception portends disaster, shame, and death. whole Northwestern Territory — all the A hundred and twenty years ago, a West' territory that then belonged to the nation Jersey Quaker wrote : “ this trade of im­ — was reserved for the labor of freemen. porting slaves is dark gloominess hanging over the land; the consequences will be DESPAIR OK THE MEN OF THE REVO’‘£l " lution. grievous to posterity.”. At the North the growth of slavery was arrested by natural The hope prevailed in Virginia that the causes; in the region nearest the tropics it abolition of the slave trade would bring throve rankly, and worked itself into the with it the gradual abolition of slavery ; but organism of the rising States. Virginia the expectation was doomed to disappoint­ stood between the two; with soil, and cli­ ment. In supporting incipient measures mate, resources demanding free labour, for emancipation, Jefferson encountered and yet capable of the profitable employ­ difficulties greater than he could overcome; ment of the slave. She was the land of and after vain wrestlings, the words that great statesmen ; and they saw the danger broke from him, “ I tremble for my coun­ of her being whelmed under the rising flood try, when I reflect that God is just, that his in time to struggle against the delusions of justice cannot sleep forever,” were words avarice and pride. Ninety-four years ago, of despair. It was the desire of Washing­ the Legislature of Virginia addressed the ton’s heart that Virginia should remove British king, saying that the trade in slaves slavery by a public act; and as the pros­ was “ of great inhumanity,” was opposed to pect of a general emancipation grew more the “ security and happiness ” of their con­ and more dim he, in utter hopelessness of stituents, “ would in time have the most the action of the State, did all that he could destructive influence,” and “ endanger their by bequeathing freedom to his own slaves. very existence.” And the king answered Good and true men had, from the days of them, that “ upon pain of-his highest dis­ 1776, thought of colonizing the negro in pleasure, the importation of slaves should the home of his ancestors. But the idea of not be in any respect obstructed. “ Phar­ colonization was thought to increase the dif­ isaical Britain,” wrote Franklin in behalf of ficulty of emancipation; and in spite of Virginia, “to pride thyself in setting free a strong support, while it accomplished much single slave that happened to land on thy good for Africa, it. proved impracticable as coasts, while thy laws continue a traffic a remedy at home. Madison, who in early whereby so many hundreds of thousands are life disliked slavery so much that he wished dragged into a slavery that is entailed on “ to depend as little as possible on the labor their posterity.” “A serious view of this of slaves ; ” Madison, who held that where subject,” said Patrick Henry in 1773, “ gives slavery exists “ the republican theory be­ a gloomy prospect to future times.” In the comes fallaciotis; ” Madison, who in the same year George Mason wrote to the Leg­ last years of his life would not consent to islature of Virginia: “ The laws of impar­ the annexation of Texas, lest his country­ tial Providence may avenge our injustice men should fill it with slaves ; Madison, who upon our posterity.” In Virginia, and in said, “ slavery is the greatest evil under the Continental Congress, Jefferson, with which the nation labors, a portentous evil, the approval of Edmund Pendleton, brand­ an evil — moral, political and economical —ed the slave trade as piracy; and he fixed a sad blot on our free country,” went mourn­ in the Declaration of Independence as the fully into old age with the cheerless words: corner stone of America: “ All men are “ No satisfactory plan has yet been devised created equal, with an unalienable right to for taking out the stain.” liberty.” On the first organization of tem­ NEW VIEWS OF SLAVERY. porary governments for the continental do­ main Jefferson, but for the default of New The men of the Revolution passed away. Jersey, would, in 1784, have consecrated A new generation sprang up, impatient that every part of that territory to freedom. In an institution to which they clung should be the formation of the National Constitution condemned as inhuman, unwise and unjust; Virginia, opposed by a part of New Eng­ in the throes of discontent at the self-re­ land vainly struggled to abolish the slave proach of their fathers, and blinded by the trade at once and forever; and when the lustre of wealth to be acquired by the cul­ ordinance of 1787 was introduced by Na­ ture of a new staple, they devised the theo­ than Dane, without the clause prohibiting ry that slavery, which they would not abol­ slavery, it was through the favourable dis­ ish, was not evil, but good. They turned �598 ORATION OF THE HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. on the friends of colonization, and confi­ dently demanded, “ Why take black men from a civilized and Christian country, where their labor is a source of immense gain and a power to control the markets of the world, and send them to a land of ignorance, idolatry, and indolence, which was the home of their forefathers, but not theirs ? Slav­ ery is a blessing. Were they not in their ancestral land naked, scarcely lifted above brutes, ignorant of the course of the sun, controlled by nature ? And in their new abode, have they not been taught to know the difference of the seasons, to plough, to plant and reap, to drive oxen, to tame the horse, to exchange their scanty dialect for the richest of all the languages among men, and the stupid adoration of follies for the purest religion ? And since slavery is good for the blacks, it is good for their masters, bringing opulence and the opportunity of educating a race. The slavery of the black is good in itself; he shall serve the white man forever.” And nature, which better understood the quality of fleeting interest and passion, laughed, as it caught the echo: “ man ” and “ forever 1 ” SLAVERY AT HOME. A regular development of pretensions fol­ lowed the new declaration with logical con­ sistency. Under the old declaration every one of the States had retained, each for itself, the right of manumitting all slaves by an ordinary act of legislation ; now, the power of the people over servitude through their legislatures was curtailed, and the privil­ eged class was swift in imposing legal and constitutional obstruction, on the people themselves. The power of emancipation was narrowed or taken away. The slave might not be disquieted by education. There remained an unconfessed consciousness that the system of bondage was wrong, and a restless memory that it was at variance with the true American tradition, its safety was therefore to be secured by political or­ ganization. The generation that made the Constitution took care for the predomi­ nance of freedom in Congress, by the ordi­ nance of Jefferson ; the new school aspired to secure for slavery an equality of votes in the Senate; and while it hinted at an or­ ganic act that should concede to the collec­ tive South a veto power on national legisla­ tion, it assumed that each State separately had the right to revise and nullify laws of the United States, according to the discre­ tion of its judgment. SLAVERY AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. The new theory hung as a bias on the for­ eign relations of the country; there could be no recognition of Hayti, nor even the Amer­ ican colony of Liberia; and the world was given to understand that the establishment of free labor in Cuba would be a reason for wresting that island from Spain. Territo­ ries were annexed; Louisiana, Florida, Tex­ as, half of Mexico; slavery must have its share in them all, and it accepted for a time a dividing line between the unquestioned domain of free labor and that in which in­ voluntary labor was to be tolerated. A few years passed away, and the new school, strong and arrogant, demanded and recived an apology for applying the Jefferson proviso to Oregon. SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY. The application of that proviso was inter­ rupted for three administrations; but justice moved steadily onward. In the news that the men of California had chosen freedom, Cal­ houn heard the knell of parting slavery7; and on his deathbed he counselled secession. Washington, and Jefferson, and Madison, had died despairing of the abolition of slav­ ery ; Calhoun died in despair at the growth of freedom., His system rushed irresistibly to its natural development. The death struggle for California was followed by a short truce; but the new school of politicians who said that slavery was not evil, but good, soon sought to recover the ground they had lost, and confident of securing Texas, they demanded that the established line in the territories between freedom and slavery should be blotted out. The country, believ­ ing in the strength and enterprise and ex­ pansive energy of freedom, made answer, though reluctantly: “ Be it so ; let there be no strife between brethren ; let freedom and slavery compete for the territories on equal terms, in a fair field under an impartial ad­ ministration ; ” and on this theory, if on any, the contest might have been left to the de­ cision of time. DEED SCOTT DECISION. The South started back in appallment from its victory; for it knew that a fair competition foreboded its defeat. But where could it now find an ally to save it from its own mistake ? What I have next to say is spoken with no emotion but regret. Our meeting to-day is, as it were, at the grave, in the presence of Eternity, and the truth must be uttered in soberness and sincerity. �ORATION OF THE. HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. In a great republic, as was observed more than two thousand years ago, any attempt to overturn the state owes its strength to aid from some branch of the government. The Chief Justice of the United States, without any necessity or occasion, volunteered to come to the rescue of the theory of slavery. And from his court there lay no appeal but to the bar of humanity and history. Against the Constitution, against the memory of the nation, against a previous decision, against a series of enactments, he decided that the slave is property, that slave property is en­ titled to no less protection than any other property, that the Constitution upholds it in every territory against any act of a local Legislature, and even against Congress it­ self ; or, as the President tersely promulgat­ ed the saying : “ Kansas is as much a slave . State as South Carolina or Georgia ; slav­ ery, by virtue of the Constitution, exists in every territory.” The municipal character of slavery being thus taken away, and slave property decreed to be “ sacred,” the au­ thority of the courts was invoked to intro­ duce it by the comity of law into States where slavery had been abolished; and in one of the courts of the United States a judge pronounced the African slave trade legitimate, and numerous and powerful ad­ vocates demanded its restoration. TANEY AND SLAVE RACES. Moreover, the Chief Justice, in his elabo­ rate opinion, announced what had never been heard from any magistrate of Greece or Rome — what was unknown to civil law, and canon law, and feudal law, and comm on law, and constitutional law; unknown to Jay, to Rutledge, Ellsworth and Marshall — that there are “ slave races.” The spirit of evil is intensely logical. Having the au­ thority of this decision, five States swiftly followed the earlier example of a sixth, and opened the way for reducing the free negro to bondage; the migrating free negro be­ came a slave if he but touched the soil of a seventh ; and an eighth, from its extent and soil and mineral resources, destined to in­ calculable greatness, closed its eyes on its coming prosperity, and enacted — as by Ta­ ney’s decision it had the right to do — that every free black man who would live within its limits must accept the condition of slav­ ery for himself‘and his posterity. SECESSION RESOLVED ON. Only one step more remained to be taken. Jefferson and the leading statesmen of his day held fast to the idea that the enslave­ ment of the African was socially, morally 599 and politically wrong. The new school was founded exactly upon the opposite idea; and they resolved first to distract the demo­ cratic party for which the Supreme Court had now furnished the means, and then to establish a new government, with negro slavery for its corner stone, as socially, mor­ ally and politically right. THE ELECTION. As the presidential election drew on, one of the old traditional parties did not make its appearance; the other reeled as it sought to preserve its old position; and the candi­ date who most nearly represented its best opinion, driven by patriotic zeal, roamed the country from end to end to speak for union, eager at least to confront its enemies, yet not having hope that it would find its deliverance through him. The storm rose to a whirlwind ; who should allay its wrath ? The most experienced statesmen of the country had failed ; there was no hope from those who were great after the flesh; could relief come from one whose wisdom was like the wisdom of little children ? EARLY LIFE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. The choice of America fell on a man born west of the Alleghanies, in the cabin of poor people of Hardin county, Kentucky — Abra­ ham Lincoln. His mother could read, but not write ; his father could do neither ; but his parents sent him, with an old spelling-book, to school, and he learned in his childhood to do both. When eight years old he floated down the Ohio with his father on a raft which bore the family and all their possessions to the shore of Indiana; and, child as he was, he gave help as they toiled through dense for­ ests to the interior of Spencer county. There in the land of free labor he grew up in a log cabin, with the solemn solitude for his teacher in his meditative hours. Of Asiatic literature he knew only the Bible; of Greek, Latin, and medieval, no more than the translation of 2Esop’s Fables; of English, John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. The traditions of Georgfe Fox and William Penn passed to him dimly along the lines .of' two centuries through his ancestors, who were Quakers. HIS EDUCATION. Otherwise his education was altogether American. The Declaration of Independ­ ence was his compendium of political wis­ dom, the life of Washington his constant study, and something of Jefferson and Madi­ son reached him through Henry Clay, whom �600 ORATION OF THE HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. he honoured from boyhood. For the re^t, from day to day, he lived the life of the American people; walked in its light; rea­ soned with its reason, thought with its pow­ er of thought; felt the beatings of its mighty heart; and so was in every way a child of nature—a child of the West—a child of America. HIS PROGRESS IN LIFE. At nineteen, feeling impulses of ambition to get on in the world, he engaged himself to go down the Mississippi in a flat boat, receiving ten dollars a month for his wages, and afterwards he made the trip once more. At twenty-one he drove his father’s cattle as the family migrated to Illinois, and split rails to fence in the new homestead in the wild. At twenty-three he was a captain of volunteers in the Black Hawk war. He kept a shop ; he learned something of sur­ veying ; but of English literature he added to Bunyan nothing but Shakespeare’s plays. At twenty-five he was elected to the Legis­ lature of Illinois, where he served eight years. At twenty-seven he was admitted to the bar. In 1837 he chose his home at Springfield, the beautiful centre of the richest land in the State. In 1847 he was a member of the national Congress, where he voted about forty times in favour of the principle of the Jefferson proviso. In 1854 he gave his influence to elect 'from Illinois to the American Senate a democrat who would certainly do justice to Kansas. In 1858, as the rival of Douglas, he went be­ fore the people of the mighty Prairie State, saying: “ This Union cannot permanently endure, half slave and half free ; the Union will not be dissolved, but the house will cease to be divided.” And now, in 1861, with no experience whatever as an exec­ utive officer, while States were madly fly­ ing from their orbit, and wise men knew not where to find counsel, this descendant of Quakers, this pupil of Bunyan, this child of the great West was elected Presi­ dent of America. He measured the difficulty of the duty that devolved on him, and was resolved to fulfil it. HE GOES TO WASHINGTON. As on the eleventh of February, 1861, he left Springfield, which for a quarter of a century had been his happy home, to the crowd of his friends and neighbours whom he was never more to meet, he spoke a solemn farewell: “ I know not how soon I shall see you again. A duty has devolved upon me, greater than that which has de­ volved upon any other man since Washing­ ton. He never would have succeeded, ex­ cept for the aid of Divine Providence, upon which he at all times relied. On the same Almighty Being I place my reliance. Pray that I may receive that Divine assistance, without which I cannot succeed, but with which success is certain.” To the men of Indiana he said : > “ I am but an accidental, temporary instrument; it is your business to rise up and preserve the Union and lib­ erty.” At the capital of Ohio he said: “ Without a name, without a reason why I should have a name, there has fallen upon me a task such as did not rest even upon the Father of his country.” At various places in New York, especially at Albany before the Legislature, which tendered him the united support of the great Empire State, he said: “ While I hold myself the humblest of all the individuals who have ever been elevated to the Presidency, I have a more difficult task to perform than any of them. I bring a true heart to the work. I must rely upon the' people of the whole country for support; and with their sustaining aid even I, humble as I am, can­ not fail to carry the ship of State safely through the storm.” To the Assembly of New Jersey, at Trenton, he explained: “ I shall take the ground I deem .most just to the North, the East, the West, the South, and the whole country, in good temper, certainly with no malice to any section. I am devoted to peace, but it may. be neces­ sary to put the foot down firmly.” In the old Independence Hall of Philadelphia he said: “ I have never had a feeling politi­ cally that did not spring from the senti­ ments embodied in the Declaration of In­ dependence, which gave liberty, not alone to the people of this country, but to the world in all future time. If the country cannot be- saved without giving up that principle, I would rather be assassinated on the spot than surrender it. I have said nothing but what I am willing to live and die by. IN WHAT STATE HE FOUND THE .COUNTRY. Travelling in the dead of night to escape assassination, Lincoln arrived at Washing­ ton nine days before his inauguration. The outgoing President, at the opening of the session of Congress had still kept as the majority of his advisers men engaged in treason : had declared that in case of even an “ imaginary ” apprehension of danger from notions of freedom among the slaves, “ disunion would become inevitable.” Lin- �ORATION OF THE HOI . GEORGE BANCROFT. 601 coin and others had questioned the opinion of of th© South, or any decision of the Su­ Taney; such impugning he ascribed to the preme Court; and, nevertheless, the seced­ “ factious temper of the times.” The fa­ ing States formed at Montgomery a provi­ vorite doctrine of the majority of the sional government, and pursued their re­ democratic party on the power of a terri­ lentless purpose with such success that the torial legislature over slavery he condemned Lieutenant-General feared the city of as an attack on “ the sacred rights of pro­ Washington might find itself “ included in perty.” The State Legislatures, he insist­ a foreign country,” and proposed, among ed, must repeal what he called “their un­ the options for the consideration of Lincoln, constitutional and obnoxious enactments,” to bid the seceded States “ depart in peace.” and which, if such, were “ null and void,” The great republic seemed to have its em­ or “ it would be impossible for any human blem in the vast unfinished capitol, at that power to save the Union ! ” Nay 1 if these moment surrounded by masses of stone and unimportant acts were not repealed, “ the prostrate columns never yet lifted into injured States would be justified in revolu­ their places: seemingly the monument of tionary resistance to the government of the high but delusive aspirations, the confused Union.” He maintained that no State wreck of inchoate magnificence, sadder might secede at its sovereign will and than any ruin of Egyptian Thebes or pleasure; that the Union was meant for Athens. perpetuity; and that Congress might at­ tempt to preserve, but only by conciliation; HIS INAUGURATION. that “the sword was not placed in their The fourth of March came. With inhands to preserve it by force; ” that “ the stincftve wisdom the new President, speak­ last desperate remedy of a despairing peo­ ing to the people on taking the oath of ple ” would be “ an explanatory amend­ office, put aside every question that divided ment recognizing the decision of the Su­ the country, and gained a right to univer­ preme Court of the United States.” The sal support, by planting himself on the American Union he called “ a confederacy ” single idea of Union. That Union he de­ of States, and he thought it a duty to make clared to be unbroken and perpetual; and the appeal for amendment “ before any of he announced his determination to fulfil these States should separate themselves “the simple duty of taking care that the from the Union.” The views off the Lieu­ laws be faithfully executed in all the tenant-General, containing some patriotic States.” Seven days later, the convention advice, “ conceded the right of secession,” of confederate States unanimously adopted pronounced a quadruple rupture of the a constitution of their own; and the new Union “ a smaller evil than the reuniting of government was authoritatively announ­ the fragments by the sword,” and “ eschew­ ced to be founded on the idea that slave­ ed the idea of invading a seceded State. ry is the natural and normal condition After changes in the Cabinet, the Presi­ of the negro race. The issue was made up dent informed Congress that “ matters were whether the great republic was to main­ still worse; ” that “ the South suffered se­ tain its providential place in the history of rious grievances,” which should be redress­ mankind, or a rebellion founded on negro ed “ in peace.” The day after this message slavery gain a recognition of its principle' the flag of the Union was fired upon from throughout the civilized world. To the Fort Moultrie, and the insult was not disaffected Lincoln had said: “ You have revenged or noticed. Senators in Congress no conflict without being yourselves the ag­ telegraphed to their constituents to seize gressors.” To fire the passions of the South­ the national forts, and they were not ar­ ern portion of the people the confederate rested. The finances of the country were government chose to become aggressors; grievously embarrassed. Its little army and on the morning of the 12th of April was not within reach — the part of it in began the bombardment of Fort Sumter, Texas,' with all its stores, were made over and compelled its evacuation. by its commander to the seceding insur­ UPRISING OF THE PEOPLE gents. One State after another voted in convention to go out of the Union. A It is the glory of the late President that peace Congress, so-called, met at the re­ he had perfect faith in the perpetuity of quest of Virginia, to concert the terms of the Union. Supported in advance by capitulation for the continuance of the Douglas, who spoke as with the voice of a Union. Congress in both branches sought million, he instantly called a meeting of to devise conciliatory expedients ; the ter­ Congress, and summoned the people to ritories of the country were organized in a come up and repossess the forts, places and manner not to conflict with any pretensions property which had been seized from the �602 ORATION OF THE HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. Union. The men of the North were trained in schools; industrious and frugal; many of them delicately bred, their minds teem­ ing with ideas and fertile in plans of enter­ prise ; given to the culture of the arts; eager in the pursuit of wealth, yet employ­ ing wealth less for ostentation than for de­ veloping the resources of their country; seeking happiness in the calm of domestic life; and such lovers of peace that for gen­ erations they have been reputed unwarlike. Now, at the cry of their country in its dis­ tress, they rose up with unappeasable patri­ otism : not hirelings'— the purest and of the best blood in the land; sons of a pious ancestry, with a clear perception of duty, unclouded faith and fixed resojve to succeed, they thronged round the President to sup­ port the wronged, the beautiful flag of the nation. The halls of theological semi­ naries sent forth their young men, whose lips were touched with eloquence, whose hearts kindled with devotion to serve in the ranks, and make their way to command only as they learned the art of war. Strip­ lings in the colleges, as well as the most gentle and the most studious; those of sweetest temper and loveliest character and brightest genius passed from their classes to the camp. The lumbermen sprang forward from the forest, the mechanics from their benches, where they had been trained by the exercise of political rights to share the Hfe and hope of the Republic, to feel their responsibility to their forefathers, their posterity and mankind, went forth re­ solved that their dignity as a constituent part of this republic should not be impaired. Farmers and sons of farmers left the land but half ploughed, the grain but half plant­ ed, and, taking up the musket, learned to face without fear the presence of peril- and the coming of death in the shocks of war, while their hearts were still attracted to the charms of their rural life, and all the tender affections of home. Whatever there was of truth and faith and public love in the com­ mon heart broke out with one expression. The mighty winds blew from every quarter to fan the flame of the sacred and unquench­ able fire. in an eminent degree attained to freedom of industry and the security of person and property. Its middle class rose to greatness. Out of that class sprung the noblest poets and philosophers, whose words built up the intellect of its people; skilful navigators, to find out the many paths of the ocean; discoverers in natural science, whose inven­ tions guided its industry to wealth, till it equalled any nation of the world in letters, and excelled all in trade and commerce. But its government was become a govern­ ment of land, and not of men; every blade of grass was represented, but only a small minority of the people. In the transition from the feudal forms, the heads of the so­ cial organization freed themselves from the military services which were the conditions of their tenure, and throwing the burden on the industrial classes, kept all the soil to themselves. Vast estates that had been managed by monasteries as endowments for religion and charity were impropriated to swell the wealth of courtiers and favorites; and the commons, where the poor man once had his right of pasture, were taken away, and, under forms of law, enclosed distributively within their own domains. Although no law forbade any inhabitant from pur­ chasing land, the costliness of the transfer constituted a prohibition; so that it was the rule of that country that the plough should not be in the hands of its owner. The church was rested on a contradiction, claiming to be an embodiment of absolute truth, and yet was a creature of the statute book. HER SENTIMENTS. The progress of time increased the terri­ ble contrast between wealth and poverty; in their years of strength, the laboring peo­ ple, cut off from all share in governing the State, derived a scanty support from the severest toil, and had no hope for old age but in public charity or death. A grasping ambition had dotted the world with military posts, kept watch over our borders on the northeast, at the Bermudas, in the West Indies, held the gates of the Pacific, of the Southern and of the Indian Ocean, hover­ ed on our northwest at Vancouver, held the THE WAR A WORLD-WIDE WAR. whole of the newest continent, and the en­ For a time the war was thought to be trances to the old Mediterranean and Red confined to our own domestic affairs; but Sea ; and garrisoned forts all the way from it was soon seen that it involved the desti­ Madras to China. That aristocracy had nies of mankind, and its principles and gazed with terror on the growth of a com­ causes shook the politics of Europe to the monwealth where freeholds existed by the centre, and from Lisbon to Pekin, divided million, and religion was not in bondage to the governments of the world. the state ; and now they could not repress GREAT BRITAIN. their joy at its perils. They had not one There was a kingdom whose people had I word of sympathy for the kind-hearted �ORATION OF THE HON poor man’s son whom America had chosen for her chief; they jeered at his large hands, and long feet, and ungainly stature; and the British' secretary of state for foreign af­ fairs made haste to send word through the palaces of Europe that the great republic was in its agony,, that the republic was no more, that a head stone was all that remain­ ed due by the law of nations to “ the late Union.” But it is written: “ Let the dead bury their dead ; ” they may not bury the living. Let the dead bury their dead; let a bill of reform remove the worn-out gov­ ernment of a class, and infuse new life into the British constitution by confiding right­ fill power to the people. HER POLICY. GEORGE BANCROFT. 603 land. Thrice only in all its history has that yearning been fairly met; in the days of Hampden and Cromwell, again in the first ministry of the elder Pitt, and once again in the ministry of Shelburne. Not that there have not at all times been just men among the peers of Britain — like Halifax in the days of James the Second, or a Granville, an Argyll, or a Hdughton in ours ; and we can­ not be indifferent to a country that produces statesmen like Cobden and' Bright; but the best bower anchor of peace was the working class of England, who suffered most from our civil war, but who, while they broke their diminished bread in sorrow, always en­ couraged us to persevere. FRANCE AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE. ■ * The act of recognizing the rebel belliger­ But while the vitality of America is inde­ structible, the British government hurried ents wagLconcerted with France ; France, so to do what never before had been done by beloved in America, on which she had con­ Christian powers, what was in direct con­ ferred th® greatest benefits that one people flict with its own exposition of public law in ever conferred on another^ France, which the time of our struggle for. independence. stands foremost on the continent of Europe Though the insurgent States had not a ship for the solidity of her culture, as well as for in an open harbor, it invested them with the bravery and ■ generous impulses of her all the rights of a belligerent, even on the sons ; France, which for centuries had been ocean; and this, too, when the rebellion moving steadily in its own way towards in­ was not only directed against the gentlest tellectual and policial freewom. The poli­ and most beneficent government on earth, cy regarding further^ponization of Ameri­ without a shadow of justifiable cause, but ca by European power®!, known commonly when the rebellion was directed against Ma as the doctrine of Mowoe, had its origin in man nature itself for the perpetual enslave­ France; and if it takes any man’s name, ment of a race. And the effect of this re­ should bear the name of Turgot. It was cognition was that acts in themselves pirati­ adopted by Louis the Sixteenth, in the cabi­ cal found shelter in British courts of law. net of which Vergennes was the most imThe resources of British capitalist^ their portant member. It is emphatically the poliworkshops, their armories, their private ar­ cy of France^ to which, with transient de­ senals, their shipyards, were in league with viations, the Bourbons, the First Napoleon, the insurgents, and every British harbor in the House of Orleans have ever adhered. the wide world became a safe port for British ships, manned by British sailors, and arrngfl THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON AND MEXICO. The late President was perpetually har­ with British guns, to prey on our peaceful commerce ; even on our ships coming from assed by rumors that the Emperor Napoleon British ports, freighted with British pro­ the Third desired formally to recognize the ducts, or that had carried gifts of grain to States in rebellion as an independent power, the English poor. The prime minister in and that England held him back by her re­ the House of Commons, sustained by cheers, luctance, or France by her traditions of scoffed at the thought that their laws could freedom, or he himself by his own better be amended at our request, so as to pre­ judgment and clear perception of events. serve real neutrality; and to remonstrances But the republic of Mexico, on our borders, now owned to have been just, their secreta­ was, like ourselves, distracted by a rebellion, ry answered that they could not change and from a similar cause. The monarchy of England . had fastened upon us slavery their laws ad-infinitum. which did not disappear with independence; RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND. in like manner, the ecclesiastical policy es­ The people of America then wished, as tablished by the Spanish council of the In­ they always have wished, as they still wish, dies, in the days of Charles the Fifth and friendly relations with England; and no Philip the Second, retained its vigor in the man in Europe or America can desire it Mexican Republic. The fifty years of civil ' more strongly than I. This country has al­ war under which she had languished was ways yearned for good relations with Eng- I due to the bigoted system which was the �604 ORATION OF THE HOnJ GEORGE BANCROFT. ' legacy of monarchy, just as here the inheri­ tance of slavery kept alive political strife, and culminated in civil war. As with us there could be no quiet but through the end of slavery, so in Mexico there could be no prosperity until the crushing tyranny of in­ tolerance should cease. The party of slav­ ery in the United States sent their emissa­ ries to Europe to solicit aid; and so did the party of the church in Mexico, as organized by the old Spanish council of the Indies, but with a different result. Just as the re­ publican party had made an end of the re­ bellion, and was establishing the best gov­ ernment ever known in that region, and giv­ ing promise to the nation of order, peace, and prosperity, word was brought us, in the moment of our deepest affliction, that the * French emperor, moved by a desire to erect in North America a buttress for Imperial­ ism, would transform the republic of Mexico into a secundo-geniture for the house of Hapsburgh. America might complain ; she >could not then interpose, and delay seemed justifiable. It was seen that Mexico could not, with all its wealth of land, compete in cereal products with' our northwest, nor, in tropical products, with Cuba; nor could it, under a disputed dynasty, attract capital, or create public works, or develop mines, or borrow money; so that the imperial system of Mexico, which was forced at once to rec­ ognize the wisdom of the policy of the repub­ lic by adopting it, could prove only an un­ remunerating drain on the French treasury for the support of an Austrian adventurer. THE PERPETUITY OF REPUBLICAN INSTI­ TUTIONS. Meantime, a new series of momentous questions grows up, and forces themselves on the consideration of the thoughtful. Re­ publicanism has learned how to introduce into its constitution every element of order, as well as every element of freedom; but thus far the continuity of its government has seemed to depend on the continuity of elec­ tions. It is now tobe considered how per­ petuity is to be secured against foreign oc­ cupation. The successor of Charles the First of England dated his reign from the death of his father; the Bourbons, coming back after a long series of revolutions, claimed that the Louis who became king was the eighteenth of that name. The present emperor of the French, disdaining a title from election alone, is called the third of his name. Shall a republic have less power of continuance when invading armies prevent a peaceful resort to the ballot box ? What force shall it attach to intervening legisla­ tion ? What validity to debts contracted for its overthrow ? These momentous questions are by the invasion of Mexico thrown up for solution. A free State once truly constituted should be as undying as its people; the republic of Mexico must rise again. THE POPE OF ROME AND THE REBELLION. It was the condition of affairs in Mexico that involved the Pope of Rome in our dif­ ficulties so far that he alone among temporal sovereigns recognized the chief of the Con­ federate States as a president, and his sup­ porters as a people; and in letters to two great prelates of the Catholic Church in the United States gave counsels for peace at a time when peace meant the victory of se­ cession. Yet events move as they are or­ dered. The blessing of the Pope at Rome on the head of Duke Maximilian could not revive in the nineteenth century the eccle­ siastical policy of the sixteenth; and the re­ sult is only a new proof that there can be no prosperity in the State without religious freedom. THE PEOPLE OF AMERICA. When it came home to the consciousness of the Americans that the war which they were waging was a war for the liberty of all the nations of the world, for freedom itself, they thanked God for the severity of the trial to which he put their sincerity, and nerved themselves for their duty with an inexorable will. The President was led along by the greatness of their self-sacrifi­ cing example; and as a child, in a dark night on a rugged way, catches hold of the hand of its father for guidance and support, he clung fast to the hand of the people, and moved Calmly through the gloom. While the statesmanship of Europe was scoffing at the hopeless vanity of their efforts, they put forth such miracles of energy as the history of the world had never known. The navy of the United States drawing into the public service the willing militia of the seas, doubled its tonnage in eight months, and established an actual blockade from Cape Hatteras to the Rio Grande. In the course of the war it was increased five fold in men and in tonnage, while the inventive genius of the country devised more effec­ tive kinds of ordnance, and new forms of naval architecture in wood and iron. There went into the field, for various terms of service, about two million men; and in March last the men in service exceeded a million; that is to say, one of every two able-bodied men took some part in the war; and at one time every fourth able-bodied I man was in the field. In one single month. �ORATION OF THE HO-N. GEORGE BANCROFT.1 605 one hundred and sixty-five thousand were Mississippi, which would not be divided, recruited into service. Once, within four and the range of mountains which car­ weeks, Ohio organized and placed in the ried the stronghold of the free through field, forty-two regiments of infantry — Western Virginia and Kentucky and Ten­ nearly thirty-six thouand men; and Ohio nessee to the highlands of Alabama. But was like other States in the east and in the it invoked the still higher power of immor­ west. The well-mounted cavalry numbered tal justice. In ancient Greece, where ser­ eighty-four thousand ; of horses there were vitude was the universal custom, it was bought, first and last, two thirds of a mil­ held that if a child were to strike its parent, lion. In the movements of troops science the slave should defend the parent, and by came in aid of patriotism ; so that, to choose that act recover his freedom. After vain a single instance out of many, an army resistance, Lincoln, who had tried to solve twenty-three thousand strong, with its ar­ the question by gradual emancipation, by tillery, trains, baggage and animals, were colonization, and by compensation, at last moved by rail from the Potomac to the Ten­ saw that slavery must be abolished, or the nessee, twelve hundred miles in seven days. Republic must die; and on the 1st day of In the long marches, wonders of military January, 1863, he wrote liberty on the ban­ construction bridged the rivers; and where- ners of the armies. When this proclamaever an army halted, ample supplies await­ tion, which struck the fetters from three ed them at their ever changing base. The millions of slaves reached Europe, Lord vile thought that life is the greatest of Russell, a countryman of Milton and Wil­ blessings did not rise up. In six hundred berforce, eagerly put himself forward to and twenty-five battles, and severe skir­ speak of it in name of mankind, saying: mishes blood flowed like water. It streamed “ It is of a very strange nature ; ” “a meas­ over the grassy plains ; it stained the rocks; ure of war of a very questionable kind; ” the undergrowth of the forest was red an “ act of vengeance on the slave owner,” with it; and the armies marched on with that does no more thanEErofess to emanci­ majestic courage from one conflict to anoth­ pate slaves where the United States authorer, knowing that they were fighting for God ities cannot make emancipation a reality.” and liberty. The organization of the medi­ Now there was no pa™ of the country emcal department met its infinitely multiplied braced in the proclamation where the United duties with exactness and despatch. At the States could not and did hot make emanci. news of a battle, the best surgeons of our jfflffipn a reality. Those who saw Lincoln cities hastened to the field, to offer the most frequently had nev^fibefore heard zealous aid of the greatest experience and him speak with bitterness of any human skill. The gentlest and most refined of being ; but he did not conceal how keenly women left homes of luxury and, ease to he felt that he had been wronged by Lord build hospital tents near the armies, and Russell. And he wrote, in reply to another serve as nurses to the sick and dying. Be­ caviller: “ The emancipation policy, and sides the large supply of religious teachers the use of colored troops/gvere the greatest by the public, the congregations spared to blows yet dealt to the rebellion. The job was their brothers in the field the ablest minis­ a great national one ; and let none be slight­ ters. The Christian Commission, which ed who bore an honorable part in it. I hope expended five and a half millions, sent four peace will come soon, and come to stay; thousand clergymen chosen out of the best, then there will be some black men who can to keep un soiled the religious character of remember that they have helped mankind the men, and made gifts of clothes and food to this great consummation.” and medicine. The organization of private RUSSIA AND CHINA. charity assumed unheard of dimensions. ■The Sanitary Commission, which had seven The proclamation accomplished its end, thousand societies, distributed, under the for, during the war, our armies came into direction of an unpaid board, spontaneous military possession of every State in rebel­ contributions to the amount of fifteen mil­ lion. Then, too, was called forth the lions, in supplies or money — a million and new power that comes from the simultane­ a half in money from California alone — ous diffusion of thought and feeling among and dotted the scene of war from Paducah the nations of mankind. The mysterious to Port Royal, from Belle Plain, Virginia, sympathy of the millions throughout the • to Browsnville, Texas, with homes and world was given spontaneously. The best lodges. writers of Europe waked the conscience of the thoughtful, till the intelligent moral THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. sentiment of the Old World was drawn pi The country had for its allies "the River to the side of the unlettered statesman �606 ORATION OF THE HONF GEORGE BANCROFT. of the West. Russia, whose emperor had just accomplished one of the grandest acts in the course of time by raising twenty mil­ lions of bondmen into' freeholders, and thus assuring the growth and culture of a Rus­ sian people, remained our unwavering friend. From the oldest abode of civiliza­ tion, which gave the first example of an im­ perial government with equality among the people, Prince Kung, the secretary of state for foreign affairs, remembered the saying of Confucius, that we should not do to others what we would not that others should do to us, and in the name of the Emperor of China closed its ports against the war ships and privateers of “ the seditious.” CONTINUANCE OF THE WAR. The war continued, with all the peoples of the world for anxious spectators. Its cares weighed heavily on Lincoln, and his face was ploughed with the furrows of thought and sadness. With malice towards none, free from the spirit of revenge, victo­ ry made him importunate for peace; and his enemies never doubted his word, or despaired of his abounding clemency. He longed to utter pardon as the word for all, but not unless the freedom of the negro should be assured. The grand battles of Mill Spring which gave us Nashville, of Fort Donelson, Malvern Hill, Antietam, Gettysburg, the Wilderness of Virginia, Winchester, Nashville, the capture of New Orleans, Vicksburg, Mobile, Fort Fisher, the march from Atlanta and the capture of Savannah and Charleston, all foretold the issue. Still more, the self-regeneration of Missouri, the heart of the continent; of Ma­ ryland, whose sons never heard the mid­ night bell chime so. sweetly as when they rang out to earth and heaven that, by the voice of her own people, she took her place among the free ; of Tennessee, which passed through fire and blood, through sorrows and the shadow of death, to work out her own deliverance, and by the faithfulness of her own sons to renew her youth like the eagle — proved that victory was deserved and would be worth all that it cost. If words of mercy uttered as they were by Lincoln on the waters of Virginia, were defiantly repelled, the armies of the country, moving with one will, went as the arrow to its mark, and without a. feeling of revenge struck a deathblow at rebellion. ing him to a second term of service. The raging war that had divided the country had lulled; and private grief was hushed by the grandeur of its results. The nation had its new birth of freedom, soon to be secured forever by an amendment of the Constitution. His persistent gentleness had conquered for him a kindlier feeling on the part of the South. His scoffers among the grandees of Europe began to do him honor. The laboring classes every where saw in his advancement their own. All peoples sent him their benedictions. And at the mo­ ment of the height of his fame, to which his humility and modesty added charms, he fell by the hand of the assassin; and the only triumph awarded him was tb,e march to the grave. THE GREATNESS OF MAN. This is no time to say that human glory is but dust and ashes, that we mortals are no more than shadows in pursuit of shadows. How mean a thing were man, if there were not that within him which is higher than himself—if he could not master the illu­ sions of sense, and discern the connections of events by a superior light which comes from God. He so shares the divine impul­ ses that he has power to subject interested passions to love of country, and personal ambition to the ennoblement of man. Not in vain has Lincoln lived, for he has helped to make this Republic an exatnple of jus­ tice, with no caste but the caste of humani­ ty. The heroes who led our armies and ships into battle — Lyon, McPherson, Rey­ nolds, Sedgwick, Wadsworth, Foote, Ward, with their compeers — and fell in the ser­ vice, did not die in vain ; they and the my­ riads of nameless martyrs, and he, the chief martyr, died willingly “ that government of the people, by the people, and for the peo­ ple, shall not perish from the earth.” THE JUST DIED FOR THE UNJUST. The assassination of Lincoln, who was so free from malice, has from some mysterious influence struck the country with solemn awe, and hushed, instead of exciting, the passion for revenge. It seemed as if the just had died for the unjust. When I think of the friends I have lost in this war — and every one who hears me has, like myself, lost those whom he most loved — there is no consolation to be derivedftom victims on the scaffold, or from any thing but the es­ tablished union of the regenerated nation. Lincoln’s assassination. „ CHARACTER OF LINCOLN. I Where, in the history of nations, had a Chief Magistrate possessed more sources of In his character Lincoln was through and consolation and joy, than Lincoln? His through an American. He is the first nacountrymen had shown their love by choos­ I tive of the region west of the Alleghanies to �ORATION OF THE HON . GEORGE BANCROFT. i 607 attain to the highest station; and how hap­ Lincoln was one of the most unassuming py it is- that the man who was brought for­ of men. In time of success, he gave credit ward as the natural outgrowth and first for it to those whom he employed, to the fruits of that region should have been of un­ people, and to the providence of God. He blemished purity in private life, a good son, did not know what ostentation is; when he a kind husband, a most affectionate father, became President he was rather saddened and, as a man, so gentle to all. As to in­ than elated, and his conduct and manners tegrity, Douglas, his rival, said of him, “ Lin­ showed more than ever his belief that all coln is the honestest man I ever knew.” men are born equal. He was no respecter The habits of his mind were those of of persons ; and neither rank, nor reputa­ meditation and inward thought, rather than tion, nor services overawed him. In judg­ of action. He excelled in logical statement, ing of character he failed in discrimination, more than in executive ability. He rea­ and his appointments were sometimes bad; soned clearly, his reflective judgment was but he readily deferred to public opinion, good, and his purposes were, fixed; but and in appointing tne head of the armies he like the Hamlet of his only poet,, his will followed the manifest preference of Conwas tardy in action, and for this reason, and gressBu A good President will secure unity to his not from humility or tenderness of feeling, he sometimes deplored that the duty which administration by his own supervision of devolved on him had not fallen to the lot of the various departments. Lincoln, who acnever governed another. He was skilful in analysis, dis­ cepted advice ^adily cerned with precision the central idea, on by any member of his Caftnet, and could which a question turned, and knew how to not be moved from a purpose deliberately disengage it and present it by itself in a few formed; but his supervision of affairs was homely, strong old English words that would unsteady and incomplete |Jand sometimes, be intelligible to all. He delighted to ex­ by a sudden interference transcoding the press his opinions by apothegm, illustrate usual forms, he rather confused than adthem by a parable, or drive them home by a vanced the public business. If he ever story. failed in the scrupulous regard due to the Lincoln gained a name by discussing relative rights of Congress, it was so evi­ questions which, of all others, most easily dently without design that no conflict led to fanaticism; but he was never carried could ensue, or evil precefent be estabaway by enthusiastic zeal, never indulged lished. Truth he would receive from any in extravagant language, never hurried to one ; but, when impressed by others, he did support extreme measures, never allowed not use their opinions till by reflection he himself to be controlled by sudden impulses. had made them thoroughly his own. During the progress of the election at which It was the nature of Lincoln to forgive. he was chosen President, he expressed no When hostilities ceased w he who had al­ opinion that, went beyond the Jefferson ways sent forth the flag with every one of its proviso of 1784. Like Jefferson and Lafa­ stars in the field, was eager to receive back yette, he had faith in the intuitions of the his returning count^men, and meditated people, and read those intuitions with rare some new announcement to the South.” sagacity. He knew how to bide his time, The amendment of the Constitution abolish­ and was less apt to be in advance of public ing slavery had his most earnest and un­ opinion than to lag behind. He never wearied support. During the rage of war sought to electrify the public by taking we get a glimpse into his soul from his an advanced position with a banner of privately suggesting to Louisiana that “ in opinion; but rather studied to move for­ defining the franchise some of the colored ward compactly, exposing no detachment people might be let in,” saying: “ They in front or rear; so that the course of his would probably help, in some trying time administration might have been explained to come, to keep the jewel of liberty in the as the calculating policy of a shrewd and family of freedom.” In 1857 he avowed watchful politician, had there not been seen himself “ not in favor of ” what he improp­ behind it a fixedness of principle which erly called .“ negro citizenship: ” for the from the first determined his purpose and Constitution discriminates between citizens grew more intense with every year, consum­ and electors. Three days before his death ing his life by,its energy. Yet his sensibili- he declared his preference that “ the elect­ ties were not acute, he had no vividness of ive franchise were now conferred on the imagination to picture to his mind the hor­ very intelligent of the colored men and on rors of the battle-field or the sufferings in those of them who served our cause as hospitals ; his conscience was more tender soldiers;” but he wished it done by the than his feelings. States themselves, and he never harbored �608 ORATION OF THE HON. GEORGE BANCROFT. the thought of ^exacting it from a new government as a condition of its recognition. The last day of his life beamed with sun­ shine, as he sent by the - speaker of this House his friendly greetings to the men of the Rocky Mountains and the Pa­ cific slope; as he contemplated the return of hundreds of thousands of soldiers to fruit­ ful industry; as he welcomed in advance hundreds of thousands of emigrants from Europe; as his eye kindled with enthusi­ asm at the coming wealth of the nation. And'so, with these thoughts for his country, he was removed from the toils and temp­ tations of this life and was at peace. PALMERSTON AND LINCOLN. Hardly had the late President been con­ signed to the grave, when the Prime Minis­ ter of England died, full of years and hon­ ours. Palmerston traced his lineage to the time of the conqueror: Lincoln went back only to his grandfather. Palmerston re­ ceived his education from the best scholars of Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge; Lincoln’s early teachers were the silent forest, the prairie, the river, and the stars. Palmerston was in public life for sixty years ; Lincoln for but a tenth of that time. Palmerston was a skilful guide of an estab­ lished aristocracy; Lincoln a leader or rather a companion of the people. Palmerston was exclusively an Englishman, and made his boast in the House of Commons that the interest of England was his Shibboleth; Lincoln thought always of mankind as well as his own country, and served human na­ ture itself. Palmerston from his narrowness as an Englishman did not endear his coun­ try to any one court or to any one people, but rather caused uneasiness and dislike; Lincoln left America more beloved than ever by all the peoples of Europe. Palm­ erston was self-possessed and adroit in reconciling the conflicting claims of the fac­ tions of the aristocracy; Lincoln, frank and ingenuous, knew how to poise himself on the conflicting opinions of the people. Palm­ erston was capable of insolence towards the weak, quick to the sense of honour, not heedful of right; Lincoln rejected counsel given only as a matter of policy, and was not capable of being wilfully unjust. Palm­ erston, essentially superficial, delighted in banter, and knew how to divert grave op­ position, by playful levity. Lincoln was a man of infinite jest on his lips, with saddest earnestness at his heart. Palmerston was a fair representative of the aristocratic lib­ erality of the day, choosing for his tribunal, not the conscience of humanity, but the House of Commons ; Lincoln took to heart I the eternal truths of liberty, obeyed them as the commands of Providence, and accept * ed the human race as the judge of his fidel­ ity. Palmerston did nothing that will en­ dure ; his great achievement, the separation of Belgium, placed that little kingdom where it must gravitate to France; Lincoln finished a work which all time cannot over­ throw. Palmerston is a shining example of the ablest of a cultivated aristocracy; Lin­ coln shows the genuine fruits of institutions where the laboring man shares and assists to form the great ideas and designs of his country. Palmerston was buried in West­ minster Abbey by the order of his Queen, and was followed by the British aristocracy to his grave, which after a few years will hardly be noticed by the side of the graves of Fox and Chatham; Lincoln was followed by the sorrow of his country across the con­ tinent to his resting-place in the heart of the Mississippi valley, to be remembered through all time by his countrymen, and by all the peoples of the world. CONCLUSION. As the sum of all, the hand of Lincoln raised the flag; the American people was the hero of the war; and therefore the re­ sult is a new era of republicanism. The dis­ turbances in the country grew not out of any­ thing republican, but out of slavery, which is a part of the system of hereditary wrong, and the expulsion of this domestic anomaly opens to the renovated nation a career of unthought of dignity and glory. Hence­ forth our country has a moral unity as the land of free labour. The party for slavery and the party against slavery are no more, and are merged in the party of Union and freedom. The States which would have Ieff“* us are not brought back as conquered States, for then we should hold them only so long as that conquest could be maintained ; they come to their rightful place under the Consti­ tution as original, necessary and inseparable members of the State. We build monu­ ments to the dead, but no monuments of victory. We respect the example of the Romans, who never, even in conquered lands, raised emblems of triumph. And our generals are not to be classed in the herd of vulgar conquerors, but are of the school of Timoleon and William of Orange' and Washington. They have used the sword only to give peace to their country and restore her to her place in the great assembly of the nations. Our meeting closes in hope, now that a people begins to live according to the laws of reason., and re­ publicanism is intrenched in a continent. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource America, France and England Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway, Moncure Daniel, 1832-1907 [1832-1907] Description An account of the resource Place of publication: [Boston, Mass.] Collation: [545]-608 p. ; 23 cm. Notes: From Littell's Living Age, vol. XXX11, third series, no. 1134, (24 February 1866): re-published from Fortnightly Review 3: 442-459 (January 1 1866). From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Printed in double columns. Includes comment and letters on the Alabama debate in the House of Commons. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available [T.H. Carter & Co.] Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5438 Subject The topic of the resource International relations France England USA Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <p class="western"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br />This work (America, France and England), identified by <span style="color:#0000ff;"><span lang="zxx"><u>Humanist Library and Archives</u></span></span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</p> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Foreign Relations France Great Britain United States-Foreign Relations United States-Politics and Government https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/163dbd1c25d86200dd9823cebe4b7f55.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=Rw%7EIxLbsXCmc0E%7E00kcbSJP-7xpBSvTJnTo3gwpMjZCgmMsXXL4jzRVsel2wMHmkil%7E-xJMtISEN%7EOKHbc%7EyLqk%7Ef5COPEi1fFjqRpvaodc-5jEcpXdowXPIfN7W0Nw1CjNvCzgfoj-n9Kg273PWx6oRCOFSQ7W7tvkhzmCKboQP68YQ5tFZJK6KfzuPm2fcVzVrw%7E7zxvR2D7AU6zuo%7E%7ERcS73%7EQZjn1lniNKz40UQWb59ZAASqV5012JKdvjQarzNAPMIatzkqQqqD6CXbCDtfhFs5kUdKbEQeA0OiqhHzfHlzOezkKq-K%7ECmgxw9d%7EAmqeWC2IBt2h7MxiGyvdg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 11f0de884b32bc97e1a40945cf6d2fb5 PDF Text Text THE HERALD OF HEALTH Vol. 8, No. 4.] NEW YORK, OCTOBER, 18661 [New Sebies. PUBLISHED BY MCO., 13 & 15 LAIGHT ST. Antral ^rtitlts. [For The Herald of Health.] My Creed. BY THEODORE TILTON. As other men have creeds, so I have mine; I keep the holy faith in GodBiS man, And in the angels ministrant between. I hold to one true church ofMttjtruej^m^^H Whose churchly seal is neither bread nor wine, Nor laying on of hands, nor holy oil, But only the anointing of I hate all kings, and caste, and rank of birth; For all the sons of man are sons Nor limps a beggar but is nobly born Nor wears a slave a yoke, nor czar a crown, That makes him less or mor^^^B just a man. I love my country, and her righteous cause ; So dare I not keep silent of her sin: And after Freedom may her bells ring Peace! I love one woman with a holy fire, Whom I revere as priestess of my house; I stand with wondering awe before my babes, Till they rebuke me to a nobler life. • I keep a faithful friendship with my friend, Whom loyally I serve before myself; I lock my lips too close to speak a lie; I wash my hands too white to touch a bribe; I owe no man a debt I can not pay, ' Save only of the love men ought to owe. Withal, each day, before the blessed Heaven , I open wide the chambers of my soul, And pray the Holy Ghost to enter in. Thus reads the fair confession of my faith ;; So crossed with contradictions of my life That now may God forgive the written lie! KSO^HMby help of Him who helpeth men, l|nBe two worlds and fear not life or death. f^KtB^nead me by thy hand 1 Amen. [Written for The Herald of Health.] Concerning a Muscular Christian! BY MOSES COIT TYLER. “The views which Dr. Arnold considered invaluable BnaamSaMMeverv case be held by those whom he trained! to hold ideas on conviction only; points which he insisted' on as indispensable may appear otherwise to his pupilsin their maturity; but they owe to him the power and the conscience to think for themselves, and the earnest habit of mind which makes their conviction a part of their life.”—Harriet Jfartineaw. “The sun never hides his face when the Queen, shows hers to her people.” This legend, which expresses the devout belief of the humbler classes of England, and implies that the clerk of the weather, with all his faults, is at least a very shrewd courtier as well as a right loyal Briton, was certainly justified by the fact,, when, last February, on a charming day sand­ wiched between two epochs of dreary wet and cold, the Queen came forth in state to meet her faithful Barons and Commons in Parliament assembled. For hours before that which had been set for Her Majesty’s arrival at Westmin­ ster Palace, the streets and courts of the neigh­ borhood, the highways and byways, the win! dows, roofs and balconies, were filled with a [Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by Millee, ‘Wood & Co., in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York.] �,146 HERALD 01” HEALTH. multitude of all lands and tongues to witness the splendors of the regal procession, and more -especially to see again the face which sorrow and the dark veil of widowhood had so long concealed. I remember that I had a fine out­ door position by one of the windows of West­ minster Hall, and had been watching the car­ riages of the nobility and foreign ambassadors passing to the door of the Peers’ Entrance, when my attention was suddenly arrested by the sight of a gentleman on foot, in plain black clothes, advancing rather nervously along the sidewalk, which was being guarded by the po­ lice from the encroachments of the multitude. He was walking toward the Peers’ Entrance, and yet he half-seemed to have lost his bearings, and not to know precisely whether he was going the way he wanted to. He appeared to be rather under the middle age; of medium height, neither slender nor stout; with a ruddy, genial, earnest face; with lip and chin shaved, but whis­ kers of sandy hue at the side; and altogether having a look of ample health, vigor, elasticity, kindliness, intelligence and success. Who could it be ? Evidently he was not a nobody; else the discriminating gentlemen in sham helmets, whose creed seems to be that a nobody is worse than a knave, would have pushed the audacious intruder back among the rabble. But he can hardly be a very great somebody: ^S^^he had been, he would have emulated the other great somebodies by coming in his carriage. Who can he be ? On he goes along the sidewalk be­ neath us toward the Peers’ Entrance, with a quick step, and now a little conscious that many eyes are upon him, and a little anxious to hurry away out of sight. Perhaps it is one of the new members of Parliament, and not being yet thoroughly broken -to the intricate courses of statesmanship, it may be thatitBahas already lost his way and is going in by the wrong door. But, hark! Listen to those voices of the crowd across the street and of the crowd on this cor­ ner of New Palace Yard. Wha^lMhey say ? All this time, while you have been letting the man go by in the fog of your own speculations concerning him, you might have used your ears, :and you would have instantly found without further trouble who he was. Your last chance! Listen sharply! As the cheer dies away, do you not catch the words of that fellow shouting with delighted enthusiasm, “Ji’s Tom Hughes, ■the member for Lambeth!” Yes, glorious Tom Hughes; the new member for Lambeth, the trusted favorite of the work­ ingmen ; because, though their friend not their attererof almost boundless popularity with them; because, while helping them he can frankly tell them their faults! Tom Hughes, the pupil of Dr. Arnold, tie graduate of Ox­ ford, the barrister of Lincoln’s Inn, the author of “Tom Brown’s School-days,” the friend of Maurice and Ruskin and Kingsley, and the Prince of the Muscular Christians! According to the promise of my letter a month ago, I now proceed to give you a brief sketch of the eminent man whom I have thus introduced to you hastening along the sidewalk near Westminster Hall on that fine February afternoon. Thomas Hughes is one whose name England will not willingly let die ; or, if she were so disposed, America would come to the rescue, and carry it off from the gates of Forgetfulness. There are some men the very sight of whom gives us a better opinion of human na­ ture, rekinding our hopes, rebuildling the fabric^ of our fortitude and our faith. Thomas Hughes is one of these men. It was said of Swedenborgj so sensitive was his organization to moral influences, that the approach of a hypocrite used to give him the toothache. We may be grateful that we do not possess such a delicate spiritual barometer; for who would like to be continually clapping his hand to his jaw ? Yet wha^in Swedenborg was an abnormal develop­ ment, ^Mn the rest of us only the common en­ dowment of Nature—a faculty of responding IKher with pleasure or with trouble to the moral Eo®®ions of those who approach us. Hence, an honest man is a joy for ever! Thomas Hughes is not a great scholar, nor a deep philosopher, nor an acute reasoner, nor an orator at all; but he is and he has more than all that —he bears about with him the nameless aroma of moral reality, of downright manly virtue, o^^fe-bright trutKi the frankness, the direct­ ness, the ^fflplicit" of a child, with the courage of an athlete and the charity of a Christian. In a classification of mankind he would go into the same compartment with Abraham Lincoln. He has the same homely, quaint honesty; the same incapacity for evasion and finesse ; the same humor; the same uncommon gift of common sense; the same genius for what is right and true. Thomas Hughes presents another exam­ ple of a man attaining great success in life— fame, position, abounding usefulness—by the sheer force of moral worth. His career is no encouragement to that sort of ambition which aspires to be great while forgetting to be good. I am not going very minutely into biograph-l ical details for several notable reasons; chiefly for the notable reason that I have not the bio­ �HEEALD OFHEALTH. graphical details to go into. But, adopting the good old orthodox plan of beginning with a man’s life where Nature does—with his birth—I may state that Thomas Hughes was born near Kewberry, Berkshire, October 23, 1823. All the world knows that he was educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford University. He was called to the Bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1848; he gave to the world “ Tom Brown’s School-days” in 1856, “ The Scouring of the White Horse” in 1858, “Tom Brown at Ox­ ford” in 1861. These, so far as I can learn, are the only books he has yet published; but he seems to have been an industrious writer for re­ views and newspapers, especially for “ Macmil­ lan’s Magazineand he has edited “Whitemore’s Poems” and “The Biglow Papers.” The publication of his first book, at the age of thirty-three, made him famous throughout the vast domain of the English-speaking race ; and since then, beside being an author who could write nothing which the public could refuse to read, he has been a man of mark in sanitary and educational reforms, in social science, in the volunteer movement and in politics. Last year the time seemet^^fflv^S-ived for his noble and useful career to meet with a fit­ ting political recognition. At the General Election, 1865, he was induced to stand as can­ didate for that populous and important district of London known as Lambeth; and the result of his candidature may be given in two lines of an obscure poem which contained this allusion to him : “ What wonder Lambeth, such a MAN to see, Gave him her heart and made him her M. P.” Here, then, we have a famous author, a law­ yer, a member of Parliament and a^^ing states­ man; one of whose special claims upon our ad­ miration is his. distinguished advocacy ofiffigfl generous and wholesome creed of physiological piety, “Muscular Christianity.” Mr. Hughes has both preached and practiced this noble faith. As the child is father to the man, there can be no doubt that the boy Tom Hughes was as fine a specimen of an intrepid, pugnacious and magnanimous little Muscular Christian as ever came out of Berkshire, or handled the gloves, or cricketed on Rugby play-ground, or sent a boat skipping along the top of the Isis. No man could have portrayed the boy “ Tom Brown” as he has done, without having been such a boy as “ Tom Brown” was. Indeed, the heartiness and muscularity of his juvenile .days cling to him still, and often crop out in very amusing forms in his speeches. A few weeks Ago, in addressing his constituents on the de­ 147 feat of the Ministry, and charging upon the Tories that they had not waged a fair fight, he excited great mirth by this bit of school-boy rem­ iniscence: “I know what a fair fight is. I was taught at school to fight fair, to fall light; if I got a licking to take it like a man, and hold my tongue when I got my belly full.” The celebrity of Thomas Hughes as a Muscular Christian is certainly owing to the celebrity of the books in which he has so magnificently ex­ pounded and illustrated Muscular Christianity; bu®|Wleed& in private, though less calculated to swell the trump of'Eame, have been no less earnest and useful, connection with a fine group of old University friends, clergymen, barristers, authors and artists, he established several years ago Workingmen’s College in Great Ormond Street, an institution on which every year lays the garland of new triumphs and new hopes. In this college Mr. Hughes has been, of course, the inspirer of the gymnastic department, and with the greatest advantage to the pupils. Once every year the members of the college make an excursion to some pleasant rural spot in the neighborhood of London, and on these occasions they have an opportunity of BMMaying their progress in muscular development. Only last week the excursion took place for the present year. The party, which numbered two hundred, and consisted of the students, their wives, children, sisters and friends, went to Petersham Park, near Richmond, as sweet a spot for its rich woodland beauty as can be found in England. They had songs and dances and merry games, and finally sat down to tea beneath the spreading roof of a superb cluster of ancient lime trees. But that which it is of immediate interest to us to know, is that in this jubilant festival of liberated Londoners a very important portion of the afternoon was dSvoM^^rathlS^ sports, Mr. Hughes acting as general director and referee. They had a mile flat race, a two hundred yard flat race, a mile walking race, jumping, hopping, cricket, rounders, and a boat race on the Thames. This list of their gymnastic contests will indicate the nature of the muscular discipline which they receive at the college. It will be~perceived that it is almost entirely competitive. Mr. Hughes seems to have little respect for any gymnastics but those which involve that principle, and he likes none so well as the rough old athletic games of England. I remember a passage in one of his books which vigorously sets forth his views upon the subject: “ Don’t let reformers of any sort think that they are going really to lay hold of the work­ �B8 HERALD OF HEALTH. ing boys and young men of England by any educational grapnel whatever which hasn’t some bona fide equivalent for the games of the Old Country ‘ veast’ in it; something to put in the place of the backswording and wrestling and racing; something to try the muscles of men’s bodies and the endurance of their hearts, and to make them rejoice in this strength. In all the new-fangled, comprehensive plans which I see this is all left out.” Mr. Hughes is said to be an ardent admirer of the gloves ; and that his admiration reposes on a solid basis of knowledge will be evident from the following amusing story that is told of him: One evening Mr. Hughes being at the college looked in upon the gymnastic class and found them engaged in sparring. It appears that a veteran was on the floor, and, instead of treating the tyros with consideration, was knock-l ing them about in a very ostentatious style, un­ til at last they all declined to practice with him. Mr. Hughes had been looking on in si­ lence, but now stepped forward and said, in his usual quiet way, should like to have a 4um with you, if you don’t mind.” “ Very happy,” said the bully; “ have you ever had the gloves on before ?” “ Oh, yes, two or three times,” said Mr. Hughes. They soon stood face to face,l and in half a second the bully lay sprawling upon the floor. He got up angry, but Mr. Hughes kept cool and punished him to his heart’s content, and then told him that the next time he had to spar with beginners he should remember that evening and be decent, if not generous! When the cholera smote the metropolis a few years ago, Mr. Hughes, declining to flee from the breath of the pestilence, selected an exposed district of London and personally vis­ ited from house to house, to soothe the alarmed,I to minister to the sick, and to provide sanitary corrections to the neighborhood. If there be in the world such a thing as chivalry, does not this look like it ? No wonder Mr. Hughes is the idol of the workingmen! And to show how his character as a sanitary laborer is appreci­ ated, I shall introduce a paragraph which ap­ peared last year in The South London Chron­ icle. I give it exactly as it stood, lest any should suspect that my own words may be the result of an individual enthusiasm for Mr. Hughes: 11 The fear that cholera may come and carry away its thousands of victims before any active steps shall have been taken to cheok its fatal career, gives considerable anxiety to some of the best and most practical men in the country. In the first rank of unselfish workers in previous visitations was found the member for Lambeth, Mr. Thomas Hughes, B. A., who, with Mr. J. M. Ludlow, M. A., and Dr. Fraser, manfully stood to his duty, as himself interpreted it, and visited from house to house the population of Golden Square and vicinity. We rejoice in the possession of a Member of Parliament who, while not a resident in the borough for which he has been returned, accepts his position as in­ volving the responsibilities of kinship with the mass of the people; and we have good grounds for the statement that Mr. Hughes is prepared to do this in any thing connected with the health as fully as in any thing affecting the pol­ itics of his constituency. Very little has come to our knowledge relative to any measures for preventing cholera incursions contemplated in either Lambeth or Southwark, but Mr. Hughes’ wishes are known to the leading members of his election committees and to others beside.” For any American it would be ungrateful, and for me, knowing what I do of Mr. Hughes, it would be impossible to conclude such a sketch as this without some reference to the literary and political sympathies of Thomas Hughes with our own country. In 1859 Mr. Hughes edited for English read­ ers the “Biglow Papers.” I shall cull a few choice sentences from the admirable Preface with which he enriched that immortal book: “ Greece had her Aristophanes; Rome her ‘Juvenal BFrance her Rabelais, her Moliere, her Voltaire; Germany her Jean Paul, her Heine; England her Swift, her Thackeray; and Amer­ ica has her Lowell. By the side of all these great masters of satire, the author of the 1 Big­ low Papers’ holds his own place, distinct from each and all. The man who reads the book for the first time, and is capable of understanding it, has received a new sensation. In Lowell, the American mind has for the first time flowered out into thoroughly original genius. For real unmistakable genius, for that glorious fullness of power which knocks a man down at a blow for sheer admiration, and then makes him rush into the arms of the knocker-down and swear eternal friendship with him for sheer delight, the ‘ Biglow Papers’ stand alone. . . It is satisfactory, indeed, to think that Mr. Lowell’s shafts have already, in a great measure, ceased to be required, or would have to be aimed notf at other bull’s eyes. The servility of the North­ ern States to the South, which twelve years ago so raised his indignation, has well nigh ceased to be. The vital importance of the slavery question is now thoroughly recognized by the great Republican party, which I trust is year by year advancing toward an assured victory.” No American need to be told that the Eng­ lishman who wrote these intelligent words twelve months before the nomination of Abra­ ham Lincoln, knew enough of our political con­ dition not to take the wrong side in the mighty strife which was eyen then rushing on to its settlement in blood and in battle-fury. Who is not aware that one of the first voices raised in England to cheer us was the voice of Thomas Hughes, and that on the platform, in the lec­ �■herattd ot ”ealtk> ture-desk, in the drawing-room, and through the columns of the magazines, he has steadily, bravely and powerfully sustained our cause? And now that from the overwhelming turmoil; now that.from the slaughter and desolation of war, to save an empire from the death-stabs of treason; we have been led to the task, equally urgent, of saving a whole race from starvation and plunder, the voice of Thomas Hughes is still to be heard in England appealing to his countrymen, and entreating them to seize the “ greatest opportunity that will ever be given to them of making stronger the bands which tie them to the American people.” I have already said that Mr. Hughes is no orator, and I was about to add that he is too honest to be one. His style is quiet, simple, colloquial, full of market-words, not a word put in for show. He often hesitates, stumbles, gets into a maze and comes out backward. Yet, speaking only because he has something to say, or if he has nothing to say saying that, he is a man whom the people always welcome upon their platforms and listen to with attention. I remember hearing him last April, at a meet­ ing convened at the Westminster Palace Hotel under the auspices of the Duke of Argyle, for the purpose of promoting the Freedmen’s Aid Society. John Bright was there, and Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, and other celebrities, and among them I saw the bald head of Thomas Hughes, which, like that of Thackeray’s Dr. Firman, “glistened like a billiard-ball.” He was one of the last speakers, and his speech was one of the best. I shall never forget the sincere emo­ tion with which he gave utterance to these no­ ble words: “ But there is another reason why we should come forward on this occasion heartily and warmly, and that is the extraordinary impor.tance of a cordial alliance between the two branches of the Anglo-Saxon race to the future of mankind. It does seem to me that two great nations, possessing and glorying in the same traditions and the same history, struggling at this minute with the same trials both politi­ cal and social, and animated, I trust, by the same hopes—I say it does seem to me that two such peoples as these, enjoying too, as they do the freest institutions that ever have obtained in great nations upon the face of the earth, should go forward, not with jealousy, not with distrust of any kind, but with a cordial and rational wish to advance civilization and Christianity over the whole of this earth, and, as far as peaceful efforts can do it, to impart to all down­ trodden people, and to all people who are in need of them, the glorious ideas of freedom, and the glorious hopes, which we who speak the English tongue in all climates of the world possess and enjoy—I do think that we ought to be stirred up to great exertions in this matter. 149 I do think that when we look at the grand, the magnificent way in which the Americans have met their own great trial, English men’s and women’s hearts ought to be warmed toward them, and that we should show, as emphatically! as we possibly can, our deep respect and rever­ ence for the work which they have done, and the way in which they have done it.” Yes, for the sake of such glorious English­ men as Thomas Hughes, let us try to forget the words and deeds of those Englishmen who are not like him. May the tribe of the Muscular Christians increase^H London, September 3, 1866. A Natubal Appetite eob Liquob.—An article recently appeared in the editorial columns of The New York Times, from which we quote the following: “There is no doubt a universal appetite in mankind for alcoholic excitement; against this no wise reformer or legislator should struggle, as aft absolute evil. His great effort should be to lessen the inducements to an over-indulgence of this propensity.” What new discoveries have recently been made in the natural history of man, by which it has been shown that alcohol has the same relation to the humaD organism that bread, potatoes, water, and air and clothing sustain, we are not informed. The only relation which a true interpretation of nature shows alcohol to have to the stomach is that of poison, and no amount of falsification of nature can make this relation any different. It is natural for man to eat, to drink, to breathe, to sleep, to exercise, and he dies if these universal instincts are not gratified. Surely, if there was the same univer­ sal appetite in mankind for alcoholic drinks, the race could no more live without them than they can without air. But human experience shows coSSgisivS^I that the less it is used the better we are off; and those who do not use it at all not only have no craving for it—as they do for air, food, water, sleep and exercise—but an ab­ solute digust and loathing of it. ’ The unwise editor who penned the quotation, should study ■nature from a physiological and not a perverted pathological stand-point.—Ed. H. of H. Boston Public Baths.—Statistics show 294,836 persons have availed themselves of the sanitary influences of the Public Baths of the city of Boston within the last two months. When we record our angry feelings, let it be on the snow, that the first beam of sun­ shine may obliterate them for ever. �150 KffEALD OF HEALTH! [Written for The Herald of Health.] Some of Our Faults. It is bad enough to have faults—too bad to have them so glaring as to attract the attention of foreigners and give us the odor of a bad name abroad. The other day I met an intelli­ gent and observing Englishmen, who did not scruple to speak plainly of our faults. Said he: “ How curiously you dress in this country I Almost every man wears black clothes, and the thronged streets seem as though the entire pop­ ulation was going to a funeral. Now and then I see a suit of gray; some wear coats and pants of a copper color, and I have seen a few men dressed in white—but these are exceptions; the funeral color is the rule; black is the fashion. No wonder one of our authors said you looked like a nation of undertakers.” I said as coolly as possible, that blacVwas a becoming color, suited to all complexions and seasons, and that this was a free country; I also added something about bare feet when shoes are scarce. He was one of those lights (gas-lights) who would not be snuffed out with my cool extin­ guisher; so he continued: “ And now look for a moment at your fashions. They are as odious as your taste in colors is repul­ sive. Look at the short jackets which barely reach to the hips, and are constantly tempting a man who hates the display to lift his foot and kick the wearer. Such coats do well enough for boys who have just reached their teens, but they make full grown men appear very ridicu­ lous. Those who wear such garments should never say a word about the short dresses of the ladies. As for the American ladies, they over­ dress. I have noticed red, hard hands, that must work for a living, hooped with cheap jewelry; and servant-girls often dress as well as their mistresses, and more gorgeously, showing plainly that they exhaust their income to please their vanity. Now, our English ladies dress richly but plainly. The higher classes seldom show much jewelry ; indeed, it is considered vulgar for ladies in polite circles to^ make a grand exhibition of trinkets, as though their husbands and fathers were all in the jewelry trade. Lady Napier, one of the highest born of the aristocracy, never wears any gold about her person save her wedding-ring.” I could only reply by saying, that our coats were not so short as we desired the visits of fault-finding strangers to be; as for our ladies, they had exquisite taste, and whether their dresses were long or short, masculine or feminine, they were lovely in our eyes; and servant-girls, who worked hard for their money, had a perfect right to spend it as they pleased', so long as they did no harm to others. In this country we acknowledged no aristocracy, save that of moral and intellectual excellence; that here every man was a king and every woman a queen, whether she played on the piano or the wash-tub, folded newspapers or “flirted” a fan at Saratoga. “ You have no aristocracy, that is evident,” said he; “ but you would like to have even that distinction. When a live lord makes his ap­ pearance on your shores the people turn out en masse to see him, and, if he be young and un­ married, scores of families in which there are marriageable young women covet his company and invite him to accept their hospitality. He is sure to turn the heads and hearts of all the silly girls who dance with him. See what fools you made of yourselves when that coffee-colored chap from Japan came here. He received a peck of letters a day. What did the simple darlings care about his habits of eating rat soup and dog cutlet ? He had a title ; he was almost a ‘ Black Prince,’ and that was enough for them. Then, look at the list of your titled men. Why, you have mere men with handles Ito their names than we have, ten times over. Look at the armies of captains, colonels, gen­ erals, squires and majors. Why, if a man crossed the Hudson in a scow he would get the title of captain for life, and his child would be known as the captain’s son. I’ll wager the price of a new hat that every tenth man you meet on Broadway has a title to his name.” I gave him a piece of my mind, and told him square to his face that our officers were the true nobility, and had won their honors with their swords; that when we honored his master, the Prince of Wales, it was not because the boy had royal blood in his veins, but because he was the son of a good mother. We are a gallant peo­ ple, and never lose an opportunity to show our respect for woman. Queen Victoria was one of our favorites, not because she sat upon a throne, but because she was a good, true woman. Now, if he had been a Frenchman, the com­ pliment paid to his sovereign would have soft­ ened his criticism, and he would have found some kind word to have said of us ; but he was a plain John Bull, and proceeded in the same strain, but with a more provoking personality. He continued: “ Your habits at the table are not always re­ fined. I often see men and women shovel their peas into their mouths with their knives. I �ilerald op health. TO I said, with considerable emphasis, that the have seen them pick their teeth with the prongs of their forks. At a Wbstern hotel I saw a man United States was the birthplace of the Temper­ take a quid of tobacco from his mouth and put ance Reform; that we had four or five millions of it on the table-cloth alongside of his plate until signatures to the total abstinence pledge, and that he had finished his dinner. By-the-by, your our Temperance literature was scattered like g. w. b. habits of chewing and smoking tobacco are snow-flakes over the land. shameful. Old and young, rich and poor, the Sugar Candy.—One of the evil results educated and the illiterate, chew and smoke to­ bacco. Cigar-stumps and tobacco-stains are of perverted tastes is seen in the great demand seen everywhere. The appetite for the nasty for sugar candy. We have often pointed"out weed seems to have grown into a passion; even the evils resulting from feeding it to children, well-dressed men, who claim to be cleanly in but it will be a hundred years or more before their habits, will roll the quid like a sweet mor­ all parents will learn that candies are poisonous, sel under their tongues, making their breath and should not be allowed to the dear little ones fetid, discoloring their teeth and soiling their they love and wish to bring up with fine health linen. Why, I can smell a tobacco-chewer at and perfect physical systems. To such parents the distance of a rod, and his odor never fails as feed their children on confectionery, the folto bring a sickening sensation. How delicate I lowing, by a well posted writer, will be found and sensitive young ladies can endure the pres­ instructive: ence of a tobacco-chewer—how they can receive “The adulteration of sugars, candies and trade largely and regularly carried on his caresses without utter loathing and dis­ gust, is something unaccountable to me. Then injK’HESI Instead of plaster, which till lately entered so largely into the manufacture of conmen who pretend to be gentlemen will iBBhes- fectionery, in place of sugars, a new article has itate to smoke all about the house. Having been discovered called terra alba, or white earth. smoked their own faces to the color of smoked It comes from Ireland, and costs by the barrel ham, they convert every room to which they aboSTtwo and .a half cents a pound, while loaf sugar costs seventeen cents. The body of can­ have access into a smoke-house. To the credit dies, the coating of almonds and lozenges are of railroad companion be it spoken, they have made from this earthy material. It is whiter than plaster, and is much used in the adulterprovided special cars where these human motives can puff out twenty miles of smoke an , ation of flour sold in this market. A glue, paint and oil manufacturer of New York has sent hour; now they should provide disinfectants, round his annual circular, which I have seen, to so that the smoking and smoked passengers can the principal confectioners, calling attention to not sicken tidy men and women who do nSSm- a fresh arrival of this white earth. I have seen . dulge in such disgusting habits. I was looking an ounce of lozenges dissolved in water, in which two-thirds of an ounce was of terra alba, and out of a car window the other day, when the not a particle of sugar in the lot. The common wind blew into my face the spray of tobacco­ method of flavoring candies, almonds, sugar juice from the lips of a fellow-passenger who plums, etc., is with deleterious substances. The sat in front of me. My first impulse was to pineSpffl flaws the banana and the peach are made from fusil oils, which are very poisonous. take him by the collar and pitch him out of the Bitter almond flavor is made from prussic acid window, but he disarmed me with an apology, BfnadnglSjSed. Pineapple flavor is also obtained while the tobacco-tears trickled down from the from rotten cheese — very rotten — and nitric corners of his mouth and formed a liquid brooch acid. Gum arabic for pure gum drops is costly. An article has been invented of the most beau­ upon his shirt-bosom. I merely said, Never tiful appearance,is used instead of the gum. mind, I will spit on you some time when I have THpa very cheap and very poisonous. In pure I dvlShineal is used to color red and saffron something disagreeable in my mouth.” But in the common poison­ I replied that, although I did not use tobacco for yellow. is put, the same that candies to color ous coloring is used myself, I had great respect for many persons wines and liquors. One of the most common is who did; yet the respect was not for the habit, calledBcarlot,’ into which arsenic largely en­ ters. A few grains of the substance will color but in spite of it. wine. for “ Hold!” he said, before I could crowd an­ a cask of of poor Liquorice dropsglue the ‘trade’ are made brown sugar, and lampother word into the conversation; “we drink black, flavored with liquorice. And. for the beer, so do you; but our beer is made of Western trade much of this vile stuff is packed malt and hops, while yours is a poisonous in barrels, and sent West to be put up in boxes compound not fit for swine to drink; besides, to suit the market, of which from seventy-five to ninety per cent, is terra alba. This material you drink whisky and gin and rum and also enters largely into the common chocolates brandy, and stuff made of logwood and whisky, and spices. Much of the cream of tartar used for bread is made of terra alba and tartaric acid.” and other d’ye-stuffs, and call it wine.” �152 HERALD OF HEAL TtM [Written for The Herald of Health.] The short skirts, although in importance to health the least vital of these three changes, is nevertheless very important. The skirt should BY DIO LEWIS, M. D. fall a little below the knee. The pants should This subject is vitally important. Beside it, be the large Turkish pants, which, made long diet, exercise and baths sink into insignificance. enough to fall to the ankle, and fastened at the My pale-faced countrywomen are dying for lack bottom by being drawn close about the ankle of room, freedom; they are being stifled. •with a slight elastic cord, should then be drawn Dress Reformers proclaim short skirts as the up to the place usually occupied by the garter, remedy. This is well. The short skirt is an and pulled down to the middle, or a little below improvement—a movement upward, but of no the middle of the calf of the leg. When going consequence compared with the readjustment out into the cold air the exposed part of the of the dress about the middle of the bodJa leg should be covered with a patent-leather ank­ That part contains the vital organs. Is a man let, and during the cold season of the year that strong ? it is because the middle of his body is part of the leg should be covered with two strong. Is a woman vigorous ? it is because the thicknesses of woolen. While all this peculiar middle of her body is developed and active. arrangement is, in point of convenience and The changes needed in woman’s dress are the protection, less satisfactory than the straight following, and I believe their importance is in pants, such as gentlemen wear, I nevertheless the order named: advise it, because it is very easy to introduce 1. The dress about the waist is Mbe very lEB short dress with these pants, and very diffiloose, without whalebones o^jother stiffening, I cult to introduce what is known as the Bloomer and the skirts carried with suspenders over the costume. For example : In my school at Lexshoulders. ington, Mass., I had more than a hundred fash­ 2. The arms and legs are to be so warmly ionable young ladies last winter, all of whom dressed as to maintain a healthy circulation. wore constantly during the school year the short 3. The skirts to fall to the knee, K|gg3, the gymnastic costume, while all the fashI have said that the importance of these sev­ ionable ladies of the village outside of the ineral changes is in the order named. The lungs, stitution adopted the same dress. Indeed, it is heart, liver and stomach, which together make almost rare to see in Lexington a lady with a up the fountain of life, must have ro’om, or the long dress. An attempt to introduce the vital forces must halt. With the corset and Bloomer costume, I am sure, would have proved tight-lacing, these organs are reduced one-third a failure, not in our own house, perhaps, but in in size and two-thirds in motion. its influence outside. All through our part of Health and equilibrium of circulation are in­ the country, when we go out to ride, we see laterchangeable terms. Whoever, whatever liv­ dies in the short dress. Indeed, some of the ing thing, either animal or vegetable, has a per­ clergymen, who observed that our young ladies fect circulation has perfect health. Whoever, changed for the long dress on going to church, whatever living thing has defective circulation came to me to say that they hoped E would alhas defective health. Flannels, cotton padding, lowKWm to come in their short dresses, for they thick shawls, cloaks and furs piled upon the liked very much to see them. A single lady chest, while the legs are covered with a single appearing in the streets of Boston in the regu thickness of cotton cloth surrounded by a bal­ lar Bloomer costume attracts a crowd of boys, loon in the shape of a hoop, steams the chest while twenty of our young ladies can go into and freezes the legs. The legs and arms, sepa­ Boston without remark or notice. The fact is, rated so far from the center of the body, sur­ we men and boys are very jealous of our rounded by the cold air, need, to say thlr least, breeches, but the gymnastic costume does not as much clothing as the body, and ought to involve that garment, and so we lords of cre­ have one or, in cold weather in this climate, two ation give our consent to its adoption by our thicknesses of knit woolen. Wbmen complain sisters. to me of headache, tell me their blood is all in their head and chest, while their feet are as cold Modesty depends upon good manners; as ice. With the fashionable dress how can it happiness on security; good society on good ed- ' be otherwise ? Let them cover the limbs with ucation; wisdom on experience; and, for the one or two thicknesses of warm flannel, and the safety or protection of a country, a tried man is feet with a warm dress, and the head and chest often much more valuable than a renowned will be immediately relieved. warrior. Female Dress. �herald of healmJ {Written for The Herald of Health.! [■Written for The Herald of Health.] October Woods and Flowers. 153 Patient Waiting^ BY GEORGE W. BUNGAY. BY REV. HENRY WARD BEECHER. DEDICATED TO MBS. MABY TBBAT. Beneath my feet the grass looks up To greet the cloud. Long had it prayed For rain, till heaven held out the cup To every parched and fainting blade. The thistle, with its head upraised, Like genius bearing noble deeds, Though coarsely clad and seldom praised, Sends on white wings afar its seeds. The modest daisy, in its bloom, Here gaily wore its satin frill; A lonely mourner at its tomb, The gentian, bows upon the hill. Sad thoughts flit through my restless mind, And die unspoken and unsung, As leaves, touched by the autumn wind, Fall from the twigs to which they clung. The wood-birds nest upon the bough Is like my stricken heart, which grieves ; ’T was full of music once, but now Deserted hangs and filled with leaves. But why should I, alas ! he sad, Amid the light of such a scene— Up to the hills the clouds are clad In gayest hues of gold and green. Here, like the patriarch in his dream, I see the ladder angels trod; These mountains to my vision seem To lift earth’s sacrifice to God. Alas! I’m seeking for the flowers Which sleep beneath the leaves that fell | They’ re kindred to the friends of ours Who rest in peace where all is well. The tint upon the maple tree, So soft, is like the crimson hue Upon my darling’s cheek. I see In her soft eyes the heavenly blue, On her pure face Hope’s blossomings. The sky stoops near the earth to-day, - And we can hear the sweep of wings Of angels on their upward way. Voltaire related to Mr. Sherlock an anecdote of Swift. Lady Carteret, wife of the Lord-Lieutenant, said to Swift: “ The air of Ireland is very excellent and healthy.” “ For God’s sake, madam,” said Swift, “don’t say so in England, for if you do they will certainly tax it.” The love of exertion is a sign bf health and manliness. Languor, the love of ease, the va­ rious forms of indolence, mark a kind of physi­ cal degeneration—a want of circulation; a want of nerve; lowness of organization; imperfection of sensibility. It is sometimes the prelim­ inary stage of disintegration and precedes utter waste. Wo®Hindicates a preparation for working. The love of work indicates a high state of health. This love of work arises partly from the pleasure inherent in the healthful exercise of our powers ; partly it arises from the excitemeffl whic^H)ring up during the plannings and excitements of enterprise; and it arises partly from a natural and proper pride and satisfaction in the results wM we secure by intelligent activity. We can scarcely conceive of happiness in one whoKH not generously active. We can hardly imagine unhappiness when one has congenial occupation, vigorous health and daily activity. For, appropriate work which we love covers up sensibility, takes away temptation, withdraws the mind from morbid cares and fears, and gives it wholesome employment. It is a good thing to work because you love to. If you do not love to woj|M8| is a good thing to work because you to. While people are young, or strong, or pros­ perous, ^^SthinkBEHfe of that great army with muffled banners that is silently walking amid troubles and disappointments day by day, un­ able to do or achieve. There is peculiar grace required to' maintain patience and Contentment where one is placed socially in such a position that all the stronger an||mM natural actsSties are kept useless, as is the case not unfrequently; for men are not always, by any means, matched to their appro­ priate work nor joined to their appropriate place in socie^S There is neither principle, nor law, nor experience, by which we can always sort our children and connect them with the thing for which they are best adapted in their outward nature. Beside all that, however well a man may be placed, and however well adapted his education and faculties may be to his posi­ tion, there are these upheavings, these ruptures . of society, and these sweepings of Providence, that dislocate men, and scatter them up and down in the community, so that there are in so­ ciety at large thousands and thousands of per­ �154 HERALD OF HEALTH. sons who are admirably adapted to some things, but unable to reach them. They are not well adapted to other things, but they are put to do­ ing them. Thus, a man may be eloquent in the French language; but if by stress of weather he is thrown upon our shores, what does all his elo­ quence in his mother tongue avail him here, where he is obliged to gain his livelihood from day to day by stammering bad English ? A man may have potency in his mother tongue ; but let him travel in Europe, where he passes from the English to the French, from the French to the Spanish, and from the Spanish to the German, and see how his power of language is shut up in his mouth. If a man feels proud at home, I would advise him to go abroad a month or two and learn how insignificant he is. A man traveling in a land of whose language he is ignorant, is like a man swimming in the At­ lantic. He is shorn of those ten thousand com­ prehensive ways which at home made him vital, sympathetic and useful, but which, being taken from him, leave him almost as a dead man. These are strong Instances projected out of the ordinary course of things; but our houses, our streets, our villages, our cities, are filled with persons who are dislocated and out of place'in society. As there are multitudes of men that are attempting poorly to discharge functions a great deal higher than their powers fit them for, in every branch of public service; so in lower departments there are many persons who are competent to discharge higher trusts, but can not get up to them. We can not see how one and another person got there, but so­ ciety is full of persons who are below their ap­ propriate level. Where this occurs in youth it is right, because young persons can press their way up. They are like young and vigorous plants that draw an abundant supply of food for growth through the roots below; but when men pass the climax of life, and with discour­ aged spirit are thrown down below their level, it is not so easy for them to obtain nourishment, since the root itself is impaired; and when they are transplanted they can scarcely get hold again to grow. And they are obliged to wait, holding their best faculties inactive, doing work which requires but little thought, and to which they are not adapted, and remitting intellectual labors for which they are conscious of being well qualified. This is more the case with women, I think, than with men, for the simple reason that, for the largest part, woman’s happiness in life is made to depend upon her social connections and family estate. Largely, women do not enter into the social state; but when they are once in it, it is built of glass, and some side-long blow may shiver it in a moment. And such is the uncivilized condition of society that there are but few alternatives for a woman. Women that are broken off from their relations to the domestic circle, find but few channels in which they can employ thought, and taste, and fidel­ ity, and affection, and stand independently in the community. So that you see on every hand among women instances the most marked of persons who are fitted for higher places than they occupy. And there are not a few of these instances in which patient waiting for a better day is rendered more beautiful than in almost, any others. Are there not multitudes of persons whose minds are stored with valuable information, who have fineness of taste that indicates much of the artist nature, and who have been trained to nice moral distinctions—are there not multi­ Hudes of such persons that ply the needle; that teach in the lowest schools; that spend their energies, in the meaner walks of life? Are there not multitudes of such persons that are conscious that the greatest part of their inward nature is buried and has no function ? Are there not multitudes of such persons who, al­ though there are a few things on which they can bring the power of their mind to bear in its higher ranges, are conscious that they are carrying the great orb of their being in obscuration, veiled and darkling ? Out of this, which in some sense is unnatural, and which springs largely from the infelicities of society, but somewhat, also, from peculiarities of individual history and disposition, there may and there do break forth morbid tenden­ cies. Much of vice and crime springs from morbidity, which springs from minds not prop­ erly joined to their functions. And among the mischiefs of want of liberty to use that which is strong in us is this : that it disorganizes many and [many n nature. There are nurses and teachers of little children who are capable of rising to higher positions than they occupy. Not that teaching little children is to be de­ spised ; not that it is not itself a noble work; but there are many doing this work under re­ strictions and circumstances which keep them far below that for which they are fitted by their capacity. Many persons, by change of fortune, have fallen from position in society. They are not adorning the circles that they might. I think some of the noblest natures walk mostly in disguise. In a society like ours, where there" �Wraw of health) is so much enterprise, where there is such rapid growth, and where the tides of speculation so frequently rise and fall, in the course of ten years there are hundreds and thousands that are overtaken by such a change of fortune, and such a change of position in consequence, that they are quite out of their place, and are obliged to say that they find little use for that part of themselves which is most to them. And so we find men strangely situated. .We find men, for instance, in factories, that are competent to plead at the bar. I remember that I once found breaking stone near Cincinnati a University man from Ger­ many, who had held one of the very highest positions under the Governments the manage­ ment of schools. He came to this country by emigration, and, finding little to do, accS&teM whatever it was. Being able to get his bread and beer by breaking stone, he was willing to engage in that humble calling, though the strongest part of him was his head, and not his hands. When the Hungarians came here they scorned charity, and as a means of maintaining them­ selves resorted to various physical occupations. One that I knew learned the carpenter’s trade. Another that I knew learned saddle-and-harness making. And another that I knew turned to making soap and candles, as Garibaldi did in this land.. Others went to farming. And men of the highest culture and refinement, men of the best intellectual education, men leaders of the people in their own country, when in the providence of God they were thrown on these shores, and they found, that they could not use that which they possessed of talent, ac­ cepted lower positions than many which they were qualified to fill. And one could not iH| feel that the most that was in those men had to wait. They ought to have labored as they did; it was noble in them; but, after all, they had no sphere for their stores of knowledge. The power that they had in their own country was gone from them, and they were buried alive while they lived, in some respects. God deliver me from being an exile—from being a stranger in a strange land, out of the reach of my mother tongue. Send me to prison; give me quicker dismission by the halter; let the bullet do its work on me ; but of all that God could send me of misfortune and trouble, that would be the worst which should place me iamong a strange people, speaking a strange tongue, to walk up and down without a position, a function, a home, a country, or friends. The condition of thousands who have been 155 disrupted and broken down, brings their case within the sphere of waiting of which I have spoken. There are multitudes to-day that see the world going by them conscious that they have powers equal to any that are in exercise. There are many who are deriving their pit­ tance of bread from men whom they greatly surpass. I remember that once, on going into my father’s kitchen, in Ohio, to speak to Charles, our hostler and gardener, I found him reading a book in which I thought I perceived mathelafflftal diagrams. On examining it, I found it to bo a scientific treatise on geography, in which all the astronomical problems were wrought out; and as I had seen him from night to night with his tallow candle poring over this book as though it were the last newDovel in the hand of beauty (though he was not beautiful), I asked him Mihe understood what he read. “ Certainly,” said he, “ most certainly.” I saw that there was some Latin in the book, and I asked him if he could read that. Oh, yes, he could read Latin, and he talked it. It put my col­ lege‘h»ors somewhat in peril, and I feared that he migl®|^®lking to me in Latin ! “ Do you understand Greek ?” I said. “ Oh, no ; I can only read it—I can not speak it.” There was that man deriving his small monthly wages from my hand, and he was my master, probably, in every walk of science and literature. I was rising and prospering. He was faithfully and humbly occupying the- posiE|Sn of hBHer^Sd gardener. And do you not suppose he had thoughts about me as well as I aboT®fi|ii®| Do you not suppose there are men that have in some strange way been thrown out o« counting-offic^the bank, the professor’s chair, places of honor and trust, who cannot get back, and who are walking day by day where they are denied the opportunity of en­ gaging in affairs that they see carried on by men that are far less competent than themselves ? Do you not suppose there are such men that are obliged to stand down low and see men that are pigmies compared with them getting upward and onward? It may be very easy, if you are prosperous, to say that such men ought to wait; that they ought to clothe themselves with pa­ tience ; that they ought to substitute large-mind­ edness for a narrow, complaining disposition; but did you ever walk where they are called to walk ? Will you change places with them, and see how easy their lot is to bear ? Nevertheless, your advice is good. I, too, think that men who are thrown into circum-j stances where they are obliged to derive their very life, not from outw ard success, not from �156 HERALD OF HEALTH. attritions and collisions with, their fellow-men, not from the remunerations of pride, hut from deeper sources—from faith, and hope, and trust in God, and the resplendent horizon of the fu­ ture life, which shall never he marred by cir­ cumstances—I, too, think that they should have royalty of disposition, and should wait patiently. But it is not easy to give them ad­ vice, nor to blame them when our advice is not readily taken by them. There is also a sphere of waiting by reason of sickness, weakness, age, and the remission of labor in consequence. Where idleness is of a transient nature, we look hopefully forward to being restored again to vigor; but where weak­ ness becomes our daily attendant, our hope dies away. Moreover, long-continued sickness ceases to excite sympathy, because it has not alarm in it. For we sympathize with our friends in pro­ portion as we think they are in danger. Our sympathy for a man that has the tooth®Se is nil. If a man has the cholera, or a fever, or any disease that imperils his life, then we sym­ pathize with him. We sympathize [with men, not according to the measure of their sufferin^l but according to the measure of their danger j and yet a man may suffer more, a thousswKMJ every day, than it takes to kill scores of other men. Where men have sickness in the form of weariness; where men do not suffer from vio­ lent pains, but where theyMsaL'so fragile that they break down under almost every stress, and find it impossible to at any rate, to achieve in life; where men are obliged, day by day, to ask leave of their brain to think, and to ask leave of their foot to walk; where men are prisoners, and every member of their body is a jailor, and they feel that this condition is to continue, not for a week, or a day, or a month, or a year, but as long as they live, and that their life is to be shortened by it; where men are obliged to carry th® body of death with all its infirmities, and to walk in obscurity, and to be for ever pensioners upon the doctor—under such circumstances it is„not easy for them to patiently wait. And yet here is a sphere of waiting—that kind of moral waiting in which a man measures his condition, and then clothes himself with a manly grace which enables him to accept the lot to which in the providence of God he is appointed, and lift up his head in­ wardly, if not outwardly. There are many men that we turn rudely from our door with censure whom God does not blame. There are many men that we call shift­ less who are like a bag that stands up when it is full and collapses when it is empty. There are many men that, as long as you are helping them, get along very well, but that the momenta you leave them to themselves do not get along at all, and we get tired of them and say that they are lazy. But, in many cases, the trouble is not that they are lazy, but that they are physically incapacitated. It is not that their will is not good, but that they lack strength of bone and muscle. Do you sleep well ? There is many a man that dozes more hours than he rests. Have you a good appetite and thorough digestion? There is many a man that has slender digestion, and can not eat enough to keep his body in "repair and health. Are you vigorous ? There is many a man that is almost entirely wanting in vigor. Many a man inherits'a good constitution, and comes out in life with a broad prospect [in himself; while many others inherit such feebleness that they are liable, under almost any pressure, to break down. And these last ought not to [be blamed. They were made feeble; and let us hope that there is a better chance awaiting them in the other world. It might, perhaps,, not do any of us harm if we were to suffer>some from sickness. I think we grow more humane, more compassionate, more considerate for others, when they are brought into a felSMition of suffering like that which we are in, or have been in. And let us ngjlforget to have forbearance with those who are obliged to [walk through life in perpetual sickness, that impairs courage and cripples every exertion. FoWt requires“rare grace to endure and piously wait on God under such oircumstanc®. This may be applied to mothers who are rear­ ing families. It ESoften the case that those who»a«T up amiable, sweet and obliging women, wheffiflEFare brought into family reIsWSMa^MH sickness, by necessary suffering in child-bearing, and by their household cafes, gr^My taxed and tasked in their nervous sys­ tem, ®o that they become acutely sensitive and mw^lR^as well as more feeble and less hope­ ful® So great is the strain upon them, that they e^ehTfose self-respect, in some cases. And fre­ quently they are blamed by their parents, won­ dered at by their friends, and harshly dealt with by their husbands and their children. And much consideration is to be accorded to mothers whose sharpness and impatience are often in the ratio of that which they have suffered for oth­ ers. We are to remember, too, that upon the woman comes the greatest weight of sorrow in �HER ALB 0 F H E A LTH. all afflictions. It is rare that a man suffers as much as a woman from death in the household, g^on her comes the duty of patient waiting with the sick. She it is that has hand-to-hand conflicts with Death. And at last, in the charge by which the feeble structure is overthrown, she is found confronting the dread enemy face to face. And after the struggle is over, in which Death has been victorious, she is the greatest mourner. At the Cross last, and at the Sepul­ chre first, were the women; and by them more tears were shed and more sufferings were felt than by all the other disciples. And that is typical of woman’s lot in the household the world over. And women need, perhaps, more than any others, the love of patient Christian waiting. At the same time, there are many men who are obliged to fight a battle through life, /or life, and who need this love. Indeed, it is that which we aft need in some of our earthly rela­ tions and experiences, and which we shall all do well diligently to seek and cultivate. What they Eat at Xenia.—The “Fat Contributor” gives the following experience of endeavoring to get'dinner at Xenia on the Little Miami Railroad: “ Twenty minutes for dinner,” shouted the brakesman as we approached Xenia. Arrived there, I entered the dining-room' and inquired of a waiter, “ What do you have for dinner ?” “ Twenty minutes,” was the hurried reply. I told him I would try half a dozen minutes, raw, on the half-shell, just to see how they went. Told him to make a minute of it on his books. He scratched his head trying to comprehend the order, but finally gave it up and waited upon some one else. I approached a man who stood near the door with a roll of money in his hand. “What do you have for dinner?” “ Half a dollar,” says he. I told him that I would take half a dollar well done. I asked him if he couldn’t send me, in addition, a boiled pocket-book stuffed with greenbacks, and some seven-thirties, garnished with postage stamps and ten cent script. Also, a Confederate bond, done brown, with lettuce alone (let us alone). I would like to wash my dinner down with National Bank Notes, on J*draft. ” 1 He said they were out of every thing but the bank notes, and he then ordered a waiter to go to the bank and “draw” some.—Ak. ®57 ["Written for The Herald of Health.] Overwork and Underwork. BY A. L. WOOD, M. D. It is a law of Nature that all living things possess within themselves the power of mo­ tion, upon the exercise of which their exist­ ence, as living entities, depends. Their life com­ mences with action, action constitutes their life, and when action ceases their life has de­ parted for ever. Everywhere we find that action is life and inaction death. In thus speaking of action I do not mean mechanical action or chemical action, but vital action-— that which is inherent in all organized, living things. Look at that blade of grass, that flower, that tree. The elements of which they are composed are drawn from air, earth and water, and transformed, by a power existing within themselves, into the substance of their own beings. When this force ceases to act death ensues. As it is in the vegetable world so it is in the animal kingdom, in man—only to a far greater extent in the latter. As we pro­ gress upward in the scale of life the operation of this power becomes more extended and di­ versified. In the plant its action is limited to formation and growth. The plant has no power of moving itself from place to place. In the animal it not only produces develop­ ment growth and constant change, but gives the power of external, voluntary motion, which is indispensable to the proper perform­ ance of the vital functions of animal life. A large proportion of the solids of the body are composed of simple tubes, as the arteries, veins, capillaries, lymphatics, etc., which are filled with fluids of various kinds, through the agency of which all the vital processes are performed. These fluids constitute, by weight, more than four-fifths of the body, and they, as well as the solids, require to be undergoing constant change. This change can only be ef­ fected by having them kept in constant motion. This motion can only be fully secured by ex­ ercise or voluntary action of the entire muscu­ lar system. The muscles constitute more than one-half of the bulk of the body, and upon their healthful condition the health of the whole system depends. It is a law of our nature that if any organ or faculty is kept from the exercise of its �158 •HERALD OFHEALTHl proper function, that organ or faculty becomes weak, withers away and dies. Each and every part of the body requires to be used in its proper and legitimate manner in order to main­ tain its integrity. The natural action of the muscular system is to contract. By this con­ traction motion is produced. Proper muscular contraction directly secures the health and de­ velopment of the entire muscular system, and indirectly aids in securing the normal and healthful action of every organ of the body! It greatly promotes the circulation of the blood, thus facilitating the vital processes of digestion, absorption, assimilation, secretion and depuration, and increasing the health and strength of the organs engaged in the perform­ ance of these functions. It largely promotes respiration, causing full and deep inspirations of air and a vigorous action of the lungs, thus strengthening these important organs and im­ parting vigor and activity to all the others. It gives strength, endurance, agility, elasticity ■and grace to the body, and energy and activity to the mind. In short, it develops every or­ gan, strengthens every function, and aids in securing the healthful and harmonious devel­ opment of the entire man. While a certain amount of exercise is neces­ sary to maintain the health and secure a proper development of the different organs of the body and faculties of the mind, an excessive amount as surely produces weakness, disease and un­ due vital exhaustion. The following remarks of Dr. Tyler of Boston, in his Report of the McLean Insane Asylum, presents the subSB in its true light: “With the opportunities of observation which my position gives me, I shall scarcely be faithful to duty without briefly referring to one ‘ error of the times,’ which is shortening many a life, and bringing many to our hospi­ tals in a state of incurable bSgi disease. I refer to the intense and unceasing activity, dis­ played chiefly in business, but extending to almost every other pursuit. Every hour of every day is given up to an unflinching and persistent devotion to whatever interests the individual. Nights and Sundays can scarcely be spared from labor, and are compressed into such small periods as shall just suffice to ap­ pease a weary frame and a very moderate con­ science. No time is taken for recreation and little for meals, and that little in a very irreg­ ular way. Every moment not spent in the keen drive of business is looked upon as lost. Every nerve is strained to accomplish just as much as is possible to unremitting exertion. Every thing is done rapidly, or, in the lan­ guage of the day, ‘ with a rush.’ Every man has a given amount of vital force to live with and work with. His capacity for any kind of labor, whatever it may be and however it may compare with that of another, has its limit. It never can be over-drawn upon without se­ rious damage. So much of this force as he wastes, or so much as he turns in any one di­ rection, so much less has he for any other. If he overworks his brain, his body will suffer. If he overworks his body, his brain will suffer. He may overwork one set of organs, or invig­ orate them, as he says, at the expense of another set. An illustration of this is evident in those who give their chief attention to the development of muscle, as boxers and members of boat-clubs do. Their regimen and diet tend to keep the digestive organs in good order and develop the muscular system. This is fre­ quent carried to an excess, and when it is, the individual for a time can show an athletic figure, great strength, and an external appear­ ance of high health; but in a little while it is plain that he has diverted his vital force from other organs—say the lungs—which have been insufficiently nourished : they fail him and he dies of con»mption. To keep one in the best working order, this vital force, must be properly distributed to every organ, and to the digestive and respiratory organs in full share, to keep them active, else its supply will be di­ minished. What is lost by use and waste must be regained by regular bodily nourishment and refreshment, that is, by food and re­ po®. Its use must be regular, must never be excessive, and mu^alternate with rest. Each person will accomplish the greatest amount that is possible for by working regularly for a given number of hours, and by taking time at regularly returning periods sufficient for food, rest and recreation. The consequences of overwork may not appear at once, but they are inevitable and destructive. Over­ work® deceive themselves by the belief that they can bear more than others, or that they can bear what they are doing because they have so long borne it without breaking down.” The [stock-grower, who is accus­ tomed to raising horses, knows very well that if he puts a young colt at long-continued hard work it will not attain the strength and size which it would acquire were it left to gambol in the pastures at its own free will. He knows that if the vitality of the animal is ex­ pended in bard labor it can not be used to form nerve and bone and muscle, and that the colt can never become the perfect horse which it otherwise might, but will always be small, weak and inferior. — The stock-grower knows all this and lets | his colts roam the pasture free, or only re­ �HERETO OF HEALTH. 159 But a new era in education is dawning upon quires of them the lightest labors, while his growing sons he sends into the field at early the land, and there are a few that have learned morn, and through all the day requires them the lesson that children have bodies as well as to perform the hardest labor their strength minds; that the one requires care and culture will allow. The effects are the same with the as much as the other, and that forced culture boy as with the colt, only in a more marked of either produces weakness and injury to degree, for the higher in the scale of life and both. While overwork is a great evil from which the more refined the violater of Nature’s laws one class of society suffers, another class suf­ the greater the suffering. The stock-grower perceives the operation of fers still more from underwork or idleness. this law upon his colts but not upon his sons, Better wear out than rust out, if it is done in and the result is that he raises beautiful, sym­ a good cause ; for then some good will be acmetrical and finely-developed horses, and complished, and humanity will be “ the better small, deformed, weak and unhealthy men. forlfflSja But the true course is to avoid both When men learn to bestow as much care and extremes and pursue the even tenor of a happy attention upon the raising of fine and healthy medium. By so doing a far greater amount specimens of their own species as they do to of labor can be accomplished, at less expense raising fine horses and cattle, humanity will of health, strength and vitality. An idle man 1 What is he ? Of what use have taken a long stride forward upon the is he to himself or to the world ? He is an road of progression. The same law that applies to overwork of imperfect, undeveloped being, a drone, a bur­ the young body applies with still greater force den to himself and a disgrace to humanity. to overwork of the young brain, for the brain Shakspeare says: “What is a man, is higher and more refined than the body. Knowing this, what can we expect from the If m®Hgigood and market of his time Be but to Seep and feed ?—a beast, no more !” present forced, hot-bed system of mental ed­ The great poet wrongs the beast by degrad­ ucation for the young and growing brain ? The child of three or four summers is sent to ing KH^tne level of a lazy man. The animal school, and then commences the process of was created lower than man, it is true, but it cramming, of urging the weak and immature acSmMHies Bthe object of its existence. brain to perform tasks beyond its strength to What more can be expected of it ? How is it accomplish, without the expenditure of vital­ with the idle man ? He has higher powers and ity which should be used in strengthening and more exalted faculties, but what do they avail developing it, together with its servant, the him ? He makes no use of them except, it body. This process is continued through may be, to plot mischief and practice vices the growing period of youth, and, unless the which the most degraded animal on earth young student rebels, fails to perform the tasks would never be guilty of. It is said, and idle man’s brain is the Devil’s assigned him, and obeys the instincts of his na­ ture and plays and frolics with his companions workshop.” The old philosopher, Burton, under the greenwood tree or by the running says stream, the chances are that, if he survives the “ Idleness is the badge of gentry; the bane ordeal, he will graduate with due academic QMMgygnd mind ; the nurse of naughtiness ; chief author of all mischief; one of the honors; a small, weakly body; loose, flabby seven deadly sins ; the cushion upon which muscles ; a dyspeptic stomach; feeble lungs ; a the Devil chiefly reposes, and a great cause not small stock of vitality ; and a contracted, ner­ only of melancholy, but of many other dis­ vously active and excitable mind, which can eases.” plod along very well for a time in the wellworn ruts of custom, but which is utterly in­ “ The last, best fruit which comes to capable of bold, vigorous and manly thought late perfection, even in the kindliest soul, is upon any great, new and important subject. tenderness toward the hard, forbearance toward Such are the results of the present system of the unforbearing, warmth of heart toward education of the young, which constantly over- the cold, philanthropy toward the misan­ ^jv.orks the brain and neglects the body. thropic.” �HEEA1D op healthI 160 [“Written for The Herald of Health.] A True Life. BY HORACE GREELEY. There is, even on this side of the grave, a haven where the storms of life break not, or are but in gentle undulations of the unrippled and mirroring waters—an oasis, not in the desert, but beyond it; a rest, profound and blissful as that of the soldier returned for ever from the hardships, the dangers and the turmoils of war, to the bosom of that dear domestic circle whose blessings he never prized at half their worth until he lost them. This haven, this rest, this oasis, is a serene old age. The tired traveler has abandoned the dusty, crowded and jostling highway of life for one of its shadiest and least-noted by-lanes. The din of traffic and of worldly strife has no longer magic for his ear; the myriad foot-fall on the city’s stony walk is but noise or nothing to him now. He has rim his race of toil, or trade, or ambition. His day’s work is accom­ plished, and he has come "home to enjoy, tran­ quil and unharassed, the splendor of the sunset, the milder glories of late evening. Ask not whether he has or has not been successful, ac­ cording to the vulgar standard of success. What matters it now whether the multitude has dragged his chariot, rending the air with idol­ izing acclamations, or howled like wolves upon his track, as he fled by night from the fury of those he had wasted his vigor to serve ? What avails it that broad lands have rewarded his toil, or that all has at the last moment been stricken from his grasp ? Ask not whether he brings into retirement the wealth of the Indies or the poverty of the bankrupt; whether his couch be of down or of rushes; his dwelling a hut or a mansion. He has lived to little pur­ pose, indeed, if he has not long since realized that wealth and renown are the true ends of ex­ ertion, nor their absence the conclusive proof of ill fortune. Whoever seeks to know if his career has been prosperous and brightening from its outset to its close, if the evening of his days shall be genial and blissful, should ask not for broad acres, nor towering edifices, nor laden coffers. Perverted old age may grasp these with the unyielding clutch of insanity, but they add to his cares and anxieties, not to his enjoy­ ments. Ask rather : Has he mastered and har­ monized his erring passions ? Has he lived a true life ? A true life! Of how many lives dees each hour knell the conclusion, and how few of them are true ones. The poor child of sin and shame and crime, who terminates her clouded being in the early morning of her scarce budded yet blighted existence; the desperate felon, whose blood is shed by the community as the dread penalty of its violated laws; the miserable de­ bauchee, who totters down to his loathsome grave in the spring-time of his years, but the fullness of his feasting iniquities—these the world valiantly affirms have not lived true lives! Fearless and righteous world, how pro­ found and how .discriminating are thy judg­ ments ! But the base idolater of self, who de­ votes all his moments, his energies, his thoughts, to schemes which begin and end in personal ad­ vantage »the grasper of gold and lands and tenements; the devotee of pleasure; the man of ignoble and sinister ambition; the woman of frivolity, extravagance and fashion; the idler; the gambler; the voluptuary—on all these and their myriad compeers, while borne on the crest of the advancing billow, how gentle is the re­ proof, how charitable the judgment of the world! Nay, does it not pick its way daintily, cautiously and inoffensively through the midst of drunkard-making and national faith-breaking ? A true life must be simple in all its elements. Animated by one grand and ennobling impulse, all lesser aspirations find their proper places in harmonious subservience; simplicity in taste, in appetite, in habits of life, with a corresponding indifference to worldly honors and aggrandize­ ment, is the natural result of the predominence of a divine and unselfish idea. Under the guid­ ance of such a sentiment, virtue is not an ef­ fort but a law of Nature, like gravitation. It is vice alone that seems unaccountable, mon­ strous, almost miraculous. Purity is felt to be as necessary to the mind as health to the body, and its absence alike the inevitable source of pain. A true life must be calm. We wear out our energies in strife for gold or fame, and then wonder alike at the cost and the worthlessness of the meed. How sloth is jostled by gluttony, and pride wrestled by avarice, and ostentation bearded by meanness! The soul which is not large enough for the indwelling of one virtue, affords lodgment and scope and arena for a hundred vices; but their warfare can not be in­ dulged with impunity. Agitation and wretch­ edness are the inevitable consequences, in the midst of which the flame of life burns flaringly and swiftly to its close. A true life must be genial and joyous. Tell me not, pale anchorite, of your ceaseless vigils, your fastings, your scourgings. The man who is not happy in the path he has chosen, has chosen amiss. �HERAjTd ^t)F HEALTH. [■Written for The Herald of Health.] 161 The former receive and propel the venous The Study of Physiology—No, III. blood to the lungs, and the latter receive and BY RUFUS KING BROWNE, M. D., (FORMERLY) PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY AND MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY AT THE NEW YORK MED­ ICAL COLLEGE, HEART—CIRCULATION—LUNGS—RESPIRATION. We have already seen that the blood is the source from which all the materials which sus­ tain the tissues and replenish the waste is de­ rived. We have next to understand that upon the regularity of the circulation of this fluid depends all the phenomena of a systemic character in our bodies, so that all these phenomena j?re-suppose the existence of both this fluid and an ap­ paratus by means of which it is incessantly kept in motion from the center to the periphery of the body. This apparatus, called the circulatory appa­ ratus or the “ vascular system,” consists of three sets of continuous muscular and fibrous tubes, and a central organ of impulsion, the heart. Now, although this latter does not constitute the sole means of propelling the blood through the vascular system or blood channels, it is by far the most important of all; for, although the circulation in limited points of the system may be arrested, if the heart suspends its incessant action for a single moment the anima.! organism can never again be »®-animated. The heart is nothing more than a hollow, muscular organ, the hollows of which are con­ tinuous with those of the arteries, capillaries and veins. Its motions are the pulsations, and it differs from the other organs of the circula­ tory apparatus in being provided with valves to regulate the flow of blood, and to giv^t the proper direction. It has been aptly likened to a double forcing pump, situated between the veins, on the one hand, and the arteries on the other, these valves being so arranged as to open in a forward and shut in a backward direction. The capillaries are the minute tubes which extend from the arteries to the veins, and it is they from which the blood issues whenever the surface of the flesh anywhere is pierced or broken. In the mammalia the heart is divided into four cavities, which are continuous on the one side with the veins and on the other with the ar­ teries. It consists, therefore, of the two cavities con­ stituting the right side—namely, the right au­ ricle and ventricle, and on the left side, the left auricle and ventricle. transmit the arterial blood from the lungs. The lungs are therefore the compound or double organ, in which the blood, being trans­ mitted through their capillaries, is converted, during the passage, from venous into arterial. They, therefore, have a distinct circulatory ap­ paratus, different from that which is common to the whole of the other parts of the circulation ; because, while passing through by a short route to and from the heart, the blood, which is dark or venous on reaching them, becomes arterialized on its return to the heart. The auricles are that part of the heart which is uppermost, and are the receiving cavities, while the ventricles are the lower part of the organ and are the discharging cavities. Now, it has been only recently understood what the exact character of the phenomena in­ volved in the passage of the blood through these cavities is. Both the smaller muscular chambers of the heart, the auricles, are receptacles—the one right and the other left. These are, therefore, first occupied by the blood coming from the veins. The blood then passes on the right side from the'auricle into the. ventricle in a downward direction, but on reach­ ing the bottom of the right ventricle it changes its course. It makes a turn upon itself, and in­ stead of passing from above downward, contin­ ues to pass from below upward, but from right to left. This is the change in the course of the venous blood. This is the character of the passage, through the right side of the heart, of the dark or venous blood. On the other hand and simultaneously, theblood as it comes from the lungs passes into the left auricle downward into the left ventricle. Arriving at the bottom of the ventricle this stream changes its course, and passes from be­ low upward, and from left to right. This course is the reverse of the change of direction on the left side of the heart. This, then, is the course of the arterial blood. There is accordingly, simultaneously and at given moments during life, in the heart, two, streams of blood, both of them making their way, in the right and left sets of cavities, first from above downward and next from below up­ ward. Between these cavities and the streams occu­ pying them we must remember there is a thick, muscular wall, �562 HERALD OF HEALTH! The latter force the blood in a different di­ These two streams, the one red or arterial and the other dark or venous, separated hy a thick rection, through the orifices leading to the lungs wall of muscular tissue, which partitions the and the general system, and past the valves at heart into right and left halves, take a crossed those orifices, which immediately contract upon direction in the cavities, and emerge from it at the just emptied ventricles. As the contraction of the two first valves is different orifices and in different directions. The valves are those fleshy curtains situated simultaneous, so that of the two last is simulta­ at the line of junction of the right auricle and neous, but they are successive to each other’s con­ ventricle on one side, and left auricle and ven­ traction. Let us now direct our attention to the im­ tricle on the other side. They interrupt from moment to moment the portant changes which take place in the blood continued current of the hlood from the one to during its passage through the lungs, from one the other,' when the latter has become filled and side of the heart back to the other. The right auricle contains the blood just ar­ is about contracting to discharge. Both these, then, alternately relax and con­ riving from the general system by the veins, tract, but while the auricles of either side con­ which terminate in it. This is venous blood. tract simultaneously, the ventricles contract in­ If the auricle be looked at it plainly shows the stantly afterward, and it is precisely at the mo­ dark color of the venous blood. On the oppo­ ment between the two contractions that the site side of the heart, in a corresponding situvalves previously dependent as festoons, raise ation, is the left auricle, which contains the and form a momentary partition in the auricSE- blood arriving from the lungs. The color of this blood, as seen through the ventricular cavity. Then comes the contraction of the ventricles, walls of the auricle, is of a brilliant scarlet, which react instantly from their relaxile state strongly contrasting with that on the opposite after the contraction of the auricle. This clo­ side. We see, then, the change of color which sure of the valve prevents the blood from re­ turning into the auricle, when the ventricle con­ characterizes the arterial and venous bloods, tracts upon its contents and forces it in a side and at the same time we are enabled to distin­ guish the exact point in the circulatory system direction. Now, as the two auricles contract simultane­ where this change takes place. The blood before its entrance into the lungs ously, so the two ventricles at one contraction i-nRt.ant.1y follow (contract simultaneously™ and is bluish. Immediately after leaving them it is the volume of blood which occupies the latter red, and this change is incessantly continued as is thrown out at separate orifices, each of which fresh portions of the blood arrive at the right auricle and ventricle, pass through the pulmo­ is provided with valves. And as the blood passes the first set of valves, nary ^^Hilation, and return to the left cavities which are relaxed and open until the ventricles of the heart. We see, therefore, that the blood in different are filled, so the blood from the latter passes out through these two orifices, when the latter set parts of the system, although a continuous vol­ of valves also contract and close them, to pre­ ume, is not preSSgm the same hlood. Let us now consider the course of the blood vent the blood returning into the cavities of the as it leaves the heart and is distributed to other heart. "We have thus briefly but plainly described parts of the body. It enters the arteries, whose pulsations are the circulation of the heart, but, to repeat, the but an extension of the pulsatile movements of .course of the phenomena is as follows: The blood flows from the veins into the au­ the heart. It transmitted in an unbroken stream ricles and into the wide-open orifice between that and the ventricles (these two, on either through these into the capillaries, and through side, being only apartments of the heart, each those into the veins. In the first, the blood is two chambers, having a continuous hollow); im­ red from the lungs and the stream is rapid. In mediately the auricle contracts completes the the last, it is again dark and the stream slug­ filling of the corresponding ventricle, and at the gish. In the arteries it is carried forward by their same instant the valves close and thus shut the propulsive movements, but in the veins it moves blood into their ventricles. Then comes the contraction of the ventricles, slowly, and is pushed forward by the current which instantly follows the shutting of the from behind. Between these are the minute tubes called the waives. �HERALD OF HEALTH. capillaries. These have extremely attenuate walls, and it is through them that certain ele­ ment^ of the blood transude to replenish the constantly occurring waste of the tissues they penetrate. These capillaries are found in every district of the human system, and they are the chan­ nels through which all the waste of the hody is supplied. They contain the blood in its proper state of distribution for nutrition. They supply the material by which all the products of the various organs of secretion are elaborated. From their contents is formed all the various substances which take part in the phenomena of digestion and digestive absorption. Forming in their ramifications by far the greater part of the substance of every organ, and containing in their hollows by far the most active elements taking part in the function of every organ, they are really the nutrifying organs, supplying the pabulum which sustains the |body and from which its products are evolved. From their contents are replenished all the fluids and the solids. If the pancreas is to produce its characteristic secretion, it is the capillaries of the organ which supply the needed material for the work of elab­ oration. If the bile is to be produced, it is the capilla­ ries of its structure which furnish the substance which the liver transforms into bile. If the gastric juice is needed for the digestion of the food in the stomach, it is the capillaries which transude the materials composing it. But, further than this, the capillaries not only furnish these materials to be elaborated, but they perform the equally important service of reabsorbing the materials they had already sup­ plied, together with those parts of the food that have been changed by the gastric juice and are fitted for assimilation. Thus the capillaries furnish the materials which have transformed the food, and again possess themselves of the resulting combination of the food and their own previous substances. They are not, therefore, the mere channels of the nutrient substances, but ai^also the seat of the great changes which occur in the blood it­ self. The study of the capillaries) and what occurs within and immediately without them, is in fact the study of nutrition in its several phases. Without these delicate,, blood-holding tubes permeating everywhere the tissue of the lungs, no possibility would exist of supplying the 163 blood with oxygen, nor of ridding the system .of the products of physiological combustion in the form of carbonic acid and animal vapor. We have now taken a sufficiently lengthy survey of the great field or realm of phenomena, the study of which we remarked awhile ago was of truly surpassing interest to the welfare of man. The experience of history teaches us that the relatively most important studies which have engaged the attention of the human mind are always the latest in the order of development to be pursued. Thus the study of physiology, from being so comparatively difficult, and because its results did not immediately reward us with any direct addition to our material wealth, as the various other branches which are now so assiduously cultivated, will eventually become the most im portant of all these. Nor is the time far distant when institutions of learning will be constrained to devote to it quite as much attention as any of the other branches of learning. The |g|of knowledge it confers has afar more direct and fruitful bearing upon man’s in­ terests, both present and eventual, both tempo­ ral and eternal, than all the others, which but strive at present to satisfy and stimulate our cu­ pidity or our natural pride. And at length it will be found that all these have preceded it and reached their fullest de­ velopment in order that they may furnish an indispensable basis for this study of studies. Welcome.—“Papa will soon be here,” said mamma to her two-year old boy. “ What can Gregory do to welcome him ?” And the mother glanced at the child’s playthings, which lay scattered in wild confusionjm^the'carpet. “Make the room neat.B replied^the bright little one, understanding the look and at once beginning to gather his toys into a basket. “ What more can we do to welcome papa ?” asked mamma, when nothing wasj wanting to the neatness of the room. happy to him when he comes!” cried the dear little fellow, jumping up and down with eagerness, as he watched at the window for bis father’s coming. Now, as all the dictionary-makers will testify, it is very hard to give good definitions; but did not little Gregory give the substance of a welcome ? “ Be happy to him when he comes. ” Fashionable young lady, detaching her hair before retiring: “What dreams may come when we have shuffled off this mortal coil.” �164 HERALD OF HEALTH? [Written for The Herald, of Health.] Botany for Invalids—No. IV. BY MBS. MARY TREAT. Nearly all invalids love flowers. What a quick flush, of joy overspreads the patient’s face at the sight of a beautiful bouquet arranged by some loving hand! Those who scarcely ever notice flowers while strong and well, pre-occu­ pied, as they think, with, weightier matters, yet, if stricken down with disease, show this instinct­ ive love as if it were a part of their very being. Yes, we all have love for the beautiful inter­ woven in our natures, although it may seem to lie dormant in some rude specimens of Human­ ity. Young children especially show this love, but differing greatly in degree and intensity according to temperament and organization. A frequent visitor of our flower-garden is a neighbor’s delicate little son, only in his third summer. I first noticed this child’s passionate devotion to flowers when our Tulips were in bloom. Looking from the window I saw him on his knees before these bright flowers, his face radiant, his little hands partly clasping but not touching, the flowers—a perfect picture of love and devotion. And what a picture it was for an artist! Many times a day these Tulips are vis­ ited, and as they began to wither and fade he seemed to look sad; but other bright flowers soon attracted his attention, and now the Phlox Prummondii, with its many brilliant colors,! seems to be his special favorite. Never touch­ ing the flowers himself, he seems to think the bees and butterflies have no business to be rob­ bing them of their sweets, his hands waving gently over the flowers to frighten these insects away. No doubt this child was born a bota­ nist, but his future training may warp these fine sensibilities; he maybe sent to school too young, and thus, coming in contact with minds cast in a rougher mold, will naturally influence his after career. “ Like begets like.” The companion-! ship of the great and good has a direct influ­ ence upon the forming mind. ’Tis true, now and then a brilliant light emerges from darkness and obscurity, dazzling both continents, but these are exceptions ; it is the surroundings, the culture while young, that gives us these master minds. Never was I more struck with the force of the truth of this than in reading a sketch by Mrs. Fletcher in The Atlantic Monthly, where she relates the following inci­ dent as occurring in Geneva, Switzerland, illus­ trative of my position: “We do not remember who said that £iD Geneva every child is born an artist,’ but the statement would bear investigation. Talent as well as taste for drawing and painting is almost universal, and belongs as well to the poor as to the rich. It may not be well known that De Candolle, the celebrated and untiring Genevese botanist, made use, in a course of lectures, of a valuable collection of tropical American plants, intrusted to his care by a Spanish botanist. Unfortunately, the herbarium was needed by its owner sooner than expected, and Professor De Candolle was requested to send it back. This he stated to his audience, with many a re­ gret for so irreparable a loss. But some of the ladies present at once offered to copy the whole collection in one week. This was done. The drawings, filling thirteen folio volumes, and amounting in number to eight hundred and sixty, were accurately executed by one hundred and fourteen women artists in the time speci­ fied. In most cases the principal parts of the plants alone were colored, the rest was only pencilled with great accuracy. Where is there another city of the same size in which such a number of lady artists could be found ? One of these very drawings, having been accidently dropped in the street, was picked up by a little girl ten years old, and returned to De Candolle, copied by the child, and it is no blemish to the collectior^^B It is well known that Geneva has been the home of literature and the fine arts for centu­ ries, so we do not so much wonder at the num­ ber of lady artists found there. But the civilization or culture of the human family, or of the animal kingdom in general, has no more marked effect than the change man has made in plants. Our fruits, grains and veg­ etables have all sprung from plants that would hardly be recognized as the same species. The almost innumerable varieties of the apple have all originated from a hard, sour, unpalatable forest fruit. The same may be said of all our fruits, though the change is not so great as in the apple. Some of our wild small fruits are deli­ cious. The flavor of the strawberry in its natu­ ral state is superior to the monsters produced in cultivation. Horticulturists may think me semi-barbarous in taste when I say I have eaten wild grapes at the West that I preferred to any cultivated variety ever tasted; and may-be my roving life in those Westem wilds did affect my taste, for I have eaten wild plums there that I pronounced equal to the horticulturist s best. They were 1 arg^ juicy and firm-meated, and if a little bitter in taste next the skin, it could be easily obviated by paring, which I invariably did, when nothing could be more delicious. Of course, these fruits could be improved as regards size, but it is doubtful if a finer flavor could be imparted. And this is the fruit for invalids— the tree of life—if they will hunt and pluck for themselves. �HERALD OF HEALTH. A wealthy gentleman, of New England, given up by his physicians to die with consumption, as a last resort started for the West. On ar­ riving at the prairies—Nature’s great flowergardens—he shunned doctors and men, camping out and living on wild fruits and simple bread. The result was that in three years’ time he was a healthy, robust man, and could not be induced to give up his roving lifB ; but he hunted and trapped, and would endure all kinds of expo­ sure, never taking cold nor scarcely knowing fatigue. ’Tis true, good health is the first and greatest blessing we can enjoy, and second to this is congenial society—society of man. We have no sympathy with one who isolates him­ self from his fellows out of disregard for their fellowship. However much we may admire Thoreau, yet we have a secret feeling of chagrin that he should prefer the society of woodchucks to man. The remarks of the critic in The North American Review were to the point, when, in reviewing Thoreau, he said: “ The natural man, like the singing birds, comes out of the forest as inevitably as the natural bear and wild-cat stick there.” Cultivation, too, has given us many varieties of grain. Almost innumerable varieties of maize or Indian corn have been produced since the landing of Columbus on these shores. We have early six weeks’/com, and later varieties that take a long summer to perfect, originally from the same species. These early varieties were brought about by taking corn as far north as it would grow, where in the course of time it learned to ripen in the short summers, and is sent back to us for early garden varieties. It is a very easy matter to hybridize corn, as every farmer knows, for the staminate or male flowers are at the summit of the stalk, and the pollen, at the mercy of the winds, may be carried to a distant cornfield, where, falling upon the silk or pistillate flowers, it produces a mixture often differing in color from either parent. So the change in our vegetables is no less marked. The potato in its native wilds has scarcely a tuber upon its roots, but cultivation has produced untold varieties. The parsnip in its native state has a slender, poisonous root, but is made wholesome and nutritious by the abundance of saccharine matter deposited after years of care and cultivation. But this plant, almost more than any other, has a tendency to go back to its original or former worthlessness. If left to itself for only two or three years, about the garden fence or some other out-of-theway place, the root dwindles in size, becomes hard, acrid and poisonous. Frequent cases of T65 poisoning have occurred in families unacquainted with this fact. The cabbage is another illustra­ tion, which has no appearance of a head in its natural state. But perhaps there is no more marked change in plants cultivated for use than in those for or­ nament. By cultivation the internal organs of flowers—stamens and pistils—are gradually made to pass into petals and thus become double. This is frequently carried to such an extent that all traces of sexual organs disappear—they have all become petals, and of course no seed can be produced. If civilization and high culture can thus affect plants, may it not affect the human family in the same way ? May this not be the reason why so few children, comparatively speaking, are born among highly intellectual and cultivated people, while in the cabins and log huts of the poor we see swarms of children, the same as we do seeds among uncultivated plants ? The great natural order or family Composites, to whHSwe are indebted for most of our au­ tumnal flowers, is by far the most extensive of all the natural orders, embracing about nine thousand species, and always known by its heads of flowers and united anthers. They are distributed over all parts of the globe, but very unequally. According to Humboldt, in some of the countries of Europe and Asia they consti­ tute but a very small proportion, while in trop­ ical America and in some of the tropical islands they are full one-half of all the flowering plants, and on the Island of Sicily, according to some botanists, they are one-half. They give us but very few useful species, unless we call the horrid bitter herbs with which we were dosed in child­ hood useful, and which we never see without a sort of dread and nauseating sensation—as, for instance, thoroughwort, tansey, wormwood, camomile, and many others, whose medicinal virtues were formerly supposed to be very great. Latterly, most of these supposed medicinal plants are very much out of favor, and we do not see the great bundles of dried herbs in every wellregulated household as formerly. But some of our most brilliant and highly ornamental plants are found in this order. Our autumnal gardens would look dreary enough did not this family give us the splendid Dahlias, Crysanthemums, Asters, Zinias, Helianthus, and many others too numerous to mention. The fields and waste places are no less in­ debted to this order for their autumnal decora­ tions than our gardens. Especially the graceful Goldenrod, whose beauty and gracefulness has been the theme of poets in all ages. Over thirty �166 HERALD OF HEALTH. species of Goldenrod decorate our roadsides and fields. The most pleasant species is. Solidago odora or Sweet-scented Goldenrod. The crushed leaves of this species have a fine fragrance, sim­ ilar to anise, and are frequently distilled for the fragrant volatile oil which they yield in abun­ dance, and they have been used as a substitute for tea, and even been exported to China. As every body is supposed to know the Goldenrod, it is hardly necessary to speak of the flowers, for the divisions of calyx and corolla, stamens, pistils, fruit and seeds, are what we depend upon to determine the family and genus, but as we all know this belongs to the Composite family, and genus Solidago, we have only to look carefuHy that we do not mistake the species, which is determined by the leaves. The stem is from two to three feet high, the leaves linear-lanceo­ late, smooth and entire, with a strong, yellow­ ish mid-vein, veinlets scarcely perceptible; but, above all, the fragrance of this species is so dis­ tinct from the others it can hardly be mistaken. It takes its generic name from the Latin solido, to make whole, in allusion to its then supposed medicinal properties« its specific name, odora\ from its sweet-scented leaves. But soon the frost will crisp and blacken these flowers, and we can only turn to our books and dried collections, of which I hope we have all secured a good supply, to study during our leisure in the long winter months. tWritten for The Herald of Health.] A Homily for Ministers and Chris­ tians. BY REV. DR. JOHN MARSH. There is, it is believed, no portion of the Christian world in which religion has a higher and purer type than America. England, our fatherland, has, we know, ever been identified with extreme formalism, amid much true devo­ tion. Scottish piety has been in another ex­ treme—piety of the head more than the heart. America has placed her religion more in the af­ fections—is more decidedly spiritual, seeks an abstraction from all that is visible and tangible. But is there not danger of an extreme, even here ? May not we Americans become, even in our piety, so wholly spiritual as almost entirely to neglect the animal constitution, and bring injury upon ourselves and disgrace the very re­ ligion in which we glory ? By what law is that minister of the Gospel or that professing Chris­ tian governed whose conversation is daily and literally in heaven, but whose mouth is filled with tobacco ? who indulges two or three times a day in his cigar ? or who, without any regard to the admonitions of those who understand their poisonous qualities, will be seen using in social and friendly circles alcoholic beverages ? Paul tells us: “ The body is for the Lord,” and therefore it is as much a part of true religion to take care of the body as it is to take care of the soul—a strange doctrine; however, it is believed by not a few professing Christians. Temper­ ance sermons were at one time viewed as an outrage in Christian pulpits. And the clergy­ man who should now deliver a discourse upon the Laws of Health, severely remarking upon a daily violation of those laws in Christian fami­ lies—in their food, their dress, their labors, their parties and pleasures—would be considered in most congregations as forfeiting his ministerial standing. In caring for the body there is, even among many good people, little or no conscience. They do not feel that they are responsible for what they eat or drink, or for what dress they wear or what pleasures they engage in; if the heart be right, if they have saving faith and make a good profession before many witnesses and give liberally of their substance, that is enough. BuiAj^Egiot so. We are to be temperate in all things and keep in subjection our appetites and passions. The body is for the Lord, and our bodies are to become temples of the Holy Ghost; and until ministers and Christians understand this better than they do, and care more for health and less for appetite, in vain shall we look for the suppression of intemperance and the refor­ mation of inebriates; in vain shall we look for the disuse of tobacco and narcotics among our young men; in vain shall we expect a convert­ ing and sanctifying power in the pulpit and the Church, and in vain look for the coming of the glorious millennium. Let all, then, remember, “ The body is for the Lordis to be subject to His law and trained for His glory. In neglect of this not a few good men live out not half their days. In our attention to it there is an increase of days, an increase of animal and spir­ itual enjoyment, a vastly increased usefulness, and an honor put on Him who has formed us, placed us in this beautiful world and fitted us for His glory. Garments of beauty may cover, but they can never impart worth to abandoned char­ acter. Why is the assessor of taxes the best man in the world? Because he never underrates any body. �HERALD OF* HEALTH. 167 those of males, while at birth they are larger, and ought to be, for sufficient reasons. If the Health of G-irls-No. V. chest is thus contracted, adequate room for the lungs, etc., is utterly impossible. If the lungs BY DR. J. H. HANAFORD. are in any respect compressed, the minute airThe compression of the chest is still another cells and passages—estimated by millions—be­ cause of disease and debility. The chest con­ come closed and adhere for ever, rendering, a full tains the heart and lungs, two organs demand­ inflation of the lungs, and a consequent full ing special space for exercise. Indeed, by na­ supply of air, utterly impossible. To under­ ture there is just room enough for all of the in­ stand the extent of the evils of such compres­ ternal organs and none to spare. If any are sion, it should be remembered that one object of crowded, their usefulness, so to speak, is im­ 'breathing is to purify the blood by a contact paired, and none more than the lungs and with the air—or its oxygen—in the lungs, one heart. These, in the form given to the chest, of the most important means of purifying the are amply protected, bounded by firm bones, blood. Indeed, this method is much more effi­ the ribs, breast-bone, spinal column, etc.—at cacious than the use of all of the sarsaparilla least firm when fully matured. This chest, at “ blood-purifiers” that ignorant quacks have ever birth, is large, ample to accommodate and pro­ cursed society with, since this is Nature’s own tect its contents, the shape being adapted to its purifier, leaving no “ dregs of impurity” intro­ design. But that shape is wonderfully and duced in the very process of purification. sadly changed from its original conical form, (Young lady, if you would purify your blood, with the larger portion down, inverting Nature’s use less salt, less “ grease,” less pork—the most plan. Those who doubt this will please observe abominable of all grease; less diseased animal the chest of the infant at birth, notice the am­ food, etc.; it is difficult to use too little of such ple expanse of the ribs, particularly at the base, articles—and breathe as much as possible of relatively larger in the female than in the male, pure, cool air, day and night, exercising suffi­ for reasons that need not be specified. But, ciently to throw off the waste of the body, and between the ages of ten and fifteen years, you will not only find an economical but also though some have supposed that the days of an effectual method. Again, this compression of the lungs is among corsets, etc., have passed away, mark the wasp­ like forms, so beautiful, and notice that this the many causes of pulmonary consumption, so change occurs very soon after the miss begins alarmingly prevalent at the present day partic­ to have some idea of “ taste,’■diminishing in ularly among females—a disease that is consign­ size, particularly at the base, at a very rapid ing thousands of the fair buds of mortality, rate just when the dawn of womanhood appears,^ frail young ladies, to a premature grave annu­ when the chest naturally enlarges. Facts just­ ally, even in our own favored country. It is ify the assertion that the chest is relatively the not necessary to state the physiological reasons smallest where it should be the largest, dimin­ for this result; yet, it is a fact that such pressure, ishing from birth. Now, this is not without a closing the air-cells, etc., resulting in facilitating cause. A part of this is referable, it may be, to unhealthful deposits or preventing their escape, the tight bandages of infancy, worn sufficiently preventing the ordinary supply of air, etc. etc., tight to cause discomfort, if not pain, and at a is making sad inroads into the health of the fu­ time when the bones—-if such they may be ture mothers, those now in the bloom of life. called—are very yielding. At this time a slight Indeed, this is a disease comparatively unknown pressure is sufficient to materially diminish the in savage society—a kind of crowning glory (?) size of the chest; still, all of the mischief is not’ of civilization? It may be remarked in this done at this time. A system of “ tight lacing” connection that we are breathing an insufficient is commenced in girlhood and continued system­ amount of pure air, even under the most fa­ atically, though the pressure may be slight, so vorable circumstances. We have too little fresh slight as to be regarded as of no importance. air at night in our sleeping-rooms, often almost Yet such pressure, commenced when the bones hermetically sealed as a means of excluding the are yielding and continued for a few years, supposed “poisonous night air.” Still others is sufficient to produce the result—a sad re­ are breathing only about half the necessary quantity at each inspiration, partly from habit sult. But the causes are of less importance than the and partly from a compression of the chest that results. Observation teaches us that the chests admits of only a limited supply. Nature has and waists of females are relatively smaller than provided for and demands full, deep and copious [Written for The Herald of Health.] �168 HERALD OF inspirations of this grand invigorator and puri­ fier—life-imparting, pure air, inviting full meas­ ure, “pressed down,” enough to expand the cells, enabling them to eject irritating and pois­ onous deposits. It has not escaped the notice of observers that there is a close connection between a large and well-developed chest and lungs and physical power and endurance. If about to exert our strength to the best advantage we instinctively inhale a generous supply of air as one of the necessary means of preparation. The fleet ani­ mals, the most hardy, those enduring the most fatigue, etc., are those well developed in the chest, possessing ample lung-power. Human beings having such lungs are seldom the victims of diseases of this character, unless the result of accidental causes, such as breathing poison­ ous air and the fumes generated in some chemi­ cal works, or causes of a similar nature. To be safe in this matter, to be sure that the lungs are in no danger of being too much com­ pressed, it is absolutely necessary that clothing should be so loose that no inconvenience shall be felt by taking a free inspiration, full and deep. But very few, if any, fashionable young ladies can be found who are thus free to breathe HEALTH- Many, far too many seek, by a daily compres­ sion of the chest and waist, to imitate the forms of the “fashion plates,” which generally are mere caricatures of the human form as it came from the Great Architect. Still another evil resulting from this insuffi­ cient supply of air—the food of the lungs—is connected with the heat of the body, or what is generally termed animal heat. A process is constantly going on in the system, an action connected with the relations of the air and waste parts of the body, by which warmth is evolved. Now, if there is an insufficient supply of air— and only large lungs can receive the necessary supply—if the blood is only partially purified, it is utterly impossible to develop a sufficient amount of heat to meet the wants of the sys­ tem. Hence the “ chills” of so many delicate young ladies, the purple cheeks, the bloodless lips, the shrivelled appearance, etc., are all indic­ ative of an insufficient supply of natural heat. Hence the necessity of artificial warmth, the ex­ tra clothing, the hot soap-stones, etc., while the extremities are cold and pale, like lifeless remains, the blood having retired to the internal organs—almost congesting them—and the head, but from the same cause. The remedy for such difficulties consists prin­ cipally in removing the cause, enlarging the lungs by systematic full-breathing, throwing the shoulders back, standing erect, allowing full motion to the muscles of the chest, with such gymnastic exercises as are calculated to bring these muscles into action, enlarging the chest; or, still better, by useful labors, such as one of ordinary capacity may suggest, constantly bear­ ing in mind that the object is to expand the chest and lungs, strengthening the muscles con­ nected with them by appropriate exercise, breath­ ing as much pure air as possible. Such a course would diminish doctor’s bills and those of a sim­ ilar character, benefiting young ladies more than those whose success depends upon the misfor­ tunes and sickness of society. Reproduction.—A single grain of barley was planted by an agriculturist in the Isle of Man in 1862, and the same year produced 300 grains. These were sown, and the second year’s produce was about half a pint. These were again sown, and the third year’s produce was 14 pounds, AN UNNATURAL WAIST. which being again sown, have realized this year the air of heaven without restraint. Most are about seven bushels, covering a space of one so deformed, have chests so compressed, that hundred yards by five. Thus there have been the lungs contain only about one-half of the produced in four years seven bushels of barley air necessary to meet the wants of the system. from a single grain. �IIE KALI) OF HEALTH! NEWYOEK, OCTOBER^1866J WATER. “To the days of the aged it addeth length; To the might of the strong it addeth strength; It . freshens the heart, it brightens the sight; ’Tis like quaffing a goblet of morning light.” 6K^*The Publishers do not hold themselves as indors­ ing every article which may appear in The Herald. They will allow the largest liberty of expression, believing that by so doing this magazine will prove to be more useful and acceptable to its patrons. Exchanges are at liberty to copy from this magazine by giving due credit to’The Herald 'of Health and JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CULTURE. TOPICS OF THE MONTH. BY M. L. HOLBROOK, M. B. DEATH OF REV, JOHN PIERPONT. Our friend and contributor, Rev. John Pier­ pont, died at his home’ in Medford, August 26, 1866, at the ripe age of 81 years. Unlike most who live so long, he retained his health, vigor and usefulness up to the very day of his death. He was found dead in his bed on Monday morn­ ing, August 27, although he attended church the day before, and retired at nighf in usual health and strength. Mr. Pierpont was born in Litchfield, Conn., April 6, 1785. He graduated at Yale College at the age of 19. Of his life, it may be said, it was’a most useful one. He had that rare com­ bination of talents which, while it made him reformatory, precluded the possibility of his be­ ing a “ man of one idea.” • His tastes led him to occupy himself at different times with law, trade, teaching, mechanics, poetry, medicine, politics and divinity. His mind was “ hospitable to new ideas hence, whatever in any branch of human life appeared to claim a candid hear­ ing was sure to find in him a reasonable and ready listener. While pastor of the Hollis Street Church, in Boston, he made himself quite noted as a fearless advocate of the then unpopu­ lar Temperance cause. The following account of the feeling at the time is from the pen of one who is familiar with the facts: “It chanced that several of the wealthiest and 169 weightiest people in his church were distillers and spirit-dealers. To these persons the zeal and activity of Mr. Pierpont in the Temperance Reform, from its very commencement, were highly distasteful, and they led a party strong enough to prevent, for a long series of years, the payment of his salary, after they had vainly tried other means of getting rid of him. A ma­ jority of the pew-owners took this position, and held it, though a decided majority of the con­ gregation were in favor of the pastor and his ideas. Since among these earnest friends were some who were able to advance him money, so that want of the means of subsistence should not oblige him to quit the field, Mr. Pierpont remained and carried on the war with vigor. Reduced to extremity, the rumsellers of Hollis Street made public complaint of their minister as neglecting his pastoral duties, and brought in evidence certain ingenious mechanical inventions devised and patented by him and publicly sold in connection with his name. The time and thought bestowed upon the invention of these articles, they averred, was so much unjustifiably withdrawn from their service, in violation of his contract as their minister; while the advertise­ ment and sale of these articles, publicly connect­ ing the name of a reverend clergyman with me­ chanical and commercial transactions, was. a grievous derogation from his professional dig­ nity! The published reply of Mr. Pierpont to the published charge above described, was one of the keenest specimens of sarcastic wit I ever saw. In regard ?Qthe charge of fraudulent withdrawal of time from the services of the parish, he said that it came with a very ill grace from those particular persons, who were very slack in their attendance on his preaching, and still more so in reducing to practice the truths he taught. But in fact there had been no neglect on his part, either of public duties or pasto­ ral attendance. He had never failed them in either particular. But he had chosen to employ those hours and weeks of recreation which are admitted by all to be essential to bodily and mental health, in employments that combined use with recreation. He did not understand true dignity, either that of a man or that of a minister, to be infringed by any sort of useful activity. And he had the pleasure to find, by the commercial demand for those articles in use for daily household comfort which his care and skill had improved, that he had enlarged the sum of human happiness, and aided the mate­ rial as well as the spiritual welfare of his gen­ eration. He then wittily described each of the articles in question, enumerated the advantages which his improvement had added to it, and mentioned the place where the improved article was for sale, assuring his critics that a fair trial of these things could not fail to convince them. His wit, and the soundness of his argument, turned the laugh of the whole city upon his as­ sailants, who could revenge themselves only by withholding his salary for a time. The law ul­ timately compelled them to pay up the whole of it.” Mr. Pierpont’s’patriotism will long be remem­ bered by all. At the age of 75, when the war for the destruction of the Union began, he im­ �170 HERALD OF HEALTH. mediately offered his services to Gov. Andrew as chaplain of one of the Massachusetts regi­ ments, was accepted, and marched with the Twenty-second Regiment to the seat of war. The exposures of camp life, however, proved too severe a tax upon his powers, and he resigned. He was subsequently appointed to a clerkship in the Treasury Department at Washington, which post he held at the time of his death. The following anecdote illustrates Mr. Pier­ pont’s honesty—it is almost unexampled: “ The Rev. Mr. Stetson, in his address on the death of the Rev. John Pierpont, narrated the circumstances connected with Mr. Pierpont’s business failure in 1861. Not daring to make use of money to which he had not a perfect right, he left his well-furnished and well-pro­ vided house in Baltimore, and, with his wife and children, rented a single apartment in an ob­ scure portion of the city. His partner found him with much difficulty, and reminded him that there were funds in the possession of the firm which the creditors would expect them to live upon until the affairs of the firm could be settled. Mr. Pierpont promptly replied : ‘ No, not a dollar will I touch.’ For three days he was almost without food, and during this time he wrote his famous ‘ Airs of Palestine,’ which he carried to a publisher, who purchased it for the sum of five hundred dollars. This poem had great popularity, two editions being soon called for. Mr. Stetson stated that Mr. Pierpont was induced to use his inventive powers and to compile school-books to obtain extra funds for the payment of his business obligations. From these he was legally exempt; but the honorable and high-minded man regarded himself as mor­ ally bound to discharge them.” In his will, Mr. Pierpont gives a valuable lesson to professional men in regard to the habit of regular exercise as a means of relaxation and to preserve and educate the body. His turning­ lathe, with all its fittings and equipments, chis­ els, files, etc., together with his tool-chest, he bequeathed to his step-son, Mr. Fowler, in con­ sideration of the fact that he is skilled in the use of mechanical tools, trusting that they will be to him, as they have been to the testator, “ a means of educating the physical organs and powers, of relaxation from mental labors, of general bodily health, and of amusement, both innocent and salutary.” As a poet Mr. Pierpont will ever be held in grateful remembrance by his countrymen. Many of his poems are familiar to every school? boy and school-girl, as they have been largely copied into the school-books of the age. They were always full of pathos and imagination, and rarely failed to convey a very important lesson of life. Several of these have been published in The Herald of Health, among the most re­ cent of which is the one entitled “ Nothing but Water to Drink.” There is something in his verses that always touches the popular heart, and they are constantly being republished in the newspapers of the day. The following religious poem from his pen was written to be sung at the dedication of the Congregational Church in Plymouth, which was built on the ground occupied by the first Con­ gregational church erected in America, and gives a good example of his style: “ The winds and waves were roaring, The Pilgrims met for prayer; And here, their God adoring, They stood in open air. When breaking day they greeted, And when its close was calm, The leafless woods repeated The music of their psalm. “ Not thus, 0 God, to praise thee, Do we, their children, throng ; The temple’s arch we raise thee Gives back our choral song. Yet, on the winds that bore thee Their worship and their prayers, May ours come up before thee From hearts as true as theirs ! “What have we, Lord, to bind us, To this, the Pilgrims’ shore ! Their hill of graves behind us, Their watery way before, The wintry surge, that dashes Against the rocks they trod, Their memory and their ashes— Be thou their guard, 0 God!, MWe would not, Holy Father, Forsake this hallowed spot, Till on that shore we gather Where graves and griefs are not; The shore where true devotion Shall rear no pillared shrine, And see no other ocean Than that of love divine.” Probably the last writing he did for the press was the letter written for and published in The Herald of Health for August concerning his personal habits. While his memory-will gladden the hearts of thousands, who only knew him to love, his bright spirit has gone to the summer land to be for ever at rest. Exhausted Coad Fields.—The Eng­ lish people fear the destruction of their nation by an exhaustion of her coal fields. They had better fear its destruction by physical vices such as knowledge would remedy. If coal gives out, they will find abundance of it in America for generations to come; but if their habits of dissi­ pation should ever become so bad as to ruin the race, there will be no remedy. �HEEAffD OF HEALTH. The Cholera.—The cholera has now nearly disappeared from New York; indeed, it has not raged here with great violence during the past season. The number of deaths has been considerably less than one thousand. There is much to learn from its visitation, which, if people were wise, they would put in practice. There is no more necessity of these occasional visits of cholera to our shores, than there is of the regular visits of alligators and the fierce serpents of the torrid climes. They only come because we have such depraved ways of living; so many foul basements and tenement-houses; eat so much constipating and obstructing food; breathe so much foul air, drink so much liquor, and bathe so infrequently. The very habits of life which render one liable to this disease, are those which, when cholera-poison is not pres­ ent, produce other diseases, or such debility and weakness as render life very imperfect and un­ certain, The lesson people can never learn is that these visitations come in consequence of vi­ olated organic law; and that it is infinitely bet­ ter so to eat, drink, sleep and exercise, and to so construct our houses and clean and drain our cities, that they shall be proof against pesti­ lence. Sordid people think money is made by grinding down the poor and giving them little chance to live cleanly, comfortable lives; but there is no surer way to depreciate property in any part of a city than to debase its inhabitants by poverty or sickness; nor any surer way to increase $®in value than to improve the health and home sur­ roundings of the population. We owe much to the Board of Health for their earnest efforts to put the city in a better sanitary condition. They seem to have taken hold of the tail end of the Hygienic system of treatment, so far as preventive measures are concerned. For this let them have due credit. As regards treatment, they have little to boast of. Under the regular treatment about sixty per cent, have died. This is not a very creditable record to maintain by the physicians of that medical school which boasts of its origin and its antiquity, its respectability, its facilities for medical culture, and that, too, in New York, where the talent of the profession reside. Homoeopathists, on the other hand, whom the reg­ ular profession will not allow to control even one ward of a cholera hospital, get, perhaps, their proportion of cases to treat, and, if we may trust the reports, they lose less than the regular pro­ fession. Indeed, a leading New York weekly de­ clares that nearly all patients treated Homoeo- 171 pathically recover. It can hardly be said that the Hygienic physicians treat many cases, but they do some, and the results have been more favor­ able than by any other practice; and so it ever will be. Cholera is a disease pre-eminently of filth and unbalanced circulation and action. And the Hygienic system has for its chief end and aim cleanliness, a regulation of irregular and unbalanced action, and good nursing. The day has not quite come for the full realization of the benefits of this system to the people; but just as soon as the car of progress advances and people become educated, and understand the relation which drug-poisons have to the hu­ man system, just so sure will they cease to take them or employ physicians who give them. The signs of the times plainly show that this day is coming more rapidly than we are aware. Let those who are interested in human growth and progress, and particularly in medical re­ form, which lies close to all other reforms, do all they can to help on this golden day. Grapes.—Horace Greeley, in writing from Vermont about the destruction of the ap­ ple-trees by insects, multiplied because of the destruction of birds by cold winds, and aug­ mented by the destruction of forests, says : “ Wb must try to change this; but, for the present, I ask attention to the multiplication and diffusion of choice vines. The grape, under skillful culture, is a surer crop to-day than al­ most any other delicate fruit, the strawberry only excepted. Experienced growers say that grapes may be grown, wherever they thrive at all, for the price of wheat, pound for pound; yet, while wheat scarcely averages four cents per pound to growers, grapes can almost always be sold at double that price. _ We can start the vine and enjoy its fruit within three years; whereas at least thrice that time is required to hring an orchard from infancy to maturity. Our farmers and mechanics, their wives and children, but especially our farm-laborers and day-laborers generally, ought to eat far more good fruit and far less salt meat—and they can not until fruit becomes far cheaper and more abundant.” Influence of Medical Prescriptions Plant-life.—“Competing for a prize in Ex­ perimental Physiolog}’-, a French observer has recently ascertained that plants are far more sensitive than animals to poisons. Even citric and tartaric acids, in very dilute solution, kill the plants that absorb them. So do many sub­ stances, as very dilute mixtures of alcohol and ether. Quinine and anchomine will stop the growth of a plant and often kill it.” . Probably plants have not got so used to being poisoned as men. Let poisoning be practiced on plants for a few generations, and perhaps they could endure it better. on �172 HERALD OF HEALTH] Fever and Agee.—During the au­ tumn, in malarious districts, this disease is al­ ways prevalent in a greater or less degree. Whether the recent discoveries hy the micro­ scope have disclosed the true cause of it has not yet been decided with certainty; suffice it to say, its cause is in some way connected with those changes in vegetable matter which are produced in low, wet regions, near marshy swamps and ponds, where vegetation is vigor­ ous and its decay rapid under a hot sun. It is not our purpose now to go into a minute history of the disease, or the various remedies which have been vainly tried to prevent and cure it. Its history is written indelibly in the shattered fraines of ten thousand pioneers and their fam­ ilies, who too early emigrated to the Far West, and placed too much dependence upon drugs for a cure. It has never been considered a danger­ ous disease, as it rarely terminates in death S but if it does not kill outright, it is a disease which produces very great suffering, more so than many others of a fatal character. It has been described as a monster seizing his victim> chilling and shaking him with a cold no fire can warm, burning him with heat to the other ex­ treme, and finally melting and sweating him into a temporary relief, lasting for one, two or four days. Really, the disease is not a monster at all, but a peculiar kind of remedial effort on the part of the system to rid itself of the poison that has been introduced into the body, either through the lungs or by means of the water and food taken into the stomach. In speaking of this disease we shall discuss, firstly, its prevention, and, secondly, its cure. PREVENTION OF FEVER AND AGUE. As it is caused by a poison which, taken into the body, is acted on by the vital energies, the question is, How can we avoid it ? We cannot prepare for it as we do for visible danger, but, if people would be more careful in selecting their homes, and to avoid such as are known to be malarious, they would succeed quite effect­ ually in preventing the disease. We are never so careful as we should be in choosing our homes that they may be healthful. There is great recklessness of life and future happiness manifested by nearly everybody in choosing the place where all their joys and happiness should culminate, where their children are to be born and reared. Many of our largest cities are located on low, wet ground, which can never be healthful. So serious is this matter becoming, that the eminent Dr. Bowditch of Boston says’ in an essay read before the Massachusetts Medi­ cal Society, “ Now, the track of a railway, or the wit or reckless energy of the owner of some swamp may be the sole reason for erecting a station-house, and thereby promoting the erec­ tion of dwelling-houses near by, in localities to­ tally unfit for human habitation.” He thinks the Government should not allow the health of its inhabitants to be tampered with in this way, but should prevent it by suitable legislation. There is much force in his argument. A home should be_chosen with even more care than in buying a horse or building a railroad. Above all things, it should be sunny, dry, airy, away from swamps, and furnish pure water. Another way to prevent ague is to keep the standard of health high. Whenever men gormandize on constipat­ ing food, pork, grease and all the abominations which are generally found on our tables, they are, if exposed to miasma, more likely to con­ tract ague than where proper care is taken to have'only healthful,'food to eat and pure water to drink. Many a case of ague is cured by proper attention to diet and bathing. If the bowels do not become torpid, the liver obstructed, and the skin inactive and feeble, there is less danger from exposure to ague-miasma than where all these conditions are combined. A system obstructed by imperfect depuration seems to furnish a very suitable place for planting the seeds of fever and ague, while a clean, healthy system, on the other hand, is rarely liable to an attack. This is certainly a very strong argu­ ment in favor of cleanliness, internal as well as external. There is one point regarding our habits that, in regions where miasma abounds, we ought to guard against—it is night-exposure. Then, more than at any other time, are the atmospheric causes of this disease present. There should be no needless exposure to night air in fever and ague localities. We by no means mean by this that persons should sleep with closed windows, but that they should keep from places where the poi­ son exists. It is much better to sleep on the side of a house where the sun shines, and an upper "room will be more free than a lower one from bad air. The practice of sleeping in rooms on the ground floor, in either city or country, is bad; the higher up the room the better the air. It is also a most excellent plan to have an open fire in our sleeping-rooms in malarious districts, not so much for heat as for dryness. With fire, ventilation can be made more perfect. If It be true that malaria is only microscopic fungi, as has lately been argued by scientific men, it will be very plainly seen that a fire in a room may entirely or' partially destroy the germs, or pre­ �jWrabId OF WALTH. 173 vent their development so as to render them that a wise Hygienic treatment of ague will more perfectly cure the disease than drugs, and harmless. THE CURE OF AGUE. without danger to any person’s future health. Of course, it is very desirable in treating this “Look to thy Mouth.”—A friend disease to get the patient away from its imme­ diate cause to where the air is pure and the sends us the following poem, which is slightly water v wholesome. The special treatment is altered from one written by that good and Chris­ quite simple and generally very efficacious— tian philosopher, George Herbert, who was co­ balance the circulation and counteract the lead­ temporary with Lord Bacon. It was our good ing symptoms. The chill should be treated by fortune to be presented with Herbert’s Foems warm applications, and the fever by cooling by the first patient we ever treated. They are ones. Hot foot-baths, fomentations to the ab­ full of rich sayings, some of which we shall, domen, bottles of hot water to the sides, arm-pits perhaps, some time give to our readers. The and down the limbs, will be found excellent. idea inculcated in the following poem is that When it is possible to put the patient, at the sociality at the table is a preventive, in part, of beginning of the chill, into a hot bath—as hot over-eating; also, that men, like the planets, as he can comfortably bear, and have active ought to live by rule, and that it is necessary to friction applied to the entire surface until the keep a guard on our passions. The style is skin is red and in a glow—the chill will gener­ quaint, but none the worse for that: ally be very much lighter, and probably not b?' % LOOK TO THY MOUTH. felt at all. Look to thy mouth, diseases enter there ; The hot stage should be treated by tepid ab­ Thou hast two sconces: if thy stomach call, lution, the wet-sheet pack, or, if the patient is Carve or discourse; do not a famine fear. strong, the cold effusion. Give only such cool­ Who carves, is kind to two ; who talks, to all. ing drinks as water, lemonade, the juice of fresh Look on food, think it dirt, then eat a bit; oranges or ripe grapes. Then say withal, “ Earth to earth I commit.” The intermission of the paroxysm should be Slight those who say amid their sickly healths, treated with quiet, rest and good nursing. “ Thou livest by rule.” Who does not so but The diet should be rather abstemious and man ? principally of mild acid fruits. Fresh, ripe grapes will themselves, if used in moderation, Houses are built by rule, and commonwealths. Entice the trusty sun, if that you can, often without other treatment, cure ague. It From his elliptic line; beckon the sky; is possible that other fruits might prove equally beneficial. All greasy food, or that which is Who lives by rule, then, keeps good company. hard to digest, or constipating to the bowels, or Who keeps no guard upon himself is slack, obstructing to the liver, should be scrupulously And rots to nothing at the next great thaw. avoided. Man is a shop of rules ; a well-trussed pack, We might in this connection speak of the use Whose every parcel underwrites a law. of the Turkish Bath as a means of curing ague, Love not thyself nor give thy humors sway, if it was more commonly adopted in our houses. God gave them to thee under lock and key. It will probably be found, when tested on a large scale, as it has already been proved in a Goiter in America.—Dr. J. Green, number of cases, to be the most complete and referring to our note on Goiter in the July Her­ perfect bath for this disease. This bath might ald, mentions several cases that came under be constructed in every house in the country, his observation which he thinks were caused by at small expense, for family use; and, when bad water. He says: rightly appreciated, we have no doubt it will be “ I then ascribed the complaint to the use of as necessary to every well-regulated house as a water extensively saturated with lime, as snow­ water was not drank there. It was frequently pantry or kitchen. In regard to the drug treatment of the ague, melted for washing purposes, as the water in the brooks was so saturated with lime that it could we only need say it is producing thousands of not be used to advantage. Or did any other chronic invalids'all over the West; the children cause exist that I could discover to produce that of whom, as we have hundreds of times had oc­ diseased action, as in Switzerland and Savoy, casion to observe, are feeble in constitution, where the absence of light may engender idiots, mind being dependent on light r I then consid­ dwarfed in stature, and likely to prove much ered it peculiar to that section of the country, less perfect men and women than they other­ and not at all prevalent in any other part of the wise would be. We are thoroughly satisfied country.” �T74 HERAL5R OEl HEALTH?! Muscular Christianity.—Nature, hav­ ing furnished every human being with two hands and one mouth, plainly teaches the lesson that we should work twice as much as we eat— that it is our bounden duty to earn our dinner before we eat it. No man is so rich that he can afford to be idle, because indolence is a violation of the physical laws, and one which is sure to be followed by severe punishment. The circu­ lation of the blood will not be changed to suit the convenience of the millionaire, and there is not wealth enough in all the world to purchase a new digestive apparatus for the diseased stomach. Sickness indicates a transgression of the laws of health, “and a foul stomach, as well as a wicked heart, is an abomination to the Lord.” We believe in the gospel of health. We have faith in muscular Christianity. We do not hesitate to ask our parish of readers to row, ride, jsail, walk, run, leap, swim, climb/ shout, sing, box, and perform feats of ground and lofty tumbling; even if by doing so they can banish the blues, aid digestion, sharpen ap­ petites, and promote health and longevity. Pull an oar on the river; take a turn in the gymnasium; leap into the saddle and shake up the juices of the body; spread a sail to the wind, and let the air fan you with its invisible wings. When you knock down the nine-pins they must remind you of the ills that flesh is heir to; the ball is a mere pill, which you take outwardly for the removal of disease. There is not a shadow of truth in the old notion that a pale face is the sign of piety, or that a long one is a guarantee of a good heart. It is no sin to be muscular, to have a broad chest, to wear a healthy countenance, to have a good appetite and good digestion, and to be able to sleep soundly. The slave who prayed with his feet found freedom, for which he returned thanks upon his knees. There is physical salvation in air and light and sunshine and exercise. There is religion in labor, and the devils wiH be cast out of the stomach and the blood of the inva­ lid if he follows the example of Christ, who went about doing good. A clear head, weH poised over a clean stomach; a warm heart, with a vig­ orous circulation; a stout arm, with a strong fist at the end of it, are certificates of obedience to law. Away with the idea that white lips, and weak eyes, and narrow chests, and feeble lungs, and aching backs, and dizzy brains and attenu­ ated limbs are favorable to the growth of piety. We are to love God with all our heart and soul and strength, and the more heart and soul and trength we have the more we can love God. When a man carries in his face a certificate of gluttony or drunkenness or lechery we read his character without an interpreter, and know that he tramples upon the laws of Nature. Let us beware—there are other methods of breaking the laws of our being. It is a sin to sleep in an unventilated room, when you have strength enough in your fist to break a pane of glass or knock a hole through the wall. The atmos­ phere is forty miles deep, and he who shuts it out from his lungs need not envy the donkey its redundancy of ear. It is a sin to cram the stomach with indigestible food, make it a nest for breeding sickness and disease. Instinct, which is the reason of brutes, teaches the cattle to do better than those human beings do who make their systems the receptacles of whatever can be pulverized or melted or torn to pieces, risking digestion, as a client does a bad case, in rhe court of chancery. Letter from Gerrit Smith.—We re­ cently asked Gerrit Smith to write us an ar­ ticle on the effects of bad habits, such as smok­ ing, chewing, drinking, night-sessions of Con­ gress and dissipation upon legislation. We did not get the article we desired, but we received the following epistle, which we share with our readers: “ Peterboro’, August 29, 1866. “Miller, Wood & Co.—Dear Sirs: I thank you for the July and August numbers of your very useful periodical, and for the honor you have done me in inviting me to write for it. I regret that I can not accept your invitation. My excuse for not accepting it is, that I am an old man (in my 70th year) and am hurried with labor. “ But you do not lack writers. Some of our very ablest writers are at your service. How sad that the pen of dear John Pierpont has fallen from his hand! I read with great pleas­ ure his article on Personal Habits 1 “ Please continue to send me your periodical. Inclosed are two dollars to pay for a year’s sub­ scription. “ Respectfully yours, “GERRIT SMITH.” Scientific Nonsense.—The scientific column of an exchange contains the following bit of scientific nonsense: “ Production of Quinine in the Body.—It has recently been ascertained beyond a doubt that there exists in the bodies of man and ani­ mals a fluorescent substance nearly precisely identical with vegetable quinine. This newly discovered substance of the animal body is called animal quinoidine. The discover suggests that the injurious effects which sometimes follow the taking of a dose of quinine may arise from its doubling the quantity already in the system.” �HERALD OLIIIEALW Woman’s Dress.—The New York Tri­ bune, which is not afraid to speak favorably on any subject it thinks right, has the following on Woman’s Dress: “ The Quaker who wears a broad-brimmed hat, the Sister of Charity, with her white hood, have conscientious rights which fashionable men and women are bound to respect. The man who works in his shirt-sleeves on a warm day is to be excused on account of the weather. There is a cool plea for all the fashions of Saratoga and the breeziest watering-places; but the woman who intended to protect her modesty by wearing a dress not quite in fashion, shocked the fine nerves of a Metropolitan policeman, and would have done a very wrong thing had not Commis­ sioner Acton decided in fact that a woman has a right to dress as modestly as she can. No one doubts that the garb worn by Dr. Mary Walker is more modest and comfortable than the one in vogue, though not, perhaps, so handsome. But, if ladies, can not go to the sea-shore, can not fully enjoy a country ramble in vaction time, or ride on horseback, or go up into high places without suffering exposure and entanglement from a dress which can be worn safely only in the. house or on promenade, who should com­ plain if women rebel against the dressmaker, just as Nature itself protests against the dress ? ‘ Norah Creina’s gown’ might have been very poetical; but, as we infer from the] poet’s lan­ guage, it was a very bad one for mountain breezes. It is almost idle to talk of hygiene, and dumb-bells, and gymnasia for girls, when woman herself has so little liberty for out-door exercise, enjoyment and travel. “In short, we respect the present Woman’s Dress Reform as a protest from the modest. So long as the prevailing fashion is condemned by every lady physician who has worn it, what shall men say ? We observe, too, that the strong-minded are not the greatest sufferers by it—it is the signal and shroud of the weakness of the weakest. How does it suit the daily task and slender purse of a woman who must work like a man for less wages, and pass through crowds of man loungers on her way home ? Why should not these things be said and dis­ cussed ? It seems to us that the future is not far off, when, if the plea of toiling and sorrow­ ing woman be heard, new opportunities must be given her ; and, accordingly, she must dress herself for more earnest tasks, and, for her own sake and man’s, bear him more constant com­ pany.” 175 scrape the skin off and then roast them. Tn se­ lecting potatoes, remember the smaller the eye the better the potato. By' cutting a piece' from the thickest end, you can tell whether they are sound. They must be either white or pink, according to the kind. Always select beans without spots. Mushrooms should be selected with great care. It is better and safer never to use them when they are old; this can be told by the blackness of the comb underneath, before picking; when young it is of a pink color.” In regard to the use of vegetables he has the following, together with a savage hit at Vegeta­ rianism : “ Although I am strongly in favor of much vegetable food in th.6 spring and summer, I am by no means an apostle of the Vegetarian creed —Graham bread and like eccentricities. I pity persons of that persuasion, but have no wish to imitate them in spite of the proverb: “ ‘ First learn to pity, then embrace.’ “ The mind has its diseases as well as the body, and I think Vegetarianism is one of them.” We presume Vegetarians will not object to allow Prof. Blot to have his fling at them, al­ though it is founded in ignorance. There are many arguments in favor of an almost or quite exclusive vegetable diet as the best food for man, which it is more easy to get over by such asser­ tions than by argument. Letter erom an Old Man.—We have in out drawer several letters from men nearly one hundred years old waiting for publication. We give in this number the following from Aus­ tin Johnson of Rupert, Vt.: “ Publishers of the Herald oe Health— You, in your last, speak of my communicating what I might have that was interesting. In this, there perhaps was reference to my bodily state and habits. As to that, I have only to say I have been a good deal infirm through life ; yet it has providentially been so ordered that I have taken but little drug medicine to poison the system. I never used alcoholic beverages habitually, and have long since discontinued their use entirely. Tobacco I have had no fel­ lowship with. Hot drinks were never much of an object, and for years have been rejected. Flesh food is but little used—pork never. But ter has been set aside. My bread is made of un­ bolted grain—the object is to subsist by means Cooking Vegetables.—Professor Blot of plain, wholesome food. Thus living, my speaks, in one of his articles on the art of dining, stay on earth is proti acted (I am now in my 80th year), and I think dieting has a connec­ on cooking vegetables as follows: “Dry vegetables, like beans, peas, etc., should tion with longevity. “ Yours truly, AUSTIN JOHNSON.” be put over the fire in cold, soft water, after having been soaked in lukewarm water—beans Skin Diseases.—Skin diseases have for twenty-four hours. Potatoes should be steamed but never boiled. Steam with the skin often enough been attributed to parasites. A on. Bear in mind that a potato must never be medical authority, however, more rationally de­ peeled; the part immediately under the skin clares they are caused by filth and bad habits, contains the most nutriment. Cut out the germs or eyes, if any; if young and tender the skin the parasites taking up their abode in the filthy can be taken off with a scrubbing-brush; if old, person as soon as the egg has been deposited. �176 HERALD OF HEALTH! “The observations by means of the mi­ croscope of Mr. Hogg afford proof that veg­ etable parasites do not, as hitherto supposed, produce disease of the skin, but that when cer­ [Written for The Herald of Health.] tain diseases already exist, germs of those float­ The “ Mild Hunger Cure” for ing about in the atmosphere, finding it a suitable soil, greatly aggravate or even change the type Cancer. of disease. These diseases have long been be­ lieved to be associated with neglect of person BY REV. H. N. STRONG. and bad air; but Mr. Erasmus Wilson, who has It was in the latter part of August, 1864, written several books upon skin diseases, states that in an unhealthy state of the body the re­ when Mrs. Strong and myself were making a newed epidermis is unhealthy. Therefore, the short excursion into Crawford County, that I cutaneous diseases are never caused by parasites.” noticed an uneasy sensation near my left ear and in close proximity to the point of the jaw. Effects of Alcohol.—If the effects of There seemed to be a slight swelling and a litalcohol could be confined solely to the person tle pimple. It increased in size as rapidly as a who uses it, its use might be tolerated ; but as boil, but soon had an appearance reminding one it is not, we can not wage too fierce a war against of an acorn, having a rim around it on the out­ it and tobacco, its elder brother. Both, when side,KhenBa depression, and a rising again in used, are enemies to the race, and their effects the middle. I kept on it most of the time a are visited too often upon the children of those salve prepared by Mrs. L*****, who is known who use them. Dr. Jolly rightly pictures it: to be a woman of medical skill and experience. “ In every country the statistics of the amount As far as any external application effected any of alcohol imbibed preciselScorrespond with the thing toward a cure, let that have the credit. number of judicial sentences recorded in law re­ I changed twice to other external applications, ports of the year, as well as with the number of poor, of beggars, of vagabonds, of divorced but can not say that I perceived any difference husbands and wives, of idiot children, of sui­ in the effect, but the application first spoken of cides, murders, and of epileptics and lunatics was most convenient, and I thought it bad a inscribed on State registers.” softening effect. It was also necessary to keep JtMc.overed. as it soon had an offensive smell Salt.—Our friend and Subscriber, S. when uncovered, and discharged matter, appa­ Howe, writes that he is 70 years old, and that rently, from different points in the ulcer. It he abandoned the use of salt thirty-five years was also necessary to keep a handkerchief or ago; that he enjoys life now as well as in his othe^ bandage un'der my chin and over my younger days; that there are few boys who can head, as the dischar ging matter would other­ go through more vigorous gymnastic exercises wise loosen the patch that was on the cheek. or dances than he. He concludes his letter with As the autumn months passed away it was nothe foHowing: ticed by several persons, and was spoken of as “ I am fully convinced that had I continued a cancer. Cancer doctors were recommended using stimulants and condiments with my diet, by some. I was told of some that effected a I should have been in my grave years ago.” sure cure for fifty dollars. I once showed it to Dr. Hyde of Lancaster, who is known to be an A Promise we Hope will be Keptajeducated and skillful surgeon and physician. “ Hancock School, Boston, Mass., ) He exclaimed, “That is a bad thing!” I re“ September 1866. J “ Dear Sir—On my return from a pleasant va­ plied : “ I suppose so, but not the worst thing cation among the mountains and valleys of New in the world.” He answered, “ I don’t know.” Hampshire on Saturday, I found among my A little after I was in Hazel Green, at the letters yours of August 11. You allude to. my notions on school punishment. I am a radical, house of Mr. York. Mr. York’s physician then and conduct a large school (having nearly twelve saw it and gave the same decision. Mr. York, hundred pupils) without the ferule or its equiv­ a druggist, furnished me with a vial of iodide of alent, or the common scold or its spirit in any form. In October or November I may find time potassa, which I was to take as an alterative to place my views on paper. If they would be preparatory to eradicating it, either by the knife of any service, I know of no better organ for or a caustic application. This was by Dr. their dissemination than your valuable journal. As Editor of The Massachusetts Teacher for Jenekes’s prescription. On my way home I called with Mr. John years, I have read The Hehald of Health, and think it one of the most sensible and useful Jenkyn, who read to me in the “Hydropathic magazines in the United States. You are doing Encyclopedia” (I think) concerning cancer. good, and may God bless you. What most arrested my attention was “The “ Very sincerely, W. E. SHELDON.” HJisrtllanms. �HERALD OF HEALTH. Hunger Cure.” A work of Dr. Lamb on “ pure jMffigand vegetable diet” in case of cancer was referred to. I read two other medical works on cancers. I took the alterative—I abstained from meat and butter, and tea and coffee. I sent for Dr. Lamb’s work and read it attentively, but must say the additions by the American Editor were the most satisfactory to me. In December I took the charge of a small school a few miles from home. In January the appearance of the cancer was worse than ever before. The lancinating pains were more se­ vere. I was advised to make no more delay. One says: “You had better sell your little property, if it is necessary, to raise the money. What,” says he, “ is fifty or sixty dollars in .the case of such a thing as a cancer.” But it was fixed in my mind that a cancer do^K* was, to say the least, about as much to be dreaded as a cancer itself. Now I thought I had a right to be my own doctor, and I reasoned thus: This ulcer is an enemy; Nature is a friend that is fighting the enemy. How shall I best aid Na­ ture in the contest ? The answer seemed plain: Only cut off the supplies which the enemy gets and notice the result. But, I am told, Nature calls for nourishing food, and enough of it; yet, in that case, the enemy appropriates so much as to gain strength and give increased trouble. I have taken the alterative; I have been abstemious, but the enemy gains strength. I wash it twice a day and keep on a salve, yet the prospect is gloomy as ever. One man in this place had died with a cancer near his ear. I now resolved I would adopt the “ hunger cure.” Accordingly, I had my wife bakercorn-bread for me; at first it was about one-fifth flour and fourfifths corn-meal. This was my food and cold water was my drink. I took rations for five days when I left home for my school, which was sometimes on Sunday evening and some­ times on Monday morning. As to the bread, it was once made entirely of corn-meal, but gen­ erally a small amount of flour was mixed with it. It was baked so as to make as much crust as convenient. I warmed it on the stove at the house where I stayed or at the school-house, as might happen, and so it was harder and harder as it became older. Fortunately, I have twenty­ eight pretty good teeth given me by Nature. The first week Nature seemed to say : I can ap­ propriate all of this, and the enemy can not get any. Every night and morning I washed the sore carefully with soft water and castile soap. I could not see it, but I had a feeling of encouragement, and when I reached home on Friday night one of my daughters soon came to wash 177 and dress it. She made an exclamation of sur­ prise and joy at its altered appearance, which was so much for the better. In short, by thus withholding supplies from the enemy, and taking no more than Nature could appropriate, possibly not near so much, and persevering about seven weeks, the cancer was all removed and a perfect cure effected. I used to go as often as I could to visit a friend who always furnished me mushand-milk for supper. At first I took less than half a pint of milk and but little mush. This I did not more than three or four times in the seven weeks. My wife also put up, two or three times, a little dried beef and two or three crack­ ers. This was not my choice, but I took what was provided. But the cora crust relished bet­ ter than any thing else. If I had been sup­ plied with good Graham crackers I should have been satisfied »|uMi knew that crackers or bread made of fine flour would not answer. My stomach and bowels appeared to be in good order; I was hungry all the time, and evidently became weaker. My school was not very labo­ rious, and I did new lose a day. “But,” says one, E why call it the ‘Mild Hunger Cure?’” Because I took so much good food and drank just as much Sold water as I wanted. Had I not been engaged as I was, and had determined on the “Strong Hunger Cure,” I might have taken two or three crackers, three times a day, and drank nothing for some hours after eating. As it was, I suppose I averaged about as much as four large crackers three times a day, and drank water from the spring whenever I felt like it, I am sure that in my case the “ Mild Hunger Cure” proved to be effective. It seems to me that I ought not to close this communication without mentioning the cost of cure, though there are those who would prefer one that cost a hundred dollars to a cure that required hunger and saved the money. The man with whom I lodged and boarded till I determined on the corn-bread rations, in con­ sequence of my course, threw off ten dollars from his bill. But, to be particular, I can not say that ten dollars was saved, for what I took from home cost something. It need not be es­ timated at more than five cents a day. Twentyfive cents a week for seven weeks would be one dollar and seventy-five cents. The book (Dr. Lamb’s, above referred to) cost me .................... , $1 50 'Cost of the seven weeks,.................... 1 75 Total amount,................................. $3 25 Which, deducted from the ten dollars thrown off from my board-bill, leaves six dollars and �HERALD OF HEALTH.. 178 seventy-five cents actually gained by the “ Mild Hunger Cure,” not to speak of the fifty dollars’ fee to a cancer doctor saved by being my own physician, I was at the time in my sixtieth year. Lancaster, Wis., July 25, 1866. ["Written for The Herald of Health.] A Prevailing Malady. BY F. G. meet pale faces and sunken eyes con­ stantly. This shows an error. The error is in the abuse of the common diet of life ; not al­ ways, but generally. Too much food is the great evil of the day, because it is so very com­ mon and has its allurements—we gratify and eat too much. This is the main cause of the pale faces and haggard countenances we meet. The remedy is simple: Eat less. And yet who does it ? Few, because it requires moral cour­ age, just the thing which is affected, which is part of the pale face and sunken eye. The dys­ peptic is diseased mentally, morally and physcally. Of all beings the most miserable is the confirmed dyspeptic. His mind is disturbed, his moral feeling is blunted and disordered, and his body suffers. For what is he fit? He is fit for nothing, not even for “ stratagem and spoils.’ ’ He drones his time away—years, a score some­ times—and his whole life is a blank. If that were all, it would not be so bad ; but it is a most wretched, miserable blank, full of vapors, gloom and forebodings. The mind is the torment of the man, making appear real what is unreal, and exaggerating evil. The little good that the.man gets is also exaggerated, and this puts him all around in a false position. His judg4 ment is not reliable, though once so correct; his imagination plays tricks with him, deceiving him constantly by magnifying its doings. In a word, the man is morbid—mentally, morally and physically. It took him long to get into this state. He got into it by degrees, almost ere he was aware. Ah, the insinuating habit of alluring the system, which God had made right, but which man is wronging constantly ! This great evil is all brought about by littles—a lit­ tle excess which breaks the back of the camel. Here is the danger. And here is the remedy : Avoid the littles—the little excesses ; they seem to be always at the end of our meals. Then cut off that end—that cup of tea or coffee, that dessert or other dainty. This course would generally succeed. We must guard against the excesses; nobody calls them such. At the time they may give We rise only to a little uneasiness, a little headache or sluggishness of feeling. The brain acts less, as it always does when oppressed, overstrained; as it does through the sympathetic channels. After awhile these symptoms will cease, and the eyesight seems to be clouded momentarily; the man will soon be prepared to re-enact the same thing. By-and-by, in the course of his persist­ ence, there will be more uneasiness after his meal, greater headache and dullness. There will be other symptoms gradually stealing upon him. There will be slight pains here and there; beginning, perhaps, in his chest; felt between his shoulders and in his left side. He will gradually become nervous, lose flesh—though not always at first—his hearing is affected, there is a ringing and other unusual sounds, which sometimes greatly frighten him. Sometimes he even will get dizzy and almost fall. He is apt now to have bad sleep and worse dreams, so. that night becomes a dreaded time to him. So­ ciety begins to be distasteful to him; sometimes he seeks it as if to get rid of the evil that fol­ lows him. But he can not shake it off. It fol­ lows him because it is himself. These unpleas­ ant accompaniments increase; they increase both in intensity and in number. New symp­ toms are constantly evolved, new evils attack, until the individual is a walking load of evils. At last he becomes confirmed. And now it is as difficult to remove these evils as it was easy to get them, and it takes as long often to dp it. Why does it take so long ? It seems to be in the nature of the case, perfecting the work by slow process. But it is the long weakening, the constant sapping, that at last undermines, and establishes, as it were, a second nature. The difficulty in removing this evil is in the moral courage of the man; he has it not. Though he may resolve a thousand times, a thousand times he breaks his resolve, or rather it breaks itself. It is so difficult to resist, when you have nothing to resist with, no courage or a momentary thing, only seeming strong at the time (when the resolve takes place), but impo­ tent when the trial comes. So the drunkard, he has no strength of will left, and the dyspep­ tic is but a drunkard in another sense. What, then, is to be done ? for this is a great evil and must be met, if possible. The remedy is, put a watch and tie upon the man; he him­ self is not capable of doing it. Or you must leave him to himself, to the risk of becoming worse, and perhaps of dying, or, if he has self­ regard left, to be forced into reformation. He may prefer mending his ways to a worse evil— to dissolution, for death has sometimes horrible �HERALD OF HEALTH. jpctures for the stomach-ridden invalid. Medicines, the world has long since decided, are of no good in dyspepsia. They may aid in some respects, as time aids, but always at the expense of original power. Time and medicine will kill any man prematurely. The poor afflicted pa­ tient must, first of all, remove the cause. He may have been doctoring for years, piling evil upon evil, while the cause, “ like a worm i* the bud,” remained. This is a double abuse of poor nature. Throw aside this incubus, the whole of it; stop aggravating the wound it has made; lessen your food, which a false appetite urges you on to partake, and flatters you that all is right—it is the false “syren song” that accom­ panies all dyspeptics. Break off, then, what should never have been indulged in—the little excesses of the table. If you are a laboring man, more food will be re­ quired ; less if a man of sedentary habits, and especially of literary habits, which weaken the stomach additionally through sympathy. This is the absolute, indispensable condition of all cures. Without it, aggravation can only make the matter worse, and the patient continue as he has—a wretched, suffering man, the “ iron in his heart” wherever he goes. Resolutely, then, stop this excess. And this is enough. If any nature is left, any strength, it will develop; it will grow up as a plant long kept down—never so thrifty thereafter, but still having life and being—and infinitely better than the smothered, strangled thing with the weight upon it. We have spoken of dyspepsia as it is gener­ ally brought on, through the stomach and the food. “ Strong drink” will sometimes do this, excesses in venery, excesses of many kinds, if not of all, all tending to affect the stomach, the organ of tenderness. But whatever the excess which produced the evil, it must be stopped— the stomach must be favored. There are other things that aid, but the great thing is to remove the cause and keep it removed. This is the allimportant point, and it is sufficient. With it a cure can be effected; without it, it can not. Cheerfulness of society, it is said, is a good ad­ dition ; so is traveling in strange lands; so is exercise. But always make a clean bottom by removing the exciting cause. To do this, self must not be gratified, but mortified; it must be done, however unpalatable. Yet, how little it is done, as the million of sufferers testify. It is so hard to do, because there is a lack of power; not that the evil is so strong—it is we that are weak, we dyspeptics. Had the man the usual strength which he had in health he would easily floor his adversary. But this he lacks, andjffiis 179 is the evil;Jh.e can hardly cure himself. He does it, however; it is being done daily. Were it not, what would become of us as a nation ? of the world ? The evil frequently cures itself; it is perhaps hard to say in how many cases. This is fortunate, that it bears its own correc­ tion. But it is also unfortunate that it must be strained to such an extent—till the machine is almost ruined. Better begin in time, and save the wreck while its timbers are yet sound. The friends of these sufferers have a respon­ sibility. It becomes them to see that they are aided, forced, if need be—and it generally needs to be. Aid them, then; be a will to them in place of theirs, which is impotent. It will not do to leave a man unaided in his “ vapors he is not himself; he must be taken care of; he suffers more than you are aware of. Leave him not rudderless at the mercy of the winds.[Written for The Herald of Health.] How to Bathe. BY E. P. MILLER, M. ». Who does not know the great luxury of a good, a refreshing, inspiriting bath ? How light and joyous it makes one feel! I bless God every day for water, for the pure, soft, sparkling wa­ ter ! I love it everywhere! I love to see it fall­ ing from the clouds, dripping from the eaves, or showering from the green leaves; or, I love it as it comes bubbling from the crystal spring or rippling in the rivulet, dashing down the moun­ tain brook or rushing in the rapid river, foaming and gushing in the cataract, spreading out clear and glassy in the silver lake, or raising and fall­ ing in the majesty of the boundless and illimit­ able sea. It is an emblem of beauty, purity and virtue. It is abundant everywhere; more than threequarters of our entire, being is water. Life can be longer sustained without food than without water. It is necessary to our life, health and enjoyment now, and to our future and eternal happiness. “ Except ye be born of water and of the spirit, ye can not enter heaven.” Bathing may mean something more than simple sprink­ ling or pouring or immersion./ It may have been but a type of the grand use of water for the fu­ ture physical, mental and moral regeneration of the race. “ I say unto you the kingdom of heaven is within you.” Many of our sins have a physical origin, which a right application of water helps to wash away. “ Cleanliness is next to godliness.” Those persons who bathe and keep themselves cleanly in all their habits, are apt to be moral and virtuous. Thieves, liars, �180 HERALD OF HEALTHi pickpockets, drunkards and gluttons, seldom bathe. Health, cleanliness, temperance, good­ ness and virtue are associates. Disease, filth, gluttony, vice and crime seek the same haunts. That man is not a very good Christian who never takes a bath, and he who takes a daily bath is not a very great sinner. Being born of water is necessary to regenera­ tion, and regeneration necessary to salvation from sin. Bathing ought to constitute a pait of every Church creed in Christendom. Water is a great cleanser and purifier. It will remove the dirt and filth when applied externally, and carry away impurities when taken internally. The seven millions of little pores and the twenty-eight miles of little sewers that are con­ stantly carrying off the waste and useless mate­ rial of the body, will perform their tasks much more easily if plenty of water passes through them to wash away their accumulations. There are a great variety of ways of taking baths. There is a right way and a wrong way. A certain bath may be taken so as to do good, or it may be so taken as to do harm. The effect produced by any bath depends very much upon how the bath is administered. There is much harm done by injudicious bathing. Some per­ sons are soaking themselves in water all the time. They get an idea that bathing is good, and that the more they bathe the better. No person should take a bath without secur­ ing a comfortable reaction after it. If they feal cold, have chilly sensations or unpleasent feel­ ings, the probabilities are they have not derived much benefit from the bath. It may be neces­ sary for sick and feeble persons to be covered warm in bed, in order to produce the desired effect. There are very few people so feeble but that a bath of some form will be beneficial, if administered judiciously. All things considered, one of the mildest and best home baths is the SPONGE OR TOWEL BATH. This is a universal bath, and is within the reach of all. It can be given to those who are too feeble to take any other form of bath. A pint of water and a couple of towels or a sponge and one towel, will answer to give it, although it is better to use a gallon or more of water when it is convenient to do so. It is an excel­ lent bath for any one to take in the absence of other more thorough baths. It will cleanse the skin quite thoroughly and will equalize the cir­ culation, relieve local congestion, subdue fever and give a general feeling of freshness and com­ fort. It can be taken in the sleeping-room, in the parlor, library, or even in a closet, if no larger accommodations are to be had. For per­ sons who are able to stand and take their own baths, and like to use water quite freely, it is well to spread a rubber or oil cloth a yard square or more upon the floor, set your bucket of cool or cold water in the center, dip the sponge or towel in the water, and, when in readiness, squeeze the water from the towel or sponge, so that it will not drip too much, and begin by washing the face, head, neck and arms first, rub­ bing vigorously till the skin looks red; then wipe them dry with a dry towel; the chest, ab­ domen and back can be washed and wiped in the same manner; lastly, the lower extremities. If you rub vigorously with the wet towel or sponge and the same with the dry one, you will secure a fine reaction and will feel warm and refreshed. It should be given quickly and vigorously, and the clothing should be put on at once; then go out for a good sprightly walk or for some light gymnastic exercise. This bath can be given to very feeble persons while in bed by using a soft towel or sponge just moistened in tepid water, washing, drying, and covering each part of the body as you progress. In all forms of fevep, or in any disease where there is difficulty in moving the patient or in ad­ ministering more vigorous baths, this is the saf­ est and fflS bath to use. In a fever where there is much heat of skin, it may be given every hour or two, and if properly applied will always be beneficial. Thoughts fob Young Men.—Costly ap-, paratus and splendid cabinets have no magical power to make scholars. In all circumstances, as man is under God, the master of his own for­ tune, so he is the former of his own mind. The Creator has so constituted the human intellect, that it can grow only by its own action, and by its own action it roost certainly and necessarily grows. Every man must, therefore, in an im­ portant sense, educate himself. His books and teachers are but helps; the work is his., A man is not educated until he has the ability to sum­ mon, in case of emergency, all his mental power in vigorous exercise to effect his proposed object. It is not the man who has seen the most, or has read most, who can do this ; such a one is in dan­ ger of being borne down, like a beast of burden, by an over-loaded mass of other men’s thoughts. Nor is it the man that can boast merely of native vigor and capacity. The greatest of all the wariors that went to the siege of Troy, had not the pre-eminence because nature had given him strength and he carried the largest bow, but because self-discipline taught him how to bend it. I �HERALD OF HEALTH; Mute ®reahntiif uf Jisrase. BY E. P. MILLER, M. D. KF" Tn this department we shall give, from, month to month, plain, practical directions for the home-treatment of various diseases. Bilious Colic.—This disease prevails most in malarious districts in the summer and autumn months. It is generally preceded by loss of ap­ petite, by bad taste in the mouth, by furred tongue, by nausea, by constipation of the bow­ els, and by other evidences of derangement of the digestive organs. There is often tenderness in the region of the liver; and, after the dis­ ease is well established, there will be a yellow­ ish color of the skin and of the white of the eye. It sometimes commences with a chill, and is attended with more or less fever. The par­ oxysms of pain are referable to the epigastric region,- are very severe, and are usually accom­ panied by vomiting—first of the contents of the stomach, then of mucus and bile. The bow­ els, though generally constipated, sometimes discharge their contents freely, accompanied with a liberal admixture of bilious matter. The jaundice, associated with pain in the region of the liver, and nausea and vomiting, are the characteristic symptoms of this disorder. De­ rangement of the digestive functions and ob­ struction to the action of the liver are the causes of this variety of bilious colic. There is one form of bilious colic that is due to the passage of the gall-stones through the cystic or common duct, along which the gall passes on its course from the gall-bladder to the intestines. The passage of gall-stones (or bil­ iary calculi, as they are sometimes called) of large size, occasions the most aggravating cases of bilious colic. The severity of the attack de­ pends upon the size and irregularity of shape of the gall-stones. These gall-stones are usually formed in the gall-bladder, though sometimes, they originate in the hepatic duct, or even in the cells of the body of the liver They are formed from cholestrine, a substance which enters into the composition of the bile, and which, in a healthy condition of that excreta, is in a state of solution. ' In certain morbid conditions of the bile this substance is released from its solvent state, and readily crystalizes into masses of va­ rious sizes which soon become as hard as stone. These calculi vary in size, from a millet seed to that of a large walnut', and are generally quite irregular in shape. The duct through which they pass from the gall-bladder to the intestines 181 is not larger than a goose-quill; the reader may well imagine the pain and agony a person has to endure when calculi of large size and of ir­ regular shape are forced through so small a tube. I think I have seen as intense suffering from the passage of large calculi as from almost any other cause. They are often found in large numbers. Dr. Watson of Edinburgh reports one case in which thirteen hundred gall-stones were taken from the gall-bladder of a man after death had occurred. I have in my possession five, which I obtained from a post-mortem examination, which are the size of large cherries, flattened to a threesided figure, and which completely filled the gall-bladder from which they were taken. Persons who have once passed gall-stones are quite liable to repeat the process. In some cases several will pass in the same day; in other cases weeks, months or even years will intervene be­ tween the attacks. When one of large size has passed, it is liable to so dilate the duct that, if there are others remaining behind, they follow in the wake of the first one till they are all out. If the patient passes a single round, smooth stone, it is an indication that there are no more left behind; but if mey are flattened and irregulJBt is an evidence that they were made so by being in contact with others. These gall­ stones, when they are forced through the duct, go into the intestines and are passed out with the feces, where they can be found by a careful examination. Sometimes a calculus of large size becomes im­ pacted in the duct, and remains there till in­ flammation is set up, ulceration takes place, and a fistulous, artificial passage is formed for its exodus. This fistulous passage may be formed through,‘into the intestines, or into the cavity of the abdomen, or out through the abdominal walls, discharging them externally through the abdomen. After the false passage has formed and the gall stones worked out through them, either into the intestines or externally through the walls of the abdomen, the inflammation may subside, the parts heal and the patient get well; but if it works through into the cavity of the abdomen it causes a peritonitis that generally proves fatal. Happily, such cases are seldom seen, for in the great majority of cases they pass through the natural course of the duct and pass out of the intestines. The paroxysms of pain in this disease gener­ ally commence suddenly, and end as suddenly, as it began. It may last only for a few min­ utes, or it may continue for several hours. There is usually some tenderness on pressure �182? HERALD OF HEALTH. over the seat of pain, but generally firm pres­ resort to opiates or something that will produce sure affords some relief, and the patient often entire insensibility to pain, and even these often places the palm of the hand over the place, or fail to relieve till they are given in quantities leans the body against some hard substance to that endanger life. The pain can be greatly find ease. There is no fever; the pulse is not mitigated, however, by the full hot bath, say quickened, but is irritable ? the skin is cold and one hundred and five or one hundred and ten generally tinged with yellow; there will be degrees, prolonged for several minutes, or by the nausea and vomiting,- with obstinate constipa­ hot hip-bath or by fomentations. These appli­ tion, together with a dark-colored urine which cations not only mitigate the pain, but they re­ contains bile. lax the tissues, so that the calculi pass more The passage of these gall-stones through the readily through the duct. In all cases of this duct is mainly due to the pressure of bile, which kind the bowels should be relieved of their con­ accumulates behind them in the gall-bladder, tents by injections, and, if there is much nausea, forcing them along. When considerable time is an emetic of warm water given. After the pain required for the passage the bile can not pass out, is relieved the tepid compress should be kept and is retained in the blood and carried the applied to the part for several days, and a daily rounds of the circulation, giving a jaundiced pack given in the forenoon, with a hip-bath at hue to the skin and eyes. eighty degrees for ten or fifteen minutes in the Treatment.—In a case of bilious colic un­ evening. connected with gall-stones, we should first try After being cured the patient should try to to move the bowels by copious enemas, and if live in such a manner as to avoid the formation there is nausea give a warm-water emetic to of gall-stor^M I have had several patients Who free the stomach of its contents also; then ap­ were subject to repeated spasms from gall-stones, ply hot fomentations to the liver and stomach who subsequently escaped for years by adopting for an hour or more to relieve the pain. Fol­ the Hygienic style of living. low this by a full tepid bath or rubbing-sheet. Injurious Effects of Sugar.—Mr. A hip-bath at one hundred and five or one hun­ dred and ten degrees, with a foot-bath of the Tanner, Professor of Rural Economy in Queen’s same temperature, for twenty or thirty minutes, College, is inclined to believe that by the use of accompanied with vigorous friction of the hips, sugar as food any animal can be rendered incom­ back and abdomen, will do good, and answer in petent to propagate its species. He observes that place of the fomentations when the bath is not stock which had been fattened upon molasses convenient. The fomentations and hot hip­ mixed with dry food were rendered barren, and baths will generally relieve the pain very soon. that heifers fed in that way escaped the periodi­ In some cases, however, the cold compress or cal excitement of the breeding season; and it cool hip-bath may be used to advantage instead was doubtful whether the power of reproduction of hot appliances. The tepid compress should was ever regained. The effect of eating sugar, be applied for some time after the fomentations in females, was a fatty augmentation of the and baths have been used. After the pain is ovaries, from which recovery might be rather relieved the vapor bath, the Turkish bath or the difficult. wet-sheet pack should be given daily (if the pa­ Cause of the Blue Colob of the Sky. tient be not too feeble) for several days, till the secretions become healthy and the bile is re­ Tyndall has shown, by a remarkable series of moved from the blood. These applications experiments, not only that aqueous vapor ab­ should be followed by either a thorough towel­ sorbs the obscure heat rays of solar radiation, bath, a rubbing wet-sheet, or, what is perhaps but that the oxygen and nitrogen gases which better, a pail-douche or full bath. The feet constitute the great mass of our atmosphere ex­ must be kept warm by foot-baths or hot bottles ert but little or no action on them. Cooke, after applied to them. a long continued examination of the solar spec­ No food should be given till the paroxysms trum, concludes that a very large number of of pain subside, and after that only the blandest the fainter dark lines of the spectrum, hitherto kind of food should be given for a few days. known as air-lines, are due solely to the aque-' The treatment should be followed up assidu­ ous vapors of our air. The distribution of these ously till the pain is relieved. aqueous lines, and the variation in them, marked During the passage of gall-stones it is gener­ by a remarkable increase, with the increase of ally impossible to entirely relieve the pain till aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, point to the the stone has passed out of the duct, unless we cause of the blue color of the sky. �HERALlFOF HEALTH. to (fomspmiimifs. BY A. 1. WOOD, M. D. MfSF" The readers of The Herald are invited to ask such questions as will be of general interest for this depart­ ment, where they will be briefly but comprehensively an­ swered. How we Escaped a Pestilence.— “ It was generally thought, last spring, that, on account of the filthy condition of the city, New York would suffer from cholera during the summer as it never had suffered before ; but still it has escaped with a comparatively slight visitation. By what means has it thus escaped 9, pestilence ?” Cholera is a disease which is pre-eminently the offspring of filth. It feeds, so to speak, upon it, and when deprived of its aliment it disappears. When the Metropolitan Board of Health com­ menced its labors the city was ripe for pestilence. The streets were in a most filthy condition, the inmates of the crowded tenement houses and underground habitations were wallowing in their own filth, and breathing the fetid emanations from their own excretions, and the slaughter­ houses, fat-boiling establishments, and other nui­ sances were sending forth streams of disease­ engendering gasses to poison the surrounding atmosphere. In the face of every obstacle that could be thrown in its way, the Board has la­ bored energetically and faithfully to cleanse and disinfect the city, and to remove all nuisances. It has only partially succeeded, it is true, but its partial success has prevented the cholera from becoming a pestilence and destroying thousands instead of hundreds. The success which has attended the efforts of the Board in preventing the further spread of the cholera shows the effects of hygienic conditions in preventing disease. The labors of the Board have but just commenced. Cholera is not the only nor, indeed, the most fatal disease which the Board of Health possesses the power to “stamp out” by the enforcement of hygienic regulations. During the months of July and August there were 871 deaths from cholera, and 2303 deaths from other diarrheal diseases alone, to say noth­ ing of the large number of deaths from fevers, and other easily preventible diseases. People are beginning to learn that disease is not a “merciful dispensation of Providence,” but a penalty inflicted for the violation of the laws of health. Flatulence.—Flatulence is merely a symp­ tom of indigestion. To effect a cure, the digestive organs most be strengthened and the digestive powers perfected. 183 Cold. Feet.—“What do cold feet indi­ cate? what is the cause, and what the remedy ? What is the best method of warming them upon retiring at night ?” Cold feet indicate an unbalanced state of the circulation and more or less congestion of the head or some of the internal organs. Coldness of the extremities may be caused by any thing that tends to depress the powers of life, or derang e the circulation. The remedy is to remove the cause, whatever it may be, and restore the health. The feet should always be made warm, in some way, before retiring to rest. If the person is able to do so, the best way to warm them is by exercise. I will mention a few of the best exercises for this purpose which can be practiced singly or in succession until the feet glow with warmth. Walking in various ways, as with the toes turned in as far as possible; walking with them turned far out; walking on the tips of the toes; hopping on one foot and then on the other, then alter­ nately, and then on both together; hopping and crossing the feet; stamping the feet; standing on one foot and kicking forcibly downward and forward with the other; swinging the legs for­ ward and backward and in a circle; sit in a chair or on a sofa, and slowly but forcibly bend the ankle, drawing the toes far up and then slowly extending them downward as far as pos­ sible; twist the feet alternately outward and inward in the same manner; rotate the feet, making a large circle with the toes. There are but few who will be unable to thoroughly warm their feet in from five to fifteen minutes by prac­ ticing the above exercises. The continued practice of such exercises will do much toward permanently equalizing the circulation and re­ storing health. For the few who are not strong enough to warm their feet by exercise, the best thing is to soak the feet in hot water until they are red, then turn a little cold water over them or dip them in cold water, after which wipe dry and rub briskly with the hands or a dry, coarse towel. j Breathing through the Mouth.— “ In the culture of the lungs, should we n,ot breathe through the mouth, making the aper­ ture very small ? I admit that generally we should breathe through the nose, but the nasal chambers are so large, that we can not fill the lungs perfectly through the nose. I think that in a complete inflation of the lungs we should breathe through the mouth, as we can breathe so much slower. ” Any person, with a little practice, can breathe as slow through the nose as through the mouth, but no one should occupy more than from five to ten seconds in inhaling. They can expand �184 heralit OF HEALTH. £he lungs to as great an extent in that time as they can if they are from one to two min­ utes in doing it, and if a person only breathes once in two or three minutes, as some do not while practicing, the lungs can not receive a sufc ient quantity of air to purify the blood, and the individual must suffer. In striving to cultivate the lungs by breathing exercises, endeavor to fill them to their utmost capacity, but do not try to see how long you can be in doing it,or how long you can hold your breath. Remember that you must breathe while cultivating the lungs, as well as at other times. Dyspepsia and Cook Books.—A subscriber, while ordering “The New Hygienic Cook Book,” states that he is troubled with dyspepsia, and wishes to know if there is any other cook book wherein he can find a good rec­ ipe for his case. There are plenty of cook books in which “ subscriber” can find recipes for dyspepsia, as, for instance, the following rec­ ipe for “ Imperial Cake,” which is but a fair sample: “ Two pounds flour, two pounds sugar, two pounds butter, two pounds raisins, stoned and chopped, one pound blanched almonds, one half pound citron, sixteen eggs, four wine-glasses wine, mace.” If the eating of food prepared from such rec­ ipes as the above will not give a man the dyspepsia, he might as well give up all hopes of ever having it. A fashionable cook book is just the place to find recipes for producing dys­ pepsia but not for curing it. Difficult Breathing arid Gaping.— “I am troubled about breathing, and have a strong desire to gape, but can not always make out. What is the cause and cure ? ” Gaping is an instinctive effort to secure the introduction of a greater amount of air to the lungs. It is generally caused by a want of sufficient physical exercise. The curative measures consist of occupation, fresh air and ex­ ercise. For information about breathing, see article in September Herald of Health, enti­ tled “ Culture of the Lungs.” Man’s Best Drink.—“What constitutes man’s best and most natural drink under all circumstances and conditions, and what rules should be observed in regard to its use ?” Water, pure and unmixed, is beyond all ques­ tion, the bsst and only natural drink of man, as it is the only drink of every other living being. It should be drank only when nature calls for it by the feeling of thirst, and then, slowly and temperately, until the thrist is quenched. Fol­ low the example of the animal creation, and do not stop eating to wash the food down with water. If man would live entirely upon fruits, which make the purest and best food, he would feel no thirst, and need no drink. The juices of the fruits would supply a sufficient quantity of water in its purest possible form. Morning Walks.—“Is a walk in the morning before breakfast good for persons in moderate health, or is some other time better ? What distance should they walk?” » About the middle of the forenoon is the best time for walking or exercise of any kind. The system is then in its best condition. A short walk or other moderate exercise before break­ fast is beneficial, but it is not the best time for severe exertion... The distance which persons in moderate health should walk depends upon their strength, endurance and other bodily con­ ditions. It should never be continued so as to produce pain, soreness of the muscles, or fatigue from which the system can not fully recover by an hour’s rest. Nervous Headache.—“What is the oim®Sjv(#fc headache, and the remedy.” One of the principal causes, is the use of tea, coffee, spirituous liquors and tobacco. Undue mental exertion, loss of sleep, constipa­ tion of the bowels, torpidity of the liver, skin, etc., are also prominent among the causes of this disease. The remedy consists in removing the cause, whatever it may be. If habituated to the use of tea, coffee, alcohol or tobacco, quit them at once. Avoid much mental exertion, take an abundance of out-door exercise, bathe frequently but not in very cold water, eat temperately of plain, healthful food, avoiding spices, condi­ ments, rich cake, pastry, etc., and obey all the laws of health. Weak Dungs.—“What is the best work on the lungs ?” If by this question is meant the best work on the care, culture and treatment of weak or dis­ eased lungs, I should unhesitatingly recom­ mend “ Weak Lungs, and How to Make them Strong,” by Dr. Dio Lewis. Price, $2 00. It may be ordered from the office of The Herald of Health. Private Queries.—A number of com- ■ munications containing questions of a private character and of no interest except to the in­ quirer have been received. Only questions of general interest to the readers of The Herald will be answered in this department. Prescriptions for the home treatment of special cases of dis­ ease, etc., will be sent by letter on receipt of, $5 00. �HERALD OF HEALTH. anir (Mbhntitfs. THE ONLY ADMISSIBLE HYGIENIC SEASONINGS. The loudest wail on record—Jonah’s. ‘ Sabbath breakers—The waves at New­ port. ■ What perfume is most injurious to female beauty ? The essence of thyme (time). . A bachelor discovering his clothes full of holes, exclaimed, “ Mend I can’t.” They say that coal oil cures fevers. We think that it has been creating fevers. Board or Health—A farmer’s cup­ board. Why is the early grass like a pen­ knife ? Because the spring brings out the blades. Eating ground glass is sure death. It gives one a permanent pane in the stomach. Adam and Eve, after finding the apple,, discovered they were a pair. A Toast.—Woman: she requires no eulogy—she speaks for herself. What ailments are policemen most afflicted with ? With felons on their hands. The gayest smilers are often the sadest weepers. Affectionate times—When every thing is about as dear as it can be. When is a blow from a lady welcome ? When she strikes you agreeably. A bin has as much head as a great many authors, and a great deal more point. 11 This is the last rose of summer I” ex­ claimed a wag as he rose from his bed on the 31st of August. Why is the milkman like the whale that swallowed Jonah ? Because he took the “ profit” out of the water. ‘‘Ugh ! Him great man I Big Brave ! Take many scalps!” said an Indian, seeing a window full of wigs. It has been asked, when^rain falls, does it ever get up again ? Of course it does— in dew time. “We see,” said Swift in one of his most sarcastic moods, “what God thinks of riches by the people whom he gives them to.” Mankind should learn temperance from the moon—the fuller she gets the smaller her horns become. The age of a young lady is now expressed according to the present style of skirts, by saying, “eighteen springs have passed over hpr head.” 185 What is the difference between a spider and a duck. One has its feet perpetually on a web, and the other a web perpetually on its feet. A young lady, whose father is improv­ ing the family mansion, insists upon having a beau window put in for her benefit. A celebrated wit was asked why he did not marry a young lady to whom he was much attached. “I know not,” he replied, ex­ cept the great regard we have for each other.” What is the difference between ac­ cepted and rejected lovers ? The accepted kisses the misses, and the rejected misses the kisses. “How do you like Shakspeare ?” said a blue stocking young lady to an old river captain. “Don’t like her at all madam; she burns too much wood and carries too little freight. Prentice, in a wicked lunge at the very underpinning of society, says, u tilting hoops, enable the common people, to see a great deal more of good society than they ever saw before.” An honest Hibernian, trundling along a handcart cWaR1 all his valuables, was ac­ costed-Ous : “Well Patrick, you are moving again I see.” “Faith. I am,” he replied, “for the times are so hK&ymfe a dale cheaper hiring handcarts, than paying rints.” A fellow out West being asked whe­ ther the liquor he was drinking was a good article, replied: “Waal, I don’t know; I guess so. There EgMonly one queer thing about it: whenever I wipe my mouth, I burn a hole in my shirt.” A boy down East is accustomed to go out on a railroad track, and imitate the steam whistle so perfectly, as to decive the officer at the station. His last attempt proved eminently successful; the depot master came out and “switched him off.” An artist invited a gentleman to criti­ cise on a portrait he had painted of Mr. Smith, who was given to drink. Putting his hand toward it, the artist exclaimed, “Don’t touch it, it is not dry.” “Then,” said he, “it can not be like my friend Smith.” Drunk vs. Medical Profession.—A good story is in circulation of a certain doctor, who sometimes drank a good deal at dinner. He was summoned one evening to see a lady patient when he was more than “half seas over,’ and conscious that he w as so. On feeling her pulse, and finding himself unable to count its beats, he muttered, “ Drunk, by Jove.” Next morning, recollecting the circumstance, he was greatly vexed, and just as he was thinking what explanation he should offer to the lady, a letter was put into his hand. “She too well knew,” said the letter, “that he had discovered the un­ fortunate condition in which she was when be had visited her; and she entreated him to keep the matter a secret, in consideration of the inclosed”—a $100 bill. �186 HERALD OF HEALTH. There is an old proverb which declares that none can tell where the shoe pinches eave he who wears it. The maxim has a thousand applications. A husband who appears to have found his wife a good deal less an angel than he had imagined in the days of his courtship, lets out some domestic secrets, in the following graphic manner: “ I own that she has charming locks That on her shoulders fall; What would you say to see the box In which she keeps them all ? “ Her taper fingers, it is true, Are difficult to match ; I wish, my friend, you only knew, How terribly they scratch.” There is no sin we can be tempted to commit but we shall find a greater satisfaction in resisting than in committing.—Mason. New York Medical College for Women. —We earnestly believe in a medical education for women. The day is soon coming when all women will be required to have a thorough education in this direction, not so much, perhaps, with the view of curing the sick as to keep well themselves, keep their families well without dosing and drugging, and that they may rear their children in health and beauty. There is to-day no college that comes up to the needed requirements in this respect. The one mentioned above is one of the best, where much can be learned. We think_it is doing good, and though we do not * indorse its mode of practice, we commend it as worthy of patronage. Olivet College.—We have received a pam­ phlet containing the history of Olivet College, Michigan. It is from the pen of its President, Rev. N. J. Morrison, and gives a graphic account of the rise and progress of the College. Olivet is a town in which there is not a grog­ shop nor a gambling-den, and the moral, intellectual and social influences are such as parents and guardians desire for the youth under their care. Mr. Philo Parsons of De­ troit, a banker and a hearty friend of education, recently contributed $5000 to support this excellent institution of learning. penetrate society and spread through all its varied phases, as the sun fills the atmosphere with light. We ask the countenance and aid of all who have faith in the holy laws of life and the gospel of health. The sick and the infirm must be cured, and their lives be prolonged ; chil­ dren must be taught to observe the rules of physical health, so that they shall not build up a tottering and miserable existence’ on the foundation of dyspepsia and consumption. Darkness which may be felt must be dis­ placed by the light and beauty of truth. Physically speaking, society is badly in need of reconstruction. The constitution and the laws of health are trampled under foot. We shun the bath and goblet brimming with water as though we were afflicted with hydrophobia; we pour nostrums down our throats and aggravate the ills that flesh is heir to. Now, we have given you and yours the opinions of the most scholarly and scientific men in the world of-Hygiene in relation to these matters. In addi­ tion to the views of eminent surgeons and physicians, we have given the opinions of our best thinkers in the world of letters and reform. Henry Ward Beecher, Horace Greeley, Theodore Til­ ton, Prof. Rufus King Browne, William H. Burleigh, E. B. Perkins, Rev. O. B. Erothingham, Alfred B. Street, Moses Coit Tyler, P. T. Barnum, G. W. Bungay, Dts. Miller, Wood, Holbrook, Webster and others. We have still richer treats in reserve, and most cordially invite all who have faith in the laws of life and the gospel of good health to enjoy with us the refreshing viands spread for the entertainment of our friends, and to bring the hun­ dreds of their friends with them for another year. A great work is before us in the redemption of our race from sickness and premature death. Let us work earnestly in it while we can, and so hasten the day of perfect human health and happiness. Important and Liberal Oder.— The Publishers of The Herald of Health, with a view to extend the usefulness of their magazine, and at the same time give their patrons the opportunity to introduce it, at a comparatively low sum, to a large circle of read­ ers, have concluded to offer it, in Clubs of 50 or more, at One Dollar per year, provided the list is made up previous to the first of February, 1867. We wish it distinctly un­ derstood, however, that we will not for a smaller Club deviate from our regular rates. The names and money must be sent all at one time. Persons who request us to send The Herald for one dollar to smaller clubs will not be accommodated. This is a special offer, and those who do not meet its requirements will be credited according to regular rates. The Herald is richly worth two dollars a year to any family, but as there are thousands of families who are not acquainted with it, we make this offer as an inducement to those interested in the Health Movement to do a great deal of good at a very small expense of time and money. Det those who wish to profit by it make a move at once. Our Past and Future.—During the This Number.—This number will speak last four months we have exerted our utmost endeavors to increase the usefulness of The Herald of Health. We have added to the number of its pages, and filled them with original contributions from the pens of writers of national reputation. There is not another magazine on this continent that can show such a list of illustrious writers on matters pertaining to Physical Culture and the science of Health. We have the indorsement of many of the best scholars and thinkers in America, and we are grateful to them for their efforts to extend our circula­ tion. A great work is before us, and we strip to the task with faith in God and hope in man that the truth will for itself. The article by Mr. Tyler, giving a sketch of the life of Thomas Hughes, is in the author’s happy vein, and will be found exceedingly interesting. “Overwork and Underwork” discusses a subject of great interest, and can not fail to be read 'with profit. “ The Study of Phys­ iology,” by Dr. Browne; “A True Life,” by Horace ^recley; Beecher on “Patient Waiting;” Bungay on “ Some of Our Faults ;” “ A Homily for Ministers and Christians,” by Rev. Dr. John Marsh; Notes for the Month ; Poetry, Miscellany, Answers to Correspondents, Home Treatment of Disease, etc., are all very interesting! Mr. Tilton’s poem, entitled “ My Creed,” which appears �kWrald of on the first page, and Mr. Bungay’s “ October "Woods and ^Flowers,” can not fail to please. "We are giving our sub­ scribers more and better matter than we promised, and we thank them for the numerous commendations con­ stantly received. We ask their special attention to the subject of adding largely to our subscription list for the year 1867. By the circulation of no magazine can so much good be done in building up a nation of strong­ bodied and pure-minded men and women. Lectures and Lecturers.—The fol­ lowing gentlemen are familiar with the great question of Physical Culture, and we suggest to our friends in the Country that they form clubs and raise funds to secure, if possible, their lecture service: Horace Greeley, George "W. Bungay, Dr. M. L. Holbrook, Dr. A. L. Wood, Dr. E. P. Miller, F. B. Perkins, Dr. Snodgrass, Dr. Dio Lewis, Moses Coit Tyler, S. R. "Wells, Nelson Sizer. Applications for the services of these gentlemen may be sent to us (stamp inclosed for the payment of postage) and we will endeavor to secure an engagement from them. Persons applying will please name two, three or more of the gentlemen whom they would prefer, so that, if the first person of their choice cannot be obtained, the second or third may. Address Miller, Wood & Co., 15 LaightS Street, New York. Any lyceum or school near New York city, and convenient of access, which will give us a club of fifty subscribers for The Herald of Health, shall have a gratuitous lecture from some one of our lecturers. health. 187 Job Printing.—We are prepared to exe­ cute in neat, substantial styles, various kinds of Job Printing : such as Pamphlets, Circulars, Envelopes, Bill­ heads, Letter-heads, Cards, Labels, Small Handbills, etc., at the same rates as in all first-class New York printing establishments. Stereotype work done to order. Our friends in the country who wish neat and ac­ curate printing, can rely on first-class work, by sending plainly written and well-prepared manuscripts. For terms, send sample or copy of work, state quality of printing material to be used, and the number of copies wanted, in­ closing a prepaid envelope for a reply. [gtr* Advertisements of an appropriate character will be inserted at the following rates : Short advertisements, 25 cents per line ; thirteen lines, for three or more inser­ tions without change, 20 per cent, discount; one-half column, $12 ; one column, $22 ; one page, $40. All adver­ tisements must be received at this office by the 10th of the month preceding that on which they are to appear. Sexual Physiology.—Our new work on Sexual Physiology is already meeting with a rapid sale. Agents wishing to canvass for it should address us for par­ ticulars. The price of a single copy by mail is $2, which, considering the style of binding and the large number of engravings which illustrate the work, is very cheap. We are very sure that no person ordering a copy will ever find reason to regret it. Special Request.—Our friends will oblige us, and benefit others, by sending us the names and post-office address of all invalids with whom they are ac­ quainted ; also, all friends of Temperance, Health Reform and Physical Culture. Any one who will send us a list of 425 bona fide, names of such persons shall receive free by mail a copy of Prof. Wilson’s work of 75 pages on the “Turkish Bath.” Circulars.—Those of our subscribers who wish to aid us in extending the circulation of The Herald, should obtain our circular to exhibit to their friends. Ev­ ery invalid who will send a stamped envelope shall receive in it one of each of our circulars for The Herald, Books and Baths. Agents Wanted.—We want agents, local and traveling, to canvass for The Herald of Health and Sexual Physiology. Our agents are meeting with excellent success, and there is plenty of room for more. We want them everywhere througnout city and country. For spe­ cial terms to Agents address the Publishers. Herald for 1863, 1864 and 1865.— We have a few bound volumes of The Herald of Health for 1863, 1864 and 1865 on hand, which will be sent free by mail on reoeipt of $2 25. Epidemic Cholera.—See notice of the book on Epidemic Cholera, just published, in our ad­ vertising columns. Agents wanted in every city. Canada Subscribers will please send 12 cents extra to prepay postage. Quite a number of new subscribers have forgotten to do so. A Pleasant Resort. Persons visiting New York who desire to avoid the bus­ tle of hotels will find ample accommodations, with firstclass rooms and good Hygienic table, at No. 63 Columbia Street, Brooklyn Heights, New York, three minutes’ walk from Fulton Ferry, being nearer to the business center of New York than most of the best hotels in that city. Connected with this establishment is the TURKISH BATH, One of the greatest physical luxuries, nor is there any agent so powerful to renovate and restore the enfeebled or diseased system. For terms, etc., address oc-lt CHAS. H. SHEPARD, M. D. Wanted--At the Willow Park "WATER CURE, a good, healthy, intelligent girl to at­ tend to patients, with a view of becoming a physician, and eventually taking charge of the Female Medical Depart­ ment. Address Dr. J. H. HERO, Westboro’, Mass. Wanted-A Good Practical HOUSEKEEPER in a small family. Must be a good Cook and able to do general Housework. Address, with reference, terms, etc., Box 653, Pittsville, Schuylkill Co., Pa. oc-tf Wanted-At the Willow Park WATER CURE, A GOOD COOK, to whom a permanent situation will be given. Address Dr. J. H. TTF.RO, West­ boro’, Mass. oc-tf Notices to Lyceums. Mr. George W. Bungay, the Author, Editor and Lec­ turer, has a new lecture entitled “ WORK AND PLAY.” His address is 15 Laight Street, New York. sep-tf �188 HEffiALD OF HEALTH^ A NEW, ENTERTAINING, ARTISTIC AND SPLENDIDLY ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE FOR BOYS AND GIRLS. The Teacher’s Monitor and Parent’s Oracle, furnishing a Museum' of Instruction in Philosophy, Art, Science and Literature, to include Stories, Poems, History, Biography, Geography, Astronomy, Chemistry, Music, Games, PuzzIps, etc. etc., suited to the capacities of very Young America, without frivolity or exaggeration. Its contents, from the pens of the best authors, will be found to sparkle with interest, its illustrations to charm with beauty, and the whole to inspire with virtue and intelligence, and prove a “ well-spring of pleasure” in every household. Single copies, 15 cents; yearly, $1 50 ; each additional copy, $1, or five copies for $5. Young America and Demorest’s Monthly together, $4.. Address W. JENNINGS DEMOREST, 473 Broadway. A large and beautiful colored Steel Engraving given free with the first number, and both mailed free on receipt of the price. First number ready in September. Each single sub­ scriber at $1 50 will be entitled to a Microscope of highly magnifying powers, with glass cylinder, sent by mail, postage six cents. Or a package of Magic Photographs, postage two cents. KzTEditors copying the above and sending a marked copy will be entitled to Young America for one year. oc-tf Demorest’s Monthly Magazine. The Eadies’ Literary Conservator of Art, Novelty and Beauty, furnishing the Best Stories by the Best Authors, Best Poems, Best Engravings, Best Fashions, Best Miscellany, Best Paper, Best Printing, and the best in every thing calcu­ lated to make a Magazine entertaining, useful and beautiful; or as The New York Independent says, “Universally ac­ knowledged the model parlor Magazine of America.” Yearly, $3, with a valuable premium to each subscriber. Lib­ eral ter i s and splendid premiums for clubs. Single copies, 30 cents, post free. Address W. JENNINGS DEMOREST, No. 473 Broadway, New York. Specimen copies sent free on receipt of 10 cents. . oc-tf The Working Farmer FOR 1866-67—VOLUME NINETEENTH. This agricultural periodical, originally edited by Prof. James J. Mapes, deceased, has attained, in the hands of its present publishers, a circulation and influence second to no similar publication in the country. Through the liberal public patronage extended to, it, the publishers are enabled to keep down the price to ONE DOLLAR PER ANNUM IN ADVANCE, And will also send to new subscribers, who send in their names during the.months of October and November, the remaining Nos. of 1866 without extra charge. And to every subscriber who sends Two Dollars for two subscrip­ tions one year, or one subscription two years, A CONCORD OR ROGERS HYBRID GRAPE VINE, raised on the grounds of the Editor, and sold at retail for seventy-five cen's, will be sent as a premium. We also club with the principal magazines and papers at very low rates, and offer the best and highest premiums to club agents. Send for circulars and specimen numbers containing full Premium List, etc. Terms—One Dollar a year, in advance; 80 cents in clubs of ten or more ; single Nos., 12 cents. Specimen copies sent on application. Clubs may come from differ­ ent post-offices. Subscribers in Canada and British North America must remit 12 cents extra to prepay American postage. Address WM. L. ALLISON & CO., oc-tf______________ 58 Oortlandt Street, New York. New Hygienic Establishment. Having purchased a quiet corner house near Madison Square, in the immediate vicinity of the up-town hotels, will open it for the reception of invalids who desire to re­ gain their health, and for well persons who desire to keep well by rational measures. Believing implicitly in all the resources of Hygiene, I intend to make this establishment, in the fullest sense, a complete sanitarium. Applications for board, rooms and treatment should be addressed to oc-tf E. c. ANGELL, M. D., 51 Lexington Avenue, corner of 25th St., New York. The Willow Park Water Cure AND HYGIENIC INSTITUTE is at WESTBORO, Mass. Address (inclosing stamp), for new circular, OC-tf Dr. J. H. HERO. SEND FOR IT! The Celebrated Craig Micro­ scope combines instruction with amusement and lasts for ever. Best, simplest, cheapest and most powerful mi­ croscope in the world. Magnifies 10,000 times, or equal to other microscopes costing $20. Made on an entire new plan, requiring no focal adjustment, therefore it can bo readily used by every one—even by children, A beautiful gift to old or young. Adapted to the famfly circle as well as scientific use. Shows the adulterations m food, thou­ sands of animals in a single drop of water or vinegar, globules in milk, blood and other fluids, tubular, structure^ of hair, claws on .a fly’s foot, also the celebrated “trichina spiralis,” or pork worm, which is causing so many deaths among pork eaters, and in fact the objects which may be examined in this wonderful microscope are without num­ ber. All are invited to call and see its great magnifying power. Discount by the dozen to agents, schools and dealers. Priee $2.50. Packed in a neat box and sent pre­ paid to any address on receipt of $2.75. Money can be sent by mail at our risk. Address oc-tf GEORGE MEADE, Thompsonville, Wis. The Proprietor of Willow PARK WATER CURE would like to sell his Furniture to suitable parties, and arrange with them to board all his patients and attendants. This opens a good opportunity for a couple who would like to engage in the business of keeping a Hygienic Boarding-House. Will pay a fair price for board and pay monthly. We wish to be so situ­ ated as to devote our whole energies to the Medical De­ partment. Address oc-tf Dr. J. H. HERO, Westboro’, Mass. __ Binghamton Water Cure and HYGIENIC INSTITUTE, BINGHAMTON, BROOME COUNTY, NEW YORK. This establishment holds out rare inducements to patients who contemplate spending the autumn and winter at a Water cure. Send for cir­ cular, or address O. V. THAYER, M. D. oc-tf Granville Water Cure, Now in its fourteenth year. For particulars, send for cir­ cular to SOLOMON FREASE, M. D., Granville, Licking County, O. - -----tf �HERALD OF HEALTH. 189' Granite State Health Institute, HILL, N. H. The “ Granite State” has now become widely and fa­ vorably known as one of the best Hygienic establishments in the land. Through its great success in treating disease for the last fourteen years, the perfect homelike atmosphere that has ever pervaded the institution, the moderate terms upon which patients have been received, the care that has been taken to in sure their recovery, and to return to them the largest equivalent for the money they have expended, this institution has been built up into a large and flourishing establishment. It is not too much for us to say that pa­ tients from all parts of the country, from our large cities and from interior towns, have been enthusiastic in their praise and in recommending our institution to their friends. The following points have attracted attention : 1. Our accessibility: the cars stop within a Jew rods of our door. 2. Our location, amid pleasant and romantic surround­ ings. 3. The purity of the air and the excellence of the water. 4. The dietary: the variety, the exceeding simplicity of preparation, and yet the palatableness of the food. 5. The careful attention bestowed on patients and the specific directions given to insure their recovery. 6. The fact that almost all patients, with whatever dis­ ease they may be afflicted, who visit this establishment and are advised by the Physician to remain, are either en­ tirely cured or very greatly benefited. Vast numbers have been cured here in the past, and, the good providence of God permitting, we shall restore thousands more in the future. We believe that we have been especially ordained to and qualified for this work. lQJt is a labor we earnestly love ; and now, after an expe­ rience of fourteen years in the practical management of all kinds of sick persons, we feel ourselves qualified as never before to cheer up, encourage and comfort the in­ valid, and guide him onward in the same pathway of re­ covery. The Granite State has recently been fitted up and placed in the most perfect working order. It will be found a pleasant home for all invalids who are earnestly seeking restoration from dis.ease as their great primary purpose, and who wish to place themselves in the most perfect health conditions, and be subjected to the most health­ imparting discipline. We wish it distinctly understood that this institution is not a fashionable resort, but a home, and cure, for the in­ valid. We have had a large and very successful experience in treating the special diseases peculiar to the sexes, and pa­ tients of this class may be assured that they will receive the most skillful treatment. The fall and winter months are aS favorable for treat­ ment as the spring and summer, and many invalids will make more rapid progress in cold weather than in warm; nor is the treatment, when scientifically administered in comfortably heated apartments, any less agreeable in cold weather than in warm. We take Ministers of the Gospel, dependent on their salaries for support, at a reduced rate. The reader is referred to the April number of this Jour­ nal, where he may see what our patients say of us. GSF- No drug poisons are ever given in this establish­ ment. #*# The Hot-Air Bath, a modification of tljp Turkish, is used in some cases. We shall be glad to send circulars giving particular information concerning our establishment to all inquiring friends who will inclose stamp for postage. oc-tf W. T. VAIL, M. D., Hill, N. H. AN IMPORTANT HYGIENIC WORK! EPIDEMIC CHOLERA. We have just published an important work on Epidemic Cholera, embracing Hr. Webster’s Lectures on the His­ tory, Causes and Treatment of Cholera. It is the best work that has yet appeared on the subject from a Hygienic stand-point. PRICE, 25 CENTS. All who want to know the way to avoid this disease, or treat it by means of Hy­ gienic Treatment, should have a copy at once. Address MILLER, WOOD & CO., 15 Laight Street, New York. Dentistry. A FULL SET OF TEETH INSERTED FOR $8, $10 TO $15. Extracting without pain with pure Nitrous Oxide Gas, at 138 East Thirteenth Street, between Third and Fourth Avenues, New York. sep-3t DR. JEROME KIDDER’S GENUINE SIX-CURRENT Electro-Medical Apparatus Is proving highly efficacious in a large variety of Dyspep­ tic, Nervous and Chronic Disorders. Caution in regard to Tricks in Electricity. The so-called Nine-pound Magnetic Current Machine has a wire underneath the helix stand leading to the bat­ tery, and the current does not go through the helix, but gives, of course, the same magnetic power as is given by any simple battery-cup—that is, the cup with the metals and solution. The so-called direct and to-and-fro current machine is simply the trick of giving a new name to the old-fashioned shocking machine having two coils; all the old machines have these two coils. Some use the inner coil, taking the poles each side of the break of the spring and point; others do not. There has been put forward a trick of a'torpedo, spurious six-current machine, with one current taken over and over from the different metallic parts. There is but one genuine six-current machine. For further information in these matters address DR. JEROME KIDDER, 480 Broadway, New. York. Drs. Miller, Wood & Co., take pleasure in filling or­ ders for Dr. Kidder’s Machines. KF" These are not the crank machines. oc-tf Turkish Baths. ■ One of the Publishers of The Herald of Health, Dr. A. L. WOOD, who for the past two years has built and superintended Turkish Baths in Providence and New York, has been traveling in Europe during the past summer, for the purpose of examining the construction, modes of heat­ ing, and management of the numerous and extensive baths which are there becoming national institutions, and being convinced that the general introduction of Turkish Baths, as now modified and improved, will do more to improve the health of the American people, and lead them away from all forms of Intemperance and Druggery to a reliance upon the natural hygienic agencies than any other means now employed, we shall do all in our power to introduce them throughout the land. In accordance with this determina­ tion, Dr. Wood will respond to calls to lecture upon the subject, or to superintend the construction of the Bath after the most improved plans, in private houses, Hy­ dropathic establishments, Hospitals and public institu­ tions, or for the public in cities and towns in any part of the country. dec-tf Woman’s Dress ; Its Moral AND PHYSICAL RELATIONS. By Mrs. Mattie M. Jones, M. D.—This is the most interesting and instructive essay that has yet appeared. It gives plain and definite rules for making a physiological dress of exceed ing beauty, a chapter on the Gymnastic costume and how to make it, and a great variety of interesting matter. The whole is illustrated with numerous cuts done in the finest style, of different patterns of dress, with patterns for the instruc­ tion of those who wish a guide to work out the best re­ sults. It is printed in the best style, and sent by mail for 30 cents. Address MILLER, WOOD & Co., No 15 Laight Street, New York. RE-OPENED AND RE-FURNISHED. The Graefenberg Hygienic In­ stitute, near Utica, N. Y., is re-opened for Boarders and Patients by its original Founder and Proprietor. For particulars address R. HOLLAND, M. D., Graefenberg, N. Y. jy-tf Highland Water Cure. H. P. BURDICK," M. D., and ) Physicians Mrs. MARY BRYANT BURDICK, M.D., f iHTSlcIANS. Send for Circular. Address—Alfred, Alleghany Co., N.Y. aug-tf �190 HERALD OF HEALTH The Hygeian Home. A. SMITH, M. D., Proprietor. R. T. Trall, M. D., Consulting Physician, DR. JEROME KIDDER’S GENUINE SIX-CUERENT Electro-Medical Apparatus Has nearly double the magnetic power of any called magnetic. Patented in the United States, England and Erance. The best testimonials from Professors Mott, Silliman, Vonder, Weyde, and other scientific men. D. D Smith, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Wo­ men and Children, in the New York Homoeopathic Medi­ cal College, speaks of my apparatus as follows : “ I am satisfied you have reached a point and developed combinations that far exceed in a therapeutic aspect the discoveries and combinations of every other experi­ menter.” In regard to Bath Apparatus, Office Apparatus, Family Apparatus, and Pocket Apparatus for using remedial Elec­ tricity, KF* Address Dr. JEROME KIDDER, 480 Broadway, New York.______________ ;_________ sept-tf A. J. GARDNER, Merchant Tailor, 4=1*7 CANAL STREET, CORNER OF SULLIVAN aug-8t STREET, NEW YORK. Pathology of the Reproductive ORGANS. BY R. T. TRADE, M. D. The Introduction treats of Hygienic appliances; Bath­ ing, Food, Exercise, Light, Clothing, Sleep, Beds and Bed­ ding, Bodily Positions, Night Watching, Friction, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism, and cleanliness. Part Pirst treats of Venereal Diseases proper, their history, the venereal virus, modes of propagation, inoculation, syphilization, mercurialization, gonorrhoea, its seat, symp­ toms and treatment; Syphilis; location, stages, varieties, and diagnosis of chancres, treatment of syphilis, preven­ tion of venereal diseases, &c. Part Two, of Spermatorrhoe, or Seminal Weaknesses, its causes, symptoms, treatment, complications, and sequences ; drug-treatment, and cau­ terization. Part Third, of Female Diseases; mis-mm. struation, retained menstruations, suppressed menstrua­ tion, painful menstruation, chlorosis, leucorrhcea, inflam­ mations, and ulcerations, etc. etc. Part Four, of miscel­ laneous affections, including displacement, anteversion, retroversion, inversion and prolapsus ■ of the uterus; uterine tumors, cancers, dropsy, etc. etc. This is by far the best work that has appeared on the Lauses and Treatment of all forms of Sexual Diseases. Lt is printed on fine white paper with clear type, and con­ tains an excellent steel engraving of the author. Sent post paid by mail. Price, $2.00. Address, MILLER, WOOD ■& CO., _ _________ ___________ No. 15 Laight Street, New York. Hot Bottles. ■R,YE^anew1bta?lel aJery C0Ilvenient and useful form of Rubber Bottles lor holding hot water for warming the feet or applying a local fomentation to any part of the body. They are small, may be carried in a satchel, knapsack, or even tn the pocket. For feeble persons and those ravel­ ing from place to place they are invaluable. Price <R2 MILLER, WOOD & CO., No. 15 Laight Street, New York. The Hygeian Home is pleasantly situated on the Eastern slope of Cushion Mountain, one and a half miles from the Wernersville Station, on the Lebanon Valley Railroad, and is easy of access by railroad from all parts of the United States. The climate is mild and pleasant. The scenery is truly grand. Dr. Weeder says it surpasses any thing I have ever seen in Europe or America. Hon. Judge Jones says that language can not describe its gran­ deur. Hon. Judge Strong says the air and scenery are as fine as any in America. Hon. Judge Woodward* says, I cannot conceive of any thing more beautiful in scenery than that from your door. The walks are dry and clean. The mountain air is pure and bracing. The bathing facili­ ties can not be surpassed. The water is not onlv soft but absolutely pure, and the physicians, Dr. A. Smith, Mrs. Dr. C. Smith and Miss Dr. P. Draper, have had great ex­ perience and success in healing the sick. They pay especial attention to giving the Swedish Movements and Light Gymnastics. With all these natural advantages, the Hygeian Home stands pre-eminently superior as a Health Institution to any other similar establishment in America. Thus all who place themselves under our c re, may feel assured of all that professional skill and p'- onal kindnss can accomplish to aid them in the recovery of health. Terms moderate. Send for our Circular. Address all letters to A. SMITH, M. D., je-tf Wernersville, Berks County, Pa. Dr. S. B. SMITH’S Electro-Magnetic Machines. The only ones where a true unmixed, Direct Current, with strong intensity and strong magnetic power, is de­ veloped. Send for a Circular, wherein is shown that there is but one current in electricity, and but one important modification in that current. On the Direct Current­ poles I raise a nine-pound weight; other so-called Direct ' Currents raise but a “ ten-penny nailI” Price, with single cup battery, $18; double cup, $20. Address Dr. S. B. SMITH, 309 Broadway, New York. Orders also received for said Machines by Miller, Wood & Co., 15 Laight Street. jy-tf Philadelphia Hygienic Institute. Dr. Wilson’s establishment is now located at 1109 Gi­ rard Street, above Chestnut. This institution is very fa­ vorably located. The situation is central, pleasant and • healthy; the rooms spacious, elegant, and attractively furnished. Patients receive the personal attention of the doctor and his wife, and may rely on skillful, careful and attentive treatment. We use no drugs. Our table is lib­ erally supplied with a variety of well-cooked food. Per­ sons visiting the city on business or pleasure can be accom­ modated with rooms and board. Address R. WILSON, M. D., aug-tf 1109 Girard Street, Philadelphia. Ladies’ Suspenders. We are nowprepared to fill orders for Ladies’ Suspenders. Their objeat is to support the skirts over the shoulders, in­ stead of on the hips as heretofore, much to the detriment of women’s health. We are sure there are thousands ot women in America who will welcome them as an invention giving them great relief, and doing much to secure to them a healthy condition of the internal organs. Woman’s curse in America is weakness in the sides, back and chest. Se­ cure to her strength here, and you secure to her one of the greatest blessings she can enjoy. We recommend these skirt-supporters to the intelligent and cultivated women of this country as one of the most important inventions regarding woman’s dress of the present age. Price, $2 per pair, $18 per dozen. MILLER, WOOD & CO., _________________ No. 15 Laight Street, New York. Worcester Water and Move­ ment CURE, WORCESTER, Mass. Please send for Circular. aug-lt__________ ________ ISAAC TABOR, M. D. Manual of Light Gymnastics, Designed for Clubs, Evening Classes and private use. By W. L. Rathe. Price, prepaid by mail, 38 cents. Ad­ dress MILLER, W00D & Co., No. 15 Laight Street, � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Herald of Health and Journal of Physical Culture. Vol. 8, no. 4. October, 1866 Description An account of the resource New series Place of publication: New York Collation: [145]-190 p. ; 24 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Pencilled inscription on front page: M.D Conway, Warren Farm, Wimbledon. Printed in double columns. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Miller, Wood & Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5389 Subject The topic of the resource Health Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource [Unknown] Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <p class="western"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br />This work (The Herald of Health and Journal of Physical Culture. Vol. 8, no. 4. October, 1866), identified by <a href="www.conwayhall.org.uk">Humanist Library and Archives</a>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</p> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Health Hygiene Physical Education https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/0d0fafdb1b97920193fd9bdf3fe5e581.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=ULVkUvOz%7Ex3kCnmADvqJKCvcAnh3XAsEFqzwmCwYaOsTTUoM0hu%7EdhZ%7EDA-gcNcpErn0WOm7nginFnNWbE0Jx6bqvJLH0PzlcUKvmaxDd9KSYNEs3rurdzoJJS%7EPWNQ2xpRK1GD8tT1e6h6baFtzwmF9w0oH7Dx0kNTCrcPNP6yt3RwY7-6Ux7kONSk2wz5TZBLP2TQ9R4AG8XCLx45FAn8RSSjfZkcw7NAjFzpxvCIKeVircGIcZ1E9hSbF-TP1L9cfS4VQwus0isYRoztNRkW%7EVHqq2VP4FxDF7seP6E0-h0CmwWq7h5Gpfjn3s-YF7RDHW4fB9GBSb%7EnqnPWI8A__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 677999c7bc4db0cee188ab56e0094098 PDF Text Text REMARKS UPON THE EDUCATION OF DEAF MUTES: DEFENCE OF THE DOCTRINES OF THE SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF STATE CHARITIES, AND IN REPLY TO THE CHARGES OF THE REV. COLLINS STONE, Principal of the American Asylum at Hartford. BOSTON: WALKER, FULLER & CO., PUBLISHERS. 1866. �Wright & Potter, Prs., 4 Spring Lane, Boston. �On reading the last Report of the Principal of the American Asylum for Mutes, it seemed to me that I ought to criticize it publicly, first, in the hope of promoting the true interest of deaf mutes, by calling attention to the subject of their education; second, in order to defend my colleagues of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities from some discreditable imputations; third, to set forth the real doctrines contained in their Second Report; and lastly, to exculpate myself from certain charges of inconsistency, and insinuations of selfish purposes. I thought to do this in a newspaper article ; but my interest in the subject, or my inability to condense the matter, made it impossible. When the manuscript was finished, it was laid aside ; and the pur­ pose of publishing it half abandoned. A recent event has confirmed my first purpose; but leaves not the time to recast the article. This must explain the tardiness of its appearance, and its being written in the third person. SAMUEL G. HOWE. Boston, October 21st, 1866. ��REMARKS UPON THE * EDUCATION OE DEAF MUTES. The American Asylum, for the Education and Instruction of Deaf Mutes, at Hartford, is the oldest establishment of the kind in the United States, and the only one in New England. It has been of incalculable benefit to the deaf mutes of all the country. It enjoys, and it deserves public confi­ dence and esteem. It enjoys moreover the monop­ oly of educating the public beneficiaries of all the New England States; a monopoly of which it seems to be very tenacious. Its Annual Reports are widely circulated; and are considered as valuable and reliable. They are read and regarded as entirely sound by most persons interested in the education of deaf mutes. The Institution is strictly conservative. Its Directors are men of high character, pure motives, and eminent gravity. Its system of instruction, adopted fifty years ago, is still adhered to, with few changes; and all proposals to modify it are stoutly resisted. �6 If pressed, they are repelled with sensitiveness, and sometimes with asperity; as though they were considered impertinent interference; and yet any citizen of Massachusetts, at least, has a right to press thbm, because about half the pupils of the school are beneficiaries of this State. The late lamented Horace Mann, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, proposed a great modification of the system of instruction; and brought powerful arguments and stubborn facts to the support of his views. But he failed to effect any material change. The Asylum yielded a little for a time, under his vigorous attacks, but swung back to its old moorings; and, held fast by the anchor of conservatism, breasts the tide of progressive ideas which sweep by it. In France, Dr. Blanchet, connected with the Imperial Institution for Deaf Mutes, has long been advocating still greater changes in the system of educating these unfortunates. His views are inge­ nious and plausible, and have found considerable favor. The Minister of Public Instruction, in a very able Circular to the Prefects of all the Departments in France, recommended Dr. Blanchet’s plan to their favorable notice several years ago. Some Departments and Municipalities have voted money, and made arrangements for testing the practicability of the proposed plan. It has been �7 in operation in some parts of France and of Russia. It is radical in its nature., and points to a partial abandonment of central Institutions, and the instruction of mutes in their several towns. This plan seems to us impractical in its full extent; but it certainly has very valuable features, and deserves notice and trial. We shall watch the experiment in France with great interest, and we wish Dr. Blanchet all the success which his zeal and enterprise merit. Meantime, the Massachusetts Board of State Charities, part of whose duty it is to visit the Hartford school and look after the interests of the beneficiaries placed there by the State, suggested, in its Second Annual Report, some important changes in the system of instructing and educating our deaf mutes, which, if carried out, would result in their being educated at home instead of being sent to Connecticut. This seems to alarm the Hartford school; and the Principal devotes almost the whole of his last Report to what purports to be an answer to the suggestions of the Board. He seems fairly roused; but not so much to the importance of the principles in question, as of defending the practices of the Hartford school, and of preserving the patronage of Massachusetts. He has at least two qualifications, which, as Byron �8 says, always make a writer interesting, to wit, "wrath and partiality.” His zeal leads him, not only to overlook facts and reasonings, but, unconsciously perhaps, to be uncourteous to the Board, and disrespectful to the Chairman, upon whom he makes a personal attack. He seems to think that if he can convict him of inconsistency, and show that he is ignorant of the best manner of educating mutes, the matter will be put to rest. He therefore avoids discussion of principles, and his Beport is mainly an argumentum ad liominem. As such, it would not call for a public reply, because the public do not care whether the Principal or the Chairman of the Board is right in his theories. But our people do desire to have our deaf mutes educated in the best manner; though do not often have the means of knowing much about it. The present, therefore, seems to be a good opportunity of drawing their attention to it; and, as most of them are rather attracted than repelled by the smack of a controversy, we shall yield to the temptation, and without following the example of the Principal, in regard to personalities, we shall assail his positions, and refute his state­ ments, so far as propriety and respect for an opponent will permit. Out of such a discussion, conducted with the desire to elicit truth, ought to come, not any scandal to the cause of public charity, but on the contrary, an advance of its best interests. �9 It will be necessary, however, first to consider some general principles which are apt to be forgot­ ten in the organization of Institutions, and of methods for educating deaf mutes, and similar classes of defectives. We can at the same time show the grounds upon which the Massachusetts Board of State Charities placed its suggestions for a change in our present system, and which called forth the displeasure of the Principal. The multitude of unfortunates into whose condi­ tion the Board was to inquire, and over which the law gives it general supervision, was divided into the Dependent class, the Destructive class, and the Criminal class. The first comprised destitute orphans; abandoned children; vagrant and vicious children, and youth; the blind, the deaf and dumb; the insane, the idiots, the confirmed drunkards, State paupers, and the like; making nearly twenty thousand persons in Massachusetts alone. The general principles to be followed in the care and direction of these unfortunates were thus set forth:— 1st. “ That it is better to separate and diffuse the dependent classes than to congregate them. 2d. “ That we ought to avail ourselves as much as possi­ ble of those remedial agencies which exist in society,—the family, social influences, industrial occupations, and the like. �10 3d. “ That we should enlist not only the greatest possible amount of popular sympathy, but the greatest number of individuals and of families, in the care and treatment of the dependent. 4th. “ That we should avail ourselves of responsible socie­ ties and organizations which aim to reform, support, or help any class of dependents, thus lessening the direct agency of the State, and enlarging that of the people themselves. 5th. “ That we should build up public institutions only in the last resort. 6th. “ That these should be kept as small as is consistent with wise economy, and arranged so as to turn the strength and faculties of the inmates to the best account. 7th. “That we should not retain the inmates any longer than is manifestly for their good, irrespective of their usefulness in the institution.” The three last propositions seem sound, but they are unwelcome to those who are wedded to public institutions, and who believe in the doctrine of teaching, improving, or supporting children and adults in masses. The Board says:— “ Our people have rather a passion for institutions ; but they have also a vague idea that great piles of brick and mortar are essential to their existence and potency. They want to see them at once, and in the concrete. Hence, we sometimes have follies of the people as well as of indi­ viduals—many stories high, too—and so strongly built, and richly endowed, that they cannot be got rid of easily.” In support of their principle the Board said:— �11 “ The hideous evils growing out of the old system of keeping men in prisons, shut up without separation, and without occupation, are too well known to need mention here ; but it is not enough considered that the chief evils arose, not from the men being especially vicious or criminal, but from the fact of their _being congregated so closely together. “ Let us see how it affects the pauper class. “ Most of those belonging to the first division mentioned above, to wit, those in whom dependence is inherent, and, of course, permanent, are infirm mentally, morally, or physically, perhaps in-all these respects. Neither can those in the other class be in a normal and vigorous condition, else they would not be dependent. There exists in them, indeed, the innate disposition or capacity for recovering the normal state, but as yet it is in abeyance. Now, out of unsound and abnormal conditions there must, *of course, grow certain mental and moral tendencies, which, to say the least, are unwholesome. And it is a natural consequence, (though disregarded in practice,) that if an individual with these tendencies lives in close association with others like himself, all his peculiarities and tendencies are intensified by the intercourse. The greater the majority of unsound persons in his community, the greater the intensification of his abnormal tendencies. Each acts upon all; and the characteristics of class, or caste, are rapidly developed. Nothing is more contagious than evil.” This principle is further illustrated by reference to special classes as of the deaf mutes, and of the blind.— �12 “ The lack of an important sense not only prevents the entire and harmonious development of mind and character, but it tends to give morbid growth in certain directions, as a plant checked in its direct upward growth grows askew. It would be a waste of words to prove this, because a denial of it would be a denial of the importance of the great senses. “ The morbid tendencies, however, are not strong—cer­ tainly not irresistible—at least with the blind. They are educable, like all tendencies and dispositions, and by skilful management may be turned to advantage. Certainly, how­ ever, they ought to be lessened, not strengthened, by educa­ tion. Now, they are lessened, and them morbid effects corrected in each individual by intimate intercourse with persons of sound and normal condition—that is, by general society; while they are strengthened by associating closely and persistently with others having the like infirmity. “ Guidecbby this principle, we should, in providing for the instruction and training of these persons, have the associa­ tion among them as little as is possible, and counteract its tendencies by encouraging association and intimacy with common society. They should be kept together no more closely and no longer than is necessary for their special instruction; and there should be no attempts to build up permanent asylums for them, or to favor the establishment of communities composed wholly, or mainly, of persons subject to a common infirmity. “ Special educational influences, to counteract these special morbid tendencies, should begin with the beginning of life and continue to its end; and they should be more uniform and persistent with mutes than with blind. “ The constant object should be to fashion them into the likeness of common men by subjecting them to common �13 social influences, and to check the tendency to isolation and to intensification of the peculiarities which grow out of their infirmity. “ A consideration of the principles imperfectly set forth above, will show that when we gather mutes and blind into institutions for the purpose of instruction, we are in danger of sowing, with sound wheat, some tares that may bring forth evil fruit. The mere instruction may be excellent, but other parts of the education tend to isolate them from common social influences, and to intensify their peculiarities, and this is bad.” These rather novel doctrines have attracted atten­ tion among thoughtful persons. They have been praised by high authorities; pronounced too radical by others; and have been assailed by a few who fear that the importance and usefulness of long established institutions, to which they themselves are honestly wedded for life, may be impaired if such doctrines should be accepted. The Board, after carefully setting forth the prin­ ciples upon which all methods of treating special classes should be based, went on to apply them to the case of the deaf mutes of Massachusetts. The present method is to send these unfortunates, at the expense of the State, to Hartford, there to reside with many others of the same class, in a great asylum, and be kept closely together during the most impressible years of their lives, deprived almost entirely of family and social relations, except �14 with each other. They have not even the advantage of family relations with their teachers, who naturally show their preference for domestic life over asylum life, by dwelling in their own houses. This arrangement, however saving of labor, and sparing of money, violates the principle so strenu­ ously urged by the Board of Charities, that defective children should be associated together as little as is possible; and with ordinary persons as much as is possible. The Board suggested that instead of this plan, the deaf mutes of Massachusetts (who are quite numerous enough to form one school as large as a school ought to be,) should be educated at home, that is, within the State. The plan did not contem­ plate an asylum, but simply one or more schools, to which mutes could go for instruction, as other chil­ dren go to common schools; and during the rest of the time be subjected to the ordinary family and social influences,—not of a great deaf mute family, but of common life. The plan certainly had many important features. The method proposed was in accordance with the principles set forth by the Board, the soundness of which has not been disproved. It avoided, as much as is possible, the acknowledged evils of congregat­ ing persons of common infirmity closely together. It involved no great expense. It was in the nature of an experiment; and could be abandoned with �15 little loss, if it should fail. In fine, it seemed to present a happy mean between the old system of the Hartford school and the system urged by Blanchet, which begins to find so much favor in France and other European countries. It incorporated the admitted advantages, and avoided the acknowledged evils of each. But it also involved the loss to the Hartford asylum of almost one-half its pupils, who are maintained there by the State of Massachusetts. It is conceivable, therefore, that it should be opposed, both directly and indirectly. Accordingly, the Principal of the American Asylum at Hartford, opposes it in his way, which is the indirect way. He devotes almost the whole of. his last Report to this matter. First, he makes a false issue with the Report of the Board of Chari­ ties; second, he makes a personal attack upon the Chairman. He raises a false issue, by devoting a large part of his Report to the subject of teaching mutes articulation, as if that had been urged by the Board. He sets forth forcibly and fully the advantages of the French method of instruction used with some modifications at Hartford, and the disadvantages of the German method used in the German, and many other European schools. If there was room to go into the matter here, it could be shown, that, with the exception of a single sentence, which should be qualified, all that is urged �16 in the Report of the Board of Charities in favor of articulation, is sound, and cannot be gainsaid. "We quote from pp. 51-55 of their Report:— “ The inherent differences between children who are blind or mute and ordinary children, are not so great as to form characteristics of a class, or to remove them from the effect of common educational influences. We are not, therefore, to modify these influences to suit their condition, but rather modify their condition to suit them. We must, however, modify our method of instruction somewhat to suit the blind, and a great deal to suit the deaf mutes. “ It is not the purpose, now, to speak of special instruction, further than to say that, other things being equal, the me'hod is best which approaches most closely the approved methods used with ordinary children. “ But in speaking of education in a more general sense, that is of the influences which are brought to bear upon the development of character, -a few words may be appropriate upon the subject under consideration, to wit,— “ Intensification of Peculiarities Growing' out of an Infirmity. “ It is to be borne in mind always, that the infirmities which characterize these classes of mutes and blind do, in spite of certain compensations, entail certain undesirable consequences,'which have unfavorable effects upon body and mind both. “ The lack of an important sense not only prevents the entire and harmonious development of mind and character, but it tends to give morbid growth in certain directions, as a plant checked in its direct upward growth grows askew. It would be a waste of words to prove this, because a �17 ! : > denial of it would be a denial of the importance of the great senses. “ The morbid tendencies, however, are not strong— •certainly not irresistible—at least with the blind. They are educable, like all tendencies and dispositions, and by skilful management may be turned to advantage. Certainly, how­ ever, they ought to be lessened, not strengthened, by educa­ tion. Now, they are lessened, and their morbid effects corrected in each individual, by intimate intercourse with persons of sound and normal condition—that is, by general society; while they are strengthened by associating closely and persistently with others having the like infirmity. They, themselves, seem to have an instinctive perception of this, and the most delicate of them feel the morbid tendency which may segregate them from ordinary people, and put them in a special class. Some of them struggle "against it in a touching manner, as the fabled nymph resisted meta­ morphosis into a lower form of life. “ They seem to cling to ordinary persons, as if fearing segregation, and strive to conform themselves to their habits, manners, and even appearance. They wish to look, to act, to be, as much like others as is possible, and to be con­ sidered as belonging to ordinary society, and not to a special class. “ It is generally supposed that this feeling, especially in the blind, arises only from the fact that blindness and poverty are associated together, and that poverty calls forth contempt, lightened, in their case, by pity. But the feeling has a deeper source. It is very strong in those of delicate and sensitive natures, and it ought always to be respected and encouraged. Our principle in treating them should be that of separation and diffusion, not congregation. We are 3 �to educate them, for society of those who hear and who see; and the earlier we begin the better. “We violate this principle when we gather them into institutions; but we do so in view of certain advantages of' instruction in common, which are not to be had in any other feasible method; as we bear with an inferior common school rather than have none. A man of wealth might, indeed— and if he were wise, would—allow his mute or blind child to spend a certain time in a well-regulated institution for like children; but it would be only a short one. “ Guided by this principle we should, in providing for the instruction and training of these persons, have the associa­ tion among them as little as is possible, and counteract its tendencies by encouraging association and intimacy with common society. They should be kept together no more closely and no longer than is necessary for their special instruction; and there should be no attempts to build up permanent asylums for them, or to favor the establishment of communities composed wholly or mainly of persons subject to a common infirmity. “ This is far more important with the mutes than with the blind, because of their speechlessness. Language, in its largest sense, is the most important instrument of thought, feeling, and emotion; and especially of social intercourse. Blindness, in so far as it prevents knowledge of and partici­ pation in the rudimentary part of language, to wit, panto­ mime, or signs, gestures, and expression of features and face, tends to isolation : but the higher and far more impor­ tant part of language, speech, is fully open to them. Then their sense of dependence strengthens their social desires; increases their knowledge and command of speech, and makes that compensate very nearly, if not quite, for igno­ �19 rance of other parts of language. The blind, if left to ordinary social influences, are in no danger of isolation. It is when we bring them together in considerable numbers that the tendency to segregation manifests itself; and this is rather from necessity than from choice, for the social cravings become more intense with them than with us. “ With mutes it is not so. Speech is essential for human development. Without it full social communion is impossi­ ble ; since there can be no effectual substitute for it. The rudimentary and lower parts of language, or pantomime, is open to mutes; but the higher and finer part, that is, speech, is forever closed ; and any substitute for it is, at best, imperfect. This begets a tendency to isolation; which not being so effectually checked during youth, as it is with the blind, by a sense of dependence, becomes more formidable. To be mute, therefore, implies tendency to isolation. The blind need little special instruction; the mutes a great deal. “ An attempt to consider different modes of instructing mutes would lead into a wide field of discussion ; but it may be remarked that in the plenitude of arguments and disputes about the comparative merit of the various systems of sign language, it has not been enough considered that, by teach­ ing a mute to articulate, we bring him to closer association with us by using our vernacular in our way, than by teach­ ing him the finger language, which can never become our vernacular. The special method tends more to segregate him and his fellows from ordinary society. In the first case one party adheres to the natural and ordinary method of speech, and the other party strives to imitate it; in the second, both use a purely arbitrary and conventional method. �20 . “ The favorite motto of the adherents of the method of dactylology betrays this fault,— 4 Lingua vicaria manus ; ’ for the very vicariousness is objectionable, and ought to be lessened as much as is possible. “ Without pretending to metaphysical precision, it may be said that by means of the senses we come into conscious relations with external nature—with men and things. Sen­ sation and perception are the roots of knowledge. The wider the circle of sensuous relations, the more rapid the acquirement of knowledge. By action and reaction between our internal nature and external nature, character is devel­ oped. But in order that there may be harmonious and entire development of human character, there must be the ordinary organs of human sense : no more and no less. “ The result, then, of the lack of any one organ of sense must be twofold; first, limitation of the circle of sensuous relations ; second, inharmonious development of character. “ In the education of the deaf mutes and of the blind we are to counteract the limitation by special instruction given through the remaining senses ; and we are to counteract the tendency to inharmonious development by special influences, both social and moral. “ Special educational influences, to counteract these special morbid tendencies, should begin with the beginning of life and continue to its end ; and they should be more uniform and persistent with mutes than with the blind. “ The constant object should be to fashion them into the likeness of common men by subjecting them to common social influences, and to check the tendency to isolation and to intensification of the peculiarities which grow out of their infirmity. , �21 “A consideration of the principles imperfectly set forth above, will show that when we gather mutes and blind into institutions for the purpose of instruction, we are in danger of sowing, with sound wheat, some tares that may bring forth evil fruit. The mere instruction may be excellent, but other parts of the education tend to isolate them from common social influences, and to intensify their peculiarities, and this is bad.” It will be seen that the Board does not commit itself to the system of articulation. Nay! the Report says expressly, (p. lviii.,) ” that while some of the members believe that articulation should be taught, others, without pretending to decide upon the com­ parative merits of different systems of instruction, believe that many benefits would arise from having the wards of the State taught within her borders. They would, therefore, suggest a plan for change in our system of educating deaf mutes.” In this plan, the Board do not recommend that articulation should be taught. This is the false issue which the Principal makes. Next, he tries to divert attention from the reason­ ing of the Board, by attacking the Chairman, and disparaging the value of his opinion. He singles him out by name; rudely insinu­ ates that he is given to riding hobby horses, and to changing them frequently; and that moreover he might have some personal end to gratify; and say­ ing for himself, with much complacency,—■" We are �22 not specially sensitive in this matter, we have no hobbies to ride, and’ no personal end whatever to gratify ! ” (p. 38.) Considering that the Report of the Board of Charities alluded to the Directors and officers of the Hartford Asylum very courteously; and admitted that the deaf mutes of Massachusetts ” have received fair and kind treatment at their hands, and been taught by a corps of able and accomplished teachers; ”* such language by one of those officers, sanctioned by those Directors, and printed in their Annual Report, appears uncourteous and strange, to say the least! Again, considering that no one charged the Rev- * erend Principal with being sensitive, or hobby horsical, his language certainly shows neither lack of sensitiveness nor abundance of Christian charity; but it does suggest the French proverb,—" gui s’ excuse s’ accuse ; ” — ” who needlessly excuses himself, accuses himself.” And yet again, considering that the Reverend Principal is not sensitive, and declares (p. 29,) that the objections urged against the Hartford system have been repeatedly met, to the satisfaction of committees of the Massachusetts Legislature, it is strange he should say, ” It may be proper to give them a passing notice: ” stranger still, that this " passing notice ” should occupy almost the whole of his Report. Report, p. 57. �23 He then proceeds, not to consider the arguments and considerations urged against the Hartford system, but to demolish them by lessening whatever weight they might derive from the character of the members of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities, in whose Report they are found. That Board consists of seven members, six, at least, of whom are gentlemen of character, and some of them eminent scholars and teachers. They all sign the Report ; and all endorse the principles which it advocates, and the application of those principles to the education of mutes; although they admit< they are not all of them, competent to decide whether mutes should be taught articulation or not. But the Principal regards them as mere men of straw, who signed what they did not understand or believe! He says (p. 35,) with regard to the question of teaching articulation, "On the side of educating mutes by signs, we find every teacher in this coun­ try, and in the British Isles, with the exceptions above named, and several of these have spent nearly forty years in the work of practical instruc­ tion; on the side of teaching articulation, we find Dr. S. GK Howe! ” And so with all the arguments and considera­ tions urged in the Report of the Board. It is, "Dr. Howe objects;” "Dr. Howe urges;” "Dr. �24 Howe complains;” "Dr. Howe suggests.” Dr. Howe is everywhere, the Board nowhere! Having deprived the principles advanced in the Report of whatever moral support the names of the doctor’s colleagues might give, he next tries to demolish whatever they might get from the name of the doctor alone. He quotes some of his opinions, expressed many years ago, and shows that they differ from those put forth in the recent Report of the Board of Charities, and then remarks,— “ It is pleasant to notice, that as Dr. Howe’s views with regard to the best arrangements for deaf mutes have not been entirely settled in the past, there is reason to hope he may come out right yet.” Amen! but he will never come out right, if he is afraid of inconsistency with former opinions; or clings to doctrines because he once professed belief in them. The doctor indeed says, in one of his Reports, that the result of many years’ experience and observation, both of blind and of mutes, con­ vince him that he made mistakes in organizing the Institution for the Blind, more than thirty years ago. There was then no school for the blind in the country, and he copied existing establishments, among others the asylum at Hartford, merely modifying it to meet the special condition of the blind. �25 He found, in a few years, that he had incorpora­ ted some fundamental errors in the plan of organi­ zation ; and in his Twentieth Report he states, that having been called upon by a committee from another State to recommend a plan for an institution for the blind, he did recommend one differing in important points from the Perkins’ Institution. He would have no "commons,” no central boarding­ house,—only a school-house. He would thus avoid the error of making them board, and lodge, and live so much together; because he finds that it encourages a spirit of caste, and intensifies the peculiarities growing out of their infirmity. He would have them associate with each other less, and with ordinary persons more, than is now done. He would now follow out this idea in the pro­ posed school for mutes in Massachusetts. He did, indeed, follow it out in establishing the workshop for the blind many years ago; and the most satisfactory results have been obtained. There are some thirty blind persons who come together in the morning to learn trades, and to work at them on wages, and go away to their several boarding places in the neighborhood. This establishment is under the general direction of the Institution; but the inmates (some of them young,) are not brought together except for instruction, or for work, and not even for work in large numbers; because the plan is to furnish work 4 �26 at their several homes whenever it is possible. They are thus subjected to ordinary family and social influences, and are trained to live in and take part with ordinary society, and not trained to become members of a special class or caste. The establish­ ment is successful; and blind persons who have been familiar with both modes of living,—asylum life and common life,—prefer the latter. It would doubtless be so with mutes if the exper­ iment were fairly tried; for all the reasons and con­ siderations in favor of such a system apply with even more force to them than to the blind. The first direct charge which the Principal brings against Dr. Howe is, that he makes "an offensive classification ” of deaf mutes. "We object to Dr. Howe’s placing, as' he does, the four hundred deaf mutes of Massachusetts among the dependent classes.” (Pep. p. 29.) And again, (p. 30,) " This offensive classification pervades the whole Report,” &c. He would be blameworthy indeed who should, eve n by careless use of language, give just cause of offence to a class of unfortunates who need all our sympathy and kindness. But we shall show that by no fair construction of the Report can such a charge be sustained; and moreover, that if the language of the Directors of the Hartford school, and of the Principal himself, were construed as he �27 construes the language of the Board, then they and he are open to the charge of very " offensive classification.” So far from anything " offensive ” to the mutes pervading the Report of the Board, they are spoken of not only respectfully, but with tender interest. Indeed, special care even is taken to combat the common opinion, (which is really offensive to the mutes,) that they form a special class, and must always do so; an opinion, by the way, which the Reports of asylums for deaf mutes, and even those of the Principal himself, often tend, inadver­ tently, to strengthen. The Board of Charities says, (p. 50,) “ It may be permitted, however, to draw a further illustra­ tion of the principle under consideration from some persons, (neither vicious nor criminal,) the similarity of whose defect or infirmity causes them to be classed together, such as the deaf mutes and the blind. It may not be improper, at the same time, to make some remarks and suggestions upon the mode of treating such of these classes as are at the charge of the State. “ It is common to regard deaf mutes and the blind as forming special classes, though speaking strictly no such classes exist in nature. “ They spring up sporadically among the people, from the existence of abnormal conditions of parentage, which produce a pretty equal average number of cases in every generation, among any given population. �28 “ They abound more in some localities and some neighbor­ hoods than in others; owing, probably, to ill-assorted marriages. “ The important points, however, are that these abnormal conditions of parentage are not inherent and essential ones ; that some of them are cognizable ; that with wider diffusion of popular knowledge more of them may be known; and that, by avoiding them, the consequences may cease, and the classes themselves gradually diminish and finally disappear. “We have no deaf or blind domestic animals; and the generations of men need not be forever burdened with blind and deaf offspring.” The idea which pervades the Report is, that the mutes and the blind, if left without special instruc­ tion and training, tend to fall into the class of dependents. If this gives just cause of offence, then must the Report of all the institutions for deaf mutes in the country be offensive; for they do constantly express the idea that deaf mutes must be a burden to their friends and to society, unless they receive special instruction. Out of the abundance of such expression we select a few. The directors of the Hartford school say: ” The translation indeed of one of the inferior orders of creation to the human species, would be only in a degree more wonderful than we have in several instances witnessed in our scholars.” The Principal quotes this language approvingly, in his able paper, in the American Annals, (p. 3.) « �29 Nay! he himself is especially open to the charge of what he calls " offensive classification.” Without meaning to be "offensive,” he often speaks of them in a way which might give pain to sensitive persons. For instance, he says: "We do not believe that another human being can be found, in savage or civilized society, whose mind is so thoroughly imbruted with ignorance and so difficult to reach as that of many a deaf mute who has grown up to maturity in the darkness and neglect consequent upon his misfortune ! ” * In many other places he speaks of them as entirely dependent upon society for salvation from a low and brutish life. He does not regard them as dependent in the sense in which ordinary chil­ dren and youth are, but specially and necessarily dependent, owing to their natural infirmity; and shows that they can be lifted out of their ignorance and dependence only by special means and costly training. Nay, more! He not only considers them as a dependent class, but he sometimes fairly puts them down in the dangerous class. He says, eloquently: “ It is the darkness and gloom of his mental condition that makes him an object of commiseration, and renders him, if uneducated, the most pitiable of all God's creatures. This darkness is as nearly total as can well exist in the midst of , * Thirty-Fifth Annual Report Ohio Institution for Deaf and Dumb, p. 9. Report of Rev. Collins Stone, Superintendent. �30 civilized and Christian society. His palsied ear shuts out from his soul, not only the Q melody of sweet sounds,’ but also the most familiar facts of common life and experience. “ He knows nothing of the history of mankind, or of the globe on which he lives, or of the immensely important truths connected with his immortality. “ He is also excluded by his infirmity from intercourse with his fellow-men. He can neither make known to them his own wants, nor understand and conform to their wishes. But while in this uneducated state he is a very ignorant being, he is by no means an innocuous one. His animal nature is fully developed. His passions are fierce and strong, and he knows no reason for their restraint. Revenge, lust, jealousy, may have dominion over him, without the presence of any moral considerations to lead him to repress their promptings. He may thus easily become an uncom­ fortable and dangerous member of society ! ” Now, if the classification of these unfortunates among the deserving but dependent members of society is "offensive,” what must be that of the Reverend Principal, who puts them among the dangerous members? But, in reality, neither meant any offence, and none ought to be taken. The criticism is not worthy of the Principal, whose actions speak louder than his words; whose devotion of his life to the education of mutes would prove him to be their friend, let his language be what it might; and though he has made more " offensive classifications ” of them than the Board has done. �31 The Principal next makes four several charges against Dr. Howe, in one paragraph, as follows: First, that ” a few years ago he advocated the plan of educating deaf mutes and blind children in one institution, on the ground that as the blind are intellectually superior, such a union would be especially for the advantage of deaf mutes.” The Principal probably had been looking at the Twelfth Report of the Trustees of the Perkins’ Institution for the Blind, without remarking that it stated that Dr. Howe had been in Europe most of the year, and did not write his usual Report. But, no matter; he stands by the Trustees’ report, and still maintains that blind children are usually much superior to mutes in capacity for intellectual attainment, by reason of the gift of hearing, which is the mother of speech; and that it would, on this and on other accounts, be better for a mute child to be asso­ ciated, while learning the English language, with a blind child, than with another mute child. His position is not understood by the Principal. He has urged that certain advantages would accrue to deaf mutes by being associated with blind chil­ dren, because they would be forced to spell their words upon their fingers, and to form distinct sen­ tences, and thus to have constant practice in the English language. Thinking persons know well that one of the greatest obstacles in the way of deaf mutes learning �32 our language is the strong tendency they have to use pantomime. The attempt to make them use the English lan­ guage in their intercourse with each other, is like trying to make our children speak French together. The little mutelings won’t take pains to spell out the words when they can flash forth their meaning with a look or a gesture. They won’t make the letters t-a-i-l-o-r if they can touch their forehead, and imitate the swing of his arm; nor h-o-r-s-e if they can crook their fore­ fingers by the side of their forehead to show his ears; nor h-o-r-s-e-m-a-n if they can set two fingers astride the other hand. They won’t restrict them­ selves to the use of letters, and words, and sentences in their intercourse with their playmates who can see; but they would be forced to do so with playmates who are blind. There is hardly a mute graduate of the Hartford school who can spell as well as Laura Bridgman does; and nothing gave her such marvellous accu­ racy, and such copious vocabulary, except the necessity of constantly practising the use of words which had been so painfully taught her. It is almost a matter of certainty that she would not have been able to spell so well as she does if she had been merely deaf and mute. Like other mutes she would have been tempted by the facility of addressing signs to the eye to neglect that patient �33 and persistent practice which is necessary to make a good speller. She could see no natural signs, and therefore, persons conversing with her were forced to spell their words; and her answers were necessarily made not by signs, but by letters and words. The case was a new and anomalous one, and if the Doctor had regarded the ” consistency ” of his record, and followed the practice of the ” schools,” he would have declined to undertake the charge of a child who did not come within the rules. The passages on which, probably, the Principal founds his first charge, merely set forth certain advantages of the kind of instruction which the blind mutes must have; and its applicability in a certain extent to the instruction of ordinary mutes. The second charge is, that " he has since been understood to favor their education by a .new system of dactylology of his own invention.” The Principal has been imposed upon by a pure invention of somebody. But should he allow himself to be imposed upon? Such a statement was worth publishing, or it was not. If it was, then the Principal should first have inquired if it were true; and a letter of inquiry would have brought the answer by return mail that it was untrue. If it was not worth publishing, then such a statement is unworthy a place in a Report professing to be a 5 �34 reply to the Report of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities. The third charge is, that " Dr. Howe once advo­ cated removing mute children from home influences and associations at a much earlier period in life than most teachers think judicious.” This is true; but if the Principal had gone on and stated the whole truth, he would have made it appear that Dr. Howe’s heretical views were finally adopted by the Directors of the American Asylum. As he has failed to go into the history of the matter, which is interesting in the history of deaf mute education in Massachusetts, we will do so. In the Twelfth Annual Report of the Institution for the Blind, for 1843, occurs the following:— “ A few words must be said with regard to the two deaf and dumb children who joined our school about a year since, at the early age of seven years. Being too young to be admitted into the Asylum for the deaf mutes at Hartford, . they were placed by their parents under our direction, with the hope that* they might, at least, gain a knowledge of language at an earlier period than has been usually the case with children in their condition. “ The success which has attended the plan of instructing Laura, by the finger language alone, has induced the instructor of these two deaf mutes to teach them only by the finger process, intentionally avoiding the use of the gesture language, taught at Institutions for the deaf and dumb. And, thus far, the plan, as in Laura’s case, has been satisfactory. �35 “ It is found these children not only learn to talk rapidly with the fingers, but are able to form a precise idea of a sentence expressed by the finger language, which cannot always be the case in the use of their natural, or gesture language; and in this important particular does the manual or finger language seems to be of greater value to the deaf mutes than the language of gesture. “ They have made considerable progress, not only in the acquisition of language, but also in writing, numerical cal­ culations, and in a knowledge of objects which attract their notice. “During the last session of our State Legislature, the Committee on Education, appointed by that body, consulted our Board on the subject of admitting the deaf and dumb to enjoy the privileges of our Institution. A consideration of this proposition was urged, and encouraged, by parents of deaf mute children, and also by educated deaf mutes, who were anxious to have the education of their unfortunate brethren commenced at an earlier age than was permitted by the regulations of the American Asylum at Hartford, and at a school nearer than that at Hartford. “ The trustees, acting under Dr. Howe’s advice, expressed a willingness to receive deaf mute pupils of tender years, on the same footing with the blind, believing that it would prove mutually beneficial to the two classes.” The Report goes on to say,— “ The question, we understand, was discussed at some length by the committee, in the presence of a deputation from the Asylum at Hartford, who protested against the pro­ posed change, and it finally resulted in the arrangement that the regulations of that Asylum should be so altered as to �36 authorize the admission of our State deaf mute beneficiaries at an earlier age than heretofore ! ” It would appear from this record that most teachers, and doubtless the deputation from Hart­ ford, disagreed with Dr. Howe’s views. Neverthe­ less, in order to prevent the loss of any Massa­ chusetts beneficiaries, they consented to make an ’ " injudicious ” arrangement. At any rate, they so far adopted the plan advo­ cated by Dr. Howe, as to change their conditions of admission, and admit pupils at what the Prin­ cipal calls ” an earlier period of life than most teachers think judicious.” Dr. Howe had long before urged that deaf mute children should begin to learn the English lan­ guage as early as possible; and in 1812 he received some young mutes into the Institution for the Blind, partly in order to see if they could not be taught advantageously at an earlier age than that fixed for admission to the Hartford asylum. From the early days of that asylum down to 1841, their Beports state that candidates for admis­ sion must be not under ten years of age nor over thirty. In 1842 they say, " State beneficiaries must be not under twelve nor over twenty-five; other applicants, between ten and thirty This was not only putting the minimum age too low, • but making besides an odious distinction between State beneficiaries and private pupils. It �37 was about this time that Dr. Howe was chairman on the part of the Massachusetts House of Repre­ sentatives, of the Committee on Public Charitable Institutions, and agitated this matter. It appears also that the Directors of the asylum soon changed their views, and announced that they would receive pupils between the ages of eight and .twenty-five, thus admitting State benefi­ ciaries four years earlier than they had before done, and abolishing the odious distinction between them and private pupils. Nor have they stopped here; for in a later Report, a committee of their Board says,— • z “ The opinion is beginning to be quite prevalent, that a longer time than six or eight years is requisite, thoroughly to educate deaf mutes; and that the legislatures of the States to which they belong should extend the term of their instruction. Indeed, there is good reason for believing that these legislatures will do this whenever the subject is fairly laid before them. In that case, the objection to receiving any pupils under ten which has hitherto been felt, would be removed, and the number of pupils actually in the asylum at any one time would be considerably increased, even if the annual admissions should be the same as heretofore. As we were the first to project and carry into effect the high class, by means of which a portion of our pupils are enabled to prosecute their studies much beyond the ordinary limit, we ought also TO SECURE TO THE AMERICAN ASYLUM THE CREDIT OF TAKING the first step in the opposite direction, and thus offer the advantages of instruction to such young �38 children as contemplate a thorough and extended course of training.” This report was approved and adopted by the whole Board. Dr. Howe urged the early instruction of mutes, upon the ground that it was very important to them; the Directors seem to have adopted it, first to prevent the loss of the beneficiaries of Massa­ chusetts; next, " to secure to the American Asylum the credit of taking the first step,” &c. Surely, we may fairly quote here the language of the Principal respecting Dr. Howe, as more appli­ cable to the Directors of his own institution, and say, ” It is pleasant to notice that as the ” Directors’ " views with regard to the best arrangement for deaf mutes have not been settled in the past, there is reason to hope they may come out right yet.” The Principal charges, fourthly, that Dr. Howe " now takes the ground that deaf mutes should not be gathered into institutions at all.” We do not believe that the Principal would pur­ posely misrepresent any one, and therefore do not understand how, with the Report before him, he could make such a statement! That document [which the Principal treats as Dr. Howe’s alone,] recommends a change in our sys­ tem of educating the deaf mutes of Massachusetts, �39 • , and gives the outline of a plan for an institution. As this is an interesting matter to all humane peo­ ple, and a very important one to deaf mutes, we will sketch this outline. The Governor and Council shall appoint three commissioners for the education of deaf mutes, who shall act without salary, [or they may be members of the Board of Education.] The commission1 ers are to select the children who are to be the beneficiaries of the State. This would certainly be an improvement on the present system, for it is well known that the Gov­ ernor and Council cannot attend to this work as carefully as they would do, and as it ought to be done. They have neither time nor means for doing it thoroughly. Besides, it is a work for which per­ sons should have some peculiar fitness. Some applicants are unfit for State beneficiaries, and are rejected after going to the asylum at the State’s charge; some are not entirely deaf; some are idiotic; some partially blind or deranged. How can the Governor and Council examine a deaf mute child and ascertain these things? But more often the applicants are children of parents who have some means, and who ought to pay part, at least, of the cost, and so lessen the charge to the Commonwealth. These commissioners, after selecting candidates, and deciding whether they should be taught wholly �40 or only partly at the expense of the State, may contract with any responsible society or organiza­ tion of citizens of Massachusetts, who will under­ take to instruct and train indigent deaf mutes belonging to the State, upon a plan of which the following is a vague outline. [It is understood that responsible parties are ready to form an organ­ ization, if the State should favor it.] “ The society to provide a suitable building for school­ house, and, if necessary, a workshop, and to employ com­ petent teachers. “ The commissioners to designate the beneficiaries, and to allow the society for each one a sum not greater than that now paid for beneficiaries at the Hartford school. Their warrant should be, not for five years, as is now the case, but from one year, and renewed, if, upon examination, the pupil proved worthy. “ The society to instruct and train these beneficiaries gra­ tuitously in its school; to board the children of parents who do not live in the neighborhood of the school in respectable families, and pay--------- dollars and cents a week for at least forty weeks in a year. “ They shall, however, if possible, place but one mute in any one family, and never more than three. “ The commissioners should have power to require the parents of beneficiaries to pay a certain part—say one third or quarter—of the cost of the board of their children ; and when they are manifestly unable to do so, then to require the towns where they have a settlement to pay a sum not exceeding one dollar in a week, for forty weeks in a year. �41 • “ The commissioners to have general supervision of the school, and of the welfare of such wards of the Common­ wealth as live more than two miles from the school. “ The advantages of such a system would be many. “ 1st. The care and oversight of these wards of the Com­ monwealth would fall where they really belong—upon our own citizens, a very large number of whom would come into constant relations with them. “ 2d. The children would be taught within the State, and nearer to their homes ; and a large proportion of them might live at home. “ 3d. The relations of family and neighborhood would not be interrupted so much, nor so long. “ The importance of this is very great in all cases, but especially so with those whose natural infirmity or peculiarity tends to isolate them. “ There are innumerable threads uniting us with society, . and giving us the unspeakable advantages of home ,and of familiar neighborhood, many of which are broken in the case of thepe unfortunates; and we should strive to strengthen, not to weaken, those that remain to them. “ 4th. The disadvantages and evils arising out of congre­ gation of great numbers of persons of like infirmity, would be lessened and counteracted. “ The Hartford school is already too large; and it is con­ tinually growing. Living many years in such a congregation strengthens that tendency to isolation which grows out of the infirmity of mutism, and intensifies other morbid tendencies. “ By the new plan all these would be lessened, and the counteracting tendencies of common social life would be greatly increased. 6 �42 “ The mutes would be together but five or six hours each day. During the rest of the time, instead of being subjected to the artificial restraint and influences of ‘ asylum life,’ which, at best, can be only a poor imitation of family life and influences, they would be subjected to the average influences of social life; which is the kind of life they are to live in future, and for which, during all the tender years of youth, they should be trained. “ 5th. The whole establishment would be simplified. There would be no need of a great building, with halls, dormitories, kitchen, dining-room and the like; but only a simple school-house, and perhaps a workshop. There would be no need of superintendent, matron or steward, with their corps of assistants ; no cooks, no domestics, and none of the cumbrous machinery of a great institution. “ 6th. Part of the burden of supporting the child would fall where part of it (at least,) surely belongs, to wit: upon the parents, and upon the neighborhood, and not all upon the State. Moreover, besides lessening the cost and the responsibility which now fall upon the State, it would divide them among the people. The tendency of this would be to cause our mutes to be educated more nearly as our other children are. Every approach to this is very important to the mutes, because it tends to prevent their social isolation, and makes them to be regarded as members of society in full communion. “ A regular course of intellectual instruction would be given in the school; but advantage might be taken of neigh­ boring workshops for teaching some, if not all, the pupils various handicrafts, as other youth are taught. This would give a wider range of choice than can be given in the asylum, where only a few trades are taught. • ' �43 '■ • “ Arrangements might be made by which children of farmers, who can be useful at home in summer, might come to the school in winter. “ Other advantages of such a change might be set forth, besides the consideration that in a new school we might have all the advantages of the long experience of the Hartford school. We might avoid some of the errors which result from its very organization which cannot be cured in one generation ; and which, perhaps, stand in the way of intro­ ducing new and improved systems of instruction.” Now, if an establishment upon this plan is not an institution for deaf mutes, then what constitutes one? Is it eating in a common hall; sleeping in a common dormitory; being subjected to daily chapel devotions; taught a particular creed; and kept cooped up in one building and yard? Are these things essential to an institution? Then are not the German universities institutions; nor our country academies, nor our common schools, ” institutions.” . Does not, then, this fourth sentence of the para­ graph show, like the three preceding ones, that in his excessive desire to put Dr. Howe in the wrong, the Reverend Principal is led to misunderstand, and then to misstate his views? The conclusion that he does is strengthened by the next paragraph, in which the Principal is led to state what is utterly at variance with known facts, and even with statements in his own Reports. He says, (p. 35) :— �44 “ Dr. Howe objects that our school is too large, and that the cost is annually increasing. * * * The annual charge is now $175. * * * The annual charge at the Institution for the Blind is $200 per pupil, &c.” This strange blending of truth and error gives the reader an entirely false impression. The annual charge at the Institution for the Blind is more than the Principal states it to be; but no matter—the animus of this sentence is clear; it gives the impression that the cost at the Hartford school is only $175 a year! Who, that is not familiar with the financial condition of the Hartford asylum, could fail to conclude, from reading this statement,, that it cost much less to support pupils there than at the Institution for the Blind, or at any similar institution in the whole land? Whereas, the actual cost is more than $175; probably nearer $275 than $175 a year. The Asylum has a fund given by the United States government for the benefit of the mutes gen­ erally, and the income of that, (and perhaps of other funds,) probably amounted last year to over $15,000. The Trustees, as in duty bound, appro­ priate this, or part of it, to keeping down the charges. They do not tell us. how much; and the Report of the Treasurer is marvellously condensed. That document, however, show that the expenses in 1865 were: for salaries $18,649.40; insurance �45 and sundries, $1,314.21; total, $19,963.61. Other expenses by the Steward, (p. 44,) $33,276.47; mak­ ing in all $53,240.08 as the cost in 1865. This sum, divided by 212, the average number of pupils, gives over $250 a year for each. The printed accounts are obscure, and there is apparent discre­ pancy between the Steward and Treasurer,—so that the actual cost may be a little less ; but certainly it is far greater than an unsuspecting reader would infer from the Report of the Principal; and probably nearer $275 than $175. There is another proof, that the eagerness of the Principal to convict Dr. Howe of inconsistency, leads him to contradict his own Report. He says, (p. 38,) comparing the pupils of the Blind Asylum with his own,— “ It is comparatively difficult for blind children to travel in public conveyances. They are exposed to constant danger, and must always’ have. an attendant. Deaf mutes, however, travel safely to all parts of the country z Here are several mistakes,—some excusable, some not. It is excusable that the Principal should not know that most of the pupils of the Institution of the Blind travel to and from home on the rail­ roads, without special attendants, and safely, and that they are trained to do it. But it is not excusable that he should publish a statement concerning them without a little inquiry into its truth. �46 Still less is it excusable that he should make state­ ments, contradictory to others in the Report of his own Institution. On page 72 of the very Report in which he states that deaf mutes travel to all parts of' the country safely, we find the following, reprinted from former Reports:— “ On the day of the commencement of the Vacation, an officer of the Asylum will accompany such pupils as are to travel upon the railroads between Hartford and Boston, taking' care of them and their baggage, on condition that their friends will make timely provision for their expenses on the way, and engage to meet and receive them immediately on the arrival of the early train at various points on the route previously agreed on, and at the station of the Boston and Worcester Railroad in Boston. A similar arrangement is made on the Connecticut River Railroads, as far as to White River Junction. No person will be sent from the Asylum to accompany the pupils on their return; but if their fare is paid and their trunks checked to Hartford, it will be safe to send them in charge of the conductor.” A critic writing in the spirit of the Principal’s Report might be tempted to say that, when it is desirable to make a point against Dr. Howe, "the deaf mutes travel safely to all parts of the country; ” but, when it is desirable to attract pupils, the parents are assured " that an officer of the Asylum will travel with them and take care of them.” �47 But the charitable conclusion is, that in his haste and eagerness to make points against an opponent, the Principal overlooked what careful thought would have made him see, to wit: that blind people are less exposed to danger in travelling than deaf people. The former are made careful by their infirmity, and their hearing is made acute by practice; the latter are made careless, and they have no hearing at all. Again, a little reflection would have shown him, that one of the many advantages of hearing, over sight, as a guardian sense, arises from the fact that in the material world warnings of danger come mainly through the ear. This is, first, because, during half the time, darkness prevails over the world, and then the sentinel at the eye is off guard; but the one at the ear listens during all the waking hours; and, even when the body sleeps, is still half awake; for the ear shuts no lid, as the eye does. And second, because the eye receives no warning unless the rays of light strike nearly from the front, and therefore more than half the circle round us is unguarded. But the ear gathers in sounds not only from all around, but from above and below. Unless the rattlesnake be in the direct path, the eye sees him not, while the ear catches the first note of warning, come it from where it may. The thinnest substance stops light; but sound traverses thick walls. Besides, sight is more voluntary,—hearing �48 more involuntary; almost automatic indeed. Sights are shut out easily; sounds with difficulty. You can be blind at will; you cannot shut out all sound, even by stopping the ears. But be the philosophy of the matter what it may, daily facts show that mutes and deaf per­ sons are more exposed to the dangers of the present mode of travel, and suffer more from them, not only than blind persons, but than any class of people whatever. We constantly hear of persons being run over on the tracks; and in a large proportion of cases they are deaf persons. If the Principal will consult the records of rail­ roads he will find many cases of mutes and deaf persons being run over; but rarely one of a blind • man being injured in that manner. Nay! if he will look into the Reports of his own Institution he will find evidence not only, of con­ stant dread of danger from the rail cars, but acci­ dents and deaths among the pupils, even, while under the protecting and watchful care of the Asylum. The Thirty-Ninth Annual Report says,— “ An accident occurred on the railroad to one of the .pupils from Canada, in September last, which resulted in his death. While walking carelessly along on the ends of the ties, out­ side of the track, he was struck down by a passing train, and so severely injured that he survived less than an hour. This x �49 is the first accident of the kind which has ever happened to one of our pupils ; and we trust with the warning given to them of the danger of a similar exposure, and the vigilance which will in future be exercised on the part of those who have the care of them, it will be the last. Several educated deaf mutes have, within a few years, been killed while walking on the track of railroads. “ The practice of thus exposing themselves to almost certain destruction cannot be too strongly reprobated, and their friends should enjoin upon them, the importance of discontinuing it under all circumstances.” But the trust and the hope were vain; and vain were the warnings and precautions, for we read in the Fortieth Report, (p. 13,) as follows:— “ A severe, but not fatal accident, happened to one of our oldest pupils in July last, in consequence of incautiously walking on the railroad track near the city. The warning given in our last Report was unheeded, and • the result was an injury, which will in a measure disable him for life.” A still more shocking accident is related in the Forty-Second Report, (p. 8) :— “Two of the small boys, John Parker, from Massachu­ setts, and Benjamin Dawson, from New Hampshire, were killed by a train of cars as they were walking along the railroad track. The caution given them but a few hours before the accident was disregarded, and their intention of being on the track but for a few moments, till they could reach the crossing of a road, brought upon them this terrible 7 �50 calamity. While we sympathize with the afflicted friends of these promising lads, and regret most sincerely their untimely end, we cannot think there has been any want of care or attention to the safety of the pupils in this particular, on the part of the officers of the Asylum to whom their imme­ diate oversight is entrusted. No rule of the establishment has been more distinctly set. forth, more frequently or more strictly enjoined, or more rigidly enforced, than that which forbids the pupils going upon the track of a railroad. Whenever an accident of the kind has happened to a deaf mute in any part of the country, the fact has been announced to them publicly, and they have been warned never to indulge in a practice so unwise and so dangerous. We trust that the lesson taught by this sad experience may never be forgotten by the pupils, and that it may prompt those who watch over them to still greater vigilance.” The records of other Institutions show that dread­ ful accidents have happened in consequence of the infirmity of the pupils. As a matter of curiosity, we have ascertained by the annual returns of all the Railroad Companies of Massachusetts, that the number of persons run over, and killed or injured by the cars, during the last fifteen years, is 701. This does not include passengers, nor persons con­ nected with the trains, but only persons outside the train, crossing the road, or walking or lying upon the track. Of these, one is supposed to have been injured in consequence of blindness, six of insanity, and seventeen of deafness. Of course the supposed cause is not always the real one; but, assuredly, if �51 the real cause were ascertained, it would swell the number of accidents to the deaf, much more than to the blind; because the blindness is obvious, deaf­ ness is not. Everybody in the neighborhood knows who is blind, but not who is deaf. In the case of a stranger, even, the corpse of a blind man would reveal his infirmity; but deaf dead men tell no tales. But even if they could, it might be useless for our purpose, because if in the face of these reasons and facts, the Principal persists in saying, even to make a point against Dr. Howe, that "deaf mutes can travel safely to all parts of the country,” he would not believe otherwise even though one rose from the dead. Enough has been said to show that the charge of ignorance and error which the Principal attempts to fasten upon the Chairman of the Board of State Charities, is laid at the wrong door. If this were all, it would not be worth saying in public. To aim at mere personal triumph would be unworthy the cause and the parties. But there are questions concerning the best modes of educating and instructing deaf mutes which are very impor­ tant to that class of unfortunates, and which would deeply interest all intelligent and humane people if they could be brought forward and fairly discussed. It is the hope of causing them to be discussed which decides us to print what has been written above. �52 While earnest and enthusiastic men like Blan­ chet, in France, plead for the immediate modifica­ tion of the old Central Institutions,- such as those of Paris, London, and Hartford, and for teaching mutes in common schools; and while eminent and experienced, but conservative men, like the Abbe Carton, in Belgium, admit that the modification of the old system is only a question of time,—we of of Massachusetts hold on to a system borrowed from the old world, nearly fifty years ago, by a legislative body not known to have been partic­ ularly enlightened upon the subject of deaf mute education. This ought not to be; and our neglect of the matter is not creditable to the Commonwealth. The slightest examination would show that we have not only failed to improve materially our method of treating mutes, but have also failed to introduce into it the system and order which characterize other departments of the public service. It would be a great mistake to say that the present method of selecting the beneficiaries of the State is a good one, for there is no real method about it; and even the existing loose and imperfect practice is left to officials who have not the time nor the means to conduct it properly. See how it works. A mother has a child who cannot hear, and when he becomes eight or ten years old she concludes, sadly, that he never will �53 talk. She takes him to the common school, but the teacher sends him home, saying he cannot do any­ thing with him—cannot teach him. By and by she learns that there is a school, somewhere, for such children; and if she will go to the State House she can find out all about it. There she is passed civilly from one official to another, until she reaches the gentlemanly clerk of the Secretary of State, who concludes the child ought to be sent to Hart­ ford, and he passes her over to the gentlemanly clerk of the Governor, who kindly assists her in making out the necessary papers, which are signed without further examination. Neither of these gentlemen, however, has any means of knowing whether the applicant is a fit subject for the school, or not. The child must then wait perhaps one month, per­ haps eleven months, until the time of the annual reception of pupils, and then be sent to Hartford; provided that, in the meantime, the parents do not change their purpose. At Hartford, if the child is found to be a proper subject, he is well cared for, and put under the instruction of able and zealous teachers. But if, as sometimes happens, the mutism is the result of insanity, or of imbecility, or if the child is partially blind, or otherwise defective, or is too feeble in health, then he must be sent home again. He has lost precious time; the poor parents have been sadly taxed for the cost of the journey; the 7* �54 State has perhaps been taxed for his clothing; and all because it is nobody’s business to see that only fit persons shall be selected as beneficiaries, and sent out of the State at public charge. Again, it is clear that parents who can afford to pay part of the expenses of the child’s education ought to do so. This would not only be just, but really beneficial to them and to their child. It would increase self-respect; attach more esteem to the advantages of education; promote punctuality of attendance; favor study at home, as preparatory for school; and be in many ways advantageous, besides being a saving of money to the State. But it is now nobody’s business to attend to this matter; consequently the pupils are, almost without exception, at the entire charge of the State for their board and instruction, and in some cases for their clothing also. Again, the Commonwealth sends about a hundred pupils to the Connecticut school, but has adopted no method for ascertaining whether her wards are taught by a system well adapted to their wants, nor even whether they have the full benefit of the system, such as it is. There is no examination, deserving the name, by any official; and no means of knowing officially whether the wards of the Commonwealth have been well and properly treated, taught, and trained, during their five or six years’ sojourn in another State. �55 The whole thing is taken upon faith. Now, we our­ selves do not lack faith in the honesty and ability of those to whose care they are committed; but officials should walk by light, and not by faith. We say there is nothing deserving the name of examination, for it would be a mistake to call the present practice by such a name. The Governor and Council, in their annual " progress ” among State institutions, sometimes go out of our bor­ ders, and visit the asylum at Hartford. The prac­ tice is a good one, and certain good results follow; but surely nobody will pretend that there is, or can be, upon that occasion, anything like an examina­ tion. It is merely an exhibition to a highly intel­ ligent and sympathetic audience. Then, once in a year, the Legislature appoints a committee to look after public charitable institu­ tions generally, and especially to see that they do not spend too much money. This committee makes a general inspection of all the charitable and penal institutions in the State; and once a year they visit the Connecticut asylum. They have reason to be pleased by what they witness; and they generally give the institution a complimentary notice in their report. It is well known, however, that members are not selected with a view to their ability or fitness for judging the merits of a system of instruction for mutes, and that their single flying visit is only a general inspection. It is not, and �56 cannot well be a thorough examination of the merits of the system of instruction and of its results. The reports of the Committee make no such pretensions. They are complimentary, of course, but very vague and general in their state­ ments. Nevertheless, they are sometimes gravely quoted by the Directors of the Hartford asylum, as proofs that the friends of deaf mutes ought to be satisfied with the excellence of their system, and of its administration! We assert with confidence that our Legislature acts without sufficient light and knowledge upon this subject. We assert, moreover, with sorrow, almost with shame, that whenever an attempt is made to bring about any change in the system of educat­ ing our mutes, it is put down by considerations not of wise economy but of mere money saving. The whole matter is in the hands of the Legisla­ ture, which are always full enough with other business. Whenever there is any likelihood of any action looking to a removal of our beneficiaries from Connecticut, a delegation of pupils is sent from Hartford to exhibit their knowledge and acquire­ ments. They make a strong appeal (not too strong,) to the sympathy of the Legislature. Then the Superintendent waits upon the Committee of Public Charitable Institutions, and exhibits his facts and figures. He makes a strong appeal (too �57 strong, alas!) to the pocket-nerve of the State. He shows that he can maintain our children, if we will send them abroad, cheaper than we can do it at home; and straightway the whole matter is left to sleep for the year. Perhaps there is no need of any change, and no room for any improvement. Perhaps the great march of improvement in all other branches of instruction, affects not the method adopted at Hartford nearly half a century ago, and followed ever since, almost without change. Perhaps noth­ ing can be borrowed for its improvement from the opposite system adopted in the excellent schools for mutes through the length and breadth of Ger­ many,—the land of learned men and of able teach­ ers. Perhaps Horace Mann was a dolt. Perhaps the Board of State Charities is all wrong in suggesting any changes in our present system of educating our mutes. But there should be no doubt about it. Either the Board of Education, or of State Charities, or some competent persons, should be specially charged to see,— First, that all the unfortunate mutes in the Commonwealth shall not only have the oppor­ tunity of being educated, but be sought out and encouraged to avail themselves of it. Second, that the present method shall be prop­ erly systematized and regulated, so that there shall �58 be strict accountability, real examinations, and positive knowledge about results. Third, that any questions about change of the 1 present method shall be decided upon broad and liberal grounds, and not by considerations of dollars and cents. Such a committee, if clothed with authority, might procure such changes in the present method as would satisfy all the friends of the deaf mutes; or they might advise the adoption of a new one. The Directors of the Connecticut asylum, which has done so much for the mutes of New England, ought not to object to any change which will pro­ mote the interests of those unfortunates, even if it should involve the loss of a monopoly which the asylum has so long enjoyed. If Massachusetts should deem it best to establish a school of her own, she has mute children enough to fill it as full as a good school need to be; or perhaps ought to be. But even if there should be competition for the beneficiaries of other States, it would be animated only by generous emulation, not as to who would take pupils cheapest, but who would teach and train them best. Of such emula­ tion, there surely would come good, and not evil. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Remarks upon the education of deaf mutes: in defence of the doctrines of the second annual report of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities and in reply to the charges of the Rev. Collins Stone, principal of the American Asylum at Hartford Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Howe, Samuel C. Description An account of the resource Place of publication: Boston; Mass. Collation: 58 p. ; 23 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Printed by Wright & Potter, Boston. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Please note that this pamphlet contains language and ideas that may be upsetting to readers. These reflect the time in which the pamphlet was written and the ideologies of the author. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Walker, Fuller & Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5190 G5689 Subject The topic of the resource Education Deafness Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Remarks upon the education of deaf mutes: in defence of the doctrines of the second annual report of the Massachusetts Board of State Charities and in reply to the charges of the Rev. Collins Stone, principal of the American Asylum at Hartford), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Deaf-mutes Deafness Education Muteness https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/80654465e7da689465caf8b3183c4b80.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=rYhDMuHvj0L3Ft1dpdMwTn0ui7jRj71o80LzUg1xFf9Ho5ziRm159oiw1xNBE2WAgcPbL2ALWUFoytYmy1K7eqUpFUUaHIq%7EhypLQxz1jKtLgyVLm8uLmrOejdiGxF7Eh%7Ezt7P6r2Oi51mjcvsgPWm7ALalPxwy29gzZBj6Nne3M5jZ5xXrq1NALRqJkyFbcB7p6Zb%7EtiO4D41i%7EuptPQnA5%7EzIabLr8oIUfeqmqr4enE0-2UTARPt1QL-QhbXTmy2LNtVDxHMv7CiQvr86OraIvGLLZjJnrBnR8BOTMt9Ax7EX8nKl2outRQ%7E6lVvg7%7EzgulnQisHvfKlatt4c9Pg__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 5b19bd04185af5e012cf2cda2f6abf78 PDF Text Text qsTro ; x p : : RoyalJnstitution of Great Britain,.Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, W. December, 1866. Probable Arrangements for the Friday Evening Meet­ before Easter, 1867, to which Members and their Friends only are admitted. ings Friday, Jan. 18th. Professor Tyndall, F.R.S. M.R.I.— On Sounding and Sensitive Flames. Friday, Jan. 25th. Professor Odling, F.R.S.—On Mr. Graham’s Recent Discoveries on the Diffusion of Gases. Friday, Feb. 1st. J. Scott Russell, Esq. F.R.S.—On the Crystal Palace Fire. ' • \ Friday Feb. 8th, Rev. F. W. Farrar, M.A. F.R.S.— On Public School Education. Friday, Feb. 15th. C. F. Varley, Esq., M.R.I,—On the Atlantic Telegraph. Friday, Feb. 22nd. M. England. D. Conway, Esq. —On New " - gFriday, March 1st. Captain V. D]|Majendie, R.A.—On Breech-loading small Arms. [Friday, March 8th. Rev. W. Greenwell, M.A.—On EM Yorkshire Wold Tumuli. Friday, March 15th. E. B. Tylor, Esq.— On traces of the Early Mental Condition of Man. , e Friday, March 22nd. Dr. James Bell Pettigrew.—On the various modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics. �Friday, March 29th. ’ Professor Frankland, F.R.S.— Friday, April 5th. William Pengelly, Esq., F.R.S.—On the Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall. Friday, April 12th. Balfour Stewart, Esq. F.R.S.—On the Sun as a variable star. On April 19/A and 26th (the Fridays in Passion and Easter Weeks) there will be no Meetings. After Easter the Friday Evening Meetings will be resumed on Friday, May 3rrZ, and continued till June 7M, without intermission. Among the Friday Evenings after Easter there will probably be Discourses by Professor Blackie, Professor A. Bain, Sir James Lacaita, and Alexander Herschel, Esq. The Friday Arrangements depend in great measure on the free kindness of eminent men, whose time is subject to the sudden claims of public or professional duty. They are, there­ fore, liable to change. H. BENCE JONES, Hen Sec. The Doors are open at Eight o’clock; the Discourse begins at Nine o’clock. •r • ■ ' ' ' ' - ■' '■ '■ '* '* ' •'< «r'-. I’ It is ordered by the Committee of Managers That five or more front rows of seats be reserved for Members, and for Visitors invited by the Committee of Managers, on Friday Evenings, till Ten Minutes before Nine by the Theatre Clock. It is requested, That Coachmen may be ordered to set down with their Horses’ heads towards Piccadilly, and to take up towards Grafton-street. saxAi, Ju'SS, � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource [Friday evening lecture syllabus, 1867] Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Royal Institution of Great Britain Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: 2 p. ; 19 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5710 Subject The topic of the resource Lectures Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br /><span>This work ([Friday evening lecture syllabus, 1867]), identified by </span><span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk">Humanist Library and Archives</a></span><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Lectures https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/a38abc02270e38ee3505537da72c28d6.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=q7gt0FGs1TUxWLllBqhkHp1OL5nvdUWC-M9zfoUcrKDDVshTL-kSSfzQBCfM6iHM3hqMoq7EvdyIKTiWdEZt1ZIhhvYdEUotZL7F5g7axlVWWIE1FGBZwe50QWCLlEo6-ssHEs7zWZ11TwjKR8%7EeaJUA0iuPkctfzAw84uKOUIrUhksyOul9FN9GhDDlV5S9JFTzXLH1r-rAzFkeKZt3idYZ5nxjA5VfmVjyHKiwIkGPQHaCJwxahGrWQgdB5XaA1KPSV1-gArgmV99rfsLWOKNKCjtUKAmyXFKj67VwsnrU9yVxjRUS8mUMpyIYPGDp6zhS3Dl6Zo5muE9RIdfiMA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 0601cbc80a9c2163684e49d060d4c575 PDF Text Text DOGMA versus MORALITY. . A REPLY TO CHURCH CONGRESS. BY CHARLES VOYSEY, B.A., INCUMBENT OF HEALAUGIT, NEAR TABCASTER. SECOND THOUSAND. LONDON: TEUBNEE AND CO., 60, PATEENOSTEE EOW. 1866. Price Threepence. �I �PREACHED AT HEALAUGrH, Sunday Morning, October 21st, 1866. 1 John iii. 7.—11 Little children, let no man deceive you: he that doeth righteousness is righteous, even as he is righteous." The week before last, at a Congress of Bishops and Clergy held at York, a dignitary of the church is reported to have said, that it was “ better to have a religion without morality than morality without a religion,” As I have not the exact words before me, 1 will not mention the name of the speaker; but, as far as I could gather from the report, the whole speech was intended to advocate the necessity for a dogmatic creed, and to shew the superiority of creed over practice. Painful as such a view must be both to you and to myself, I am not at all surprised at a Church dignitary putting it forth, nor at the applause with which it was received by the assembled clergy. For, indeed, I have often before heard it expressed and implied, in different ways, and in different degrees of shamelessness. Some High Churchmen have as good as denied the possibility of being righteous, without being baptised and �4 partaking of the Lord’s Supper; and Evangelicals have gone so far as to say, that a moral life was a hindrance, rather than a help, to our reception of the Gospel. They deserve some credit for their candour and consistency; and if it were not for such utterances as these, the popular credulity would never be shaken. When, however, one more energetic than the rest follows out the principles of his party to their legitimate consequence, then the people have their eyes opened to a simple question, on which they are quite competent to pronounce an opinion. I am, therefore, under some consider­ able obligation to the speaker of that remarkable sentence, in which he deliberately prefers religion to morality, as he makes it all the easier for me to carry on the delightful work of drawing you on, step by step, to think out for yourselves a true faith, and to shake off irrational and ill-founded beliefs and opinions. We must, however, first try to get a clear notion of what we are talking about, before we can derive any benefit from the discus­ sion of this unwise maxim,— “Religion without Morality is better than Morality without Religion.” What do the words “religion and morality” here mean? There is no doubt about the meaning' of “morality.” We all mean by it “ Doing what is right to our fellow-men;” “Loving our neigh­ bour as ourselves;” “Doing as we would be done by.” Both the speaker and ourselves agree in calling this “morality.” But I am sure we do not �5 agree with him as to the meaning of the word “religion;” simply because he contrasts in this sentence the one with the other. He draws a distinction and makes a choice between religion and morality; whereas you, if you have followed my teaching for three years, as I believe you have done, would never have dreamt of separating religion from morality, nor morality from religion. Your idea of true religion is, if I mistake not, true obedience to God’s laws; and true obedience to God’s laws is to do what is right, to love your neighbour as yourself. You' believe that no amount of doctrinal belief, of lip service, or even of long and earnest prayers and praises to God, will do instead of our being good; or would at all please God, if we were not, at the same time, working righteousness in our daily lives. So with us, true religion and morality must go together—must be so intimately bound together as to be one and the same. Our religion is our duty, and our duty is our religion. We know of nothing which God demands of us as religious duty which is not part and parcel of moral duty. If I made any distinction between them it would be this:—> Religion is morality with a conscious reference to God’s authority over us, or with a sense of His interest in our well-doing. You see, then, when a Church dignitary talks of religion and morality as if they could be separated, as if one could exist without the other, he cannot �6 mean by the word “ religion ” what we mean by it. His idea of religion cannot be the same as ours, or else he would never have thought of such a thing as religion without morality, or morality without religion. Now, as he is not here to answer for himself the question, “ What do you mean by religion as separate from morality?” the only fair way of pro­ ceeding is to suppose an answer, and to remember all through that we are only supposing it. We can only be certain of one thing, that he did not mean by religion 'what we mean by it. That is clear. Beyond this we can only guess. But, my friends, if you will trust me, I will do my best to tell you what the speaker meant by the word “religion.” I am unhappily more familiar with clerical notions than you are, and have dim recol­ lections of having once thought and spoken as they do now. From the whole tenor of the speech referred to, the speaker meant by “religion” a “ belief in the articles of the Christian Faith.” I do not think, as some have suggested, that he meant any religious belief without morality to be better than morality without any religious belief; but, espe­ cially and definitely, that the maintenance of Christian dogmas, such, for example, as the dogmas of the Incarnation and Atonement, the assertion of the Crucifixion, Burial, Resurrection, and Ascension of Jesus Christ, and the dogmas �7 about the Holy Ghost, the Church, and the for­ giveness of sins—that the maintenance of all these without morality was better than morality without this religious belief. Incredible as it seems to you that any minister of Christ should have so far forgotten, or remained ignorant, of the Master’s own religious belief and religious morality, it is nevertheless true that hundreds of clergymen, and some few laymen, whom they have misled, actually prefer the maintenance of these dogmas to every other cause in the universe. Indeed, as I told you, the Evangelical, seeing that integrity of life renders the mind incapable of being enslaved by his fearful doctrines, frankly owns that a good life is a hindrance to the reception of what he calls the Gospel. It is indeed a hindrance, thank GodI and if you want to be free from credulity and superstition, begin betimes to “ amend your lives, and live in charity with all men.” “ So shall you be meet partakers” of that rich banquet of truth, which God has spread for all upright souls. So surely as you carelessly launch your­ selves into the waves of sin and selfishness, you will have to take refuge, if you ever get to land at all, on some far distant foreign shore, terribly unlike your own home and your native land. Now, if the meaning of the speaker be, that a belief in the articles of the Christian Creed without morality is better than morality with­ out this belief, I put it to you very simply, Do �8 you think so? I frankly own that, though I am a Churchman, I should much rather see them put aside and torn up as rubbish, than to see the cause of morality, which is true religion, for a moment imperilled. I -would honestly prefer a morality without any religious belief—nay, even without any religious hopes and religious consolations — than the most comforting, satisfy­ ing creed without morality. I will not judge other men — not even by their foolish words — but I will say that God has taught me, or I believe He has taught me, that the highest and noblest thing to which we can aspire, is to be righteous — to do what is right—to live and walk, in love; that this is the Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end of all true religion, and that if any religion were found unfavourable to this personal righteousness, this divine morality, it must be a false religion and not a true one; that if any religion could be substituted for morality, so as to make its professors sit down contentedly without making moral effort, satisfied and even happy,".while they are still unrighteous, and morally* no^better for their religion, that religion, whether spoken by men or angels, con­ secrated or not with the testimony of ten thousand miracles, would be a curse instead of a blessing; and what is more, [could have no abiding roots in a world where God has placed the sons of men. For men will be true to the nature which �9 God has given, them, and must learn, whether they will or not, every lesson which their bitter experience forces upon them, with regard to the sovereign importance of righteous dealing. It is from statements like the one which we are considering, that the gravest attacks are made upon existing religious beliefs. The reverend speaker little knew that those few words of his would awaken enquiry, thought, and scepticism which no after apologies can allay. Common men and women like you and me, dear friends, who have our daily work to do, our many self­ denying duties to fulfil, our own rough or sour tempers to control, our homes to guard and our dear ones to cherish and to help—who know how hard the battle between the flesh and the spirit really is — who yearn after eternity, not for its rest and its joy, but for its divine promise of perfect righteousness—when we hear an advo­ cate of modern Christianity talk in these, to us, pagan—nay, worse than pagan—Pharisaical riddles, we feel inclined to retort—“Keep your religion and leave us our morality. Comfort your hearts with incessant religious rites, and stimulate your imaginations with contemplation of wonders which tax human credulity without healing human wounds, which stimulate your fevered selfishness, and narrow up the channels of the love of God; and leave us to ourselves, and to our unaided, un­ seen struggle in the darkness of our own hearts. �10 We would rather thus fight against our daily be­ setting sins, from simple sense of duty, or regard for fellow-men, even should we have to do so with­ out a ray of hope from above, than give up our march onwards, over the stones and briars of life, to stop playing with you by the wayside, while you are mimicking the grand rites of Ancient Sacrifice/ and thinking to please your Maker, or some of His subordinate deities, by your empty and dreary conjuring! “ Take your religion, with its mystifications and its impossibilities, and leave us to our excommuni­ cated morality, and to the uncovenanted mercies of God!” Truth must be spoken, Though God forbid it should ever be said of us, it is certain that some have been driven by these foolish priests into downright Atheism. And an Atheist, you know, is one who does not believe in the existence of God at all. Inexpressibly sad as it is to us, who rejoice in our Maker, and whose hearts pant for the Living God, yet there are some who cannot believe in Him at all. Some of these are kept stedfast in duty, pure and upright in their lives, models of good fathers and mothers, good husbands and wives, and fulfilling God’s own law of love, which in mercy He has not made dependent on Creed, * See Letter, signed C.C., on St. Alban’s Church, Holborn, in the Times, October 19th, 1866, and the article thereon. �11 but lias engraven on our very hearts. They are living evidences of morality without a religion; and if I had to choose between the lot of the righteous man who could not believe in a God, and the man of unlimited credulity, who cared not to be righteous so much as to be a believer, I would infinitely sooner be the righteous Atheist. Simply and solely from love of God I would thus choose. Because I believe that God would be more pleased with any one for doing his duty to his fellow-men, than for being merely occupied with making prayers, and singing psalms, and filling the mind with all sorts of profitless imaginations respecting the unseen. Even, as a poor selfish father, if I must choose, I would rather my children behaved well to each other, and to their mother, than to me. And I would much prefer their doing this, to their coming to me all day long, and making petitions, and saying over the same words of praise to me. But, never fear, there is no need of our having such an alternative set before us. God will not— at least, so we hope and believe,—God will not require us to choose between a religion without morality, and a morality without religion. To “ love our neighbour as ourselves ” is to render the best homage of our lives to our adorable Maker, who has written this as His law upon our hearts. “ To do righteousness is to be righteous even as Christ was righteous.” These are not my words, but St. John’s. u Let no man deceive you.” Be �12 not put off with the enticing parade of religious ceremonies, or the long list of religious dogmas and religious miracles, to abandon your devotion to God in the more difficult, but more honourable conflicts of daily life. If religious belief, and the cause of morality, should ever come into open •1 collision, I know well which must give way. A Creed crowned with the victories of twice .two thousand years cannot stand a day when brought. .Jl into open contrast with the Eternal Law oMoff, M the Law of Love, which man’s deepest heart yearns to fulfil. Priests may howl at you, “ He that believeth not shall be damned” but you may cheerfully and kindly reply, “ We know that we have passed from death unto life, because we love our brethren.” J. Wertheimer & Co., Printers, Circus Place, Finsbury Circus. i* � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Dogma versus morality: a reply to Church Congress Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Voysey, Charles Description An account of the resource Place of publication: London Collation: 12 p. ; 21 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Preached at Healaugh, Sunday morning, October 21st, 1866. Printed by Wertheimer & Co., Finsbury Circus, London. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Trubner and Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5259 Subject The topic of the resource Ethics Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Dogma versus morality: a reply to Church Congress), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Religion and Morality https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/18e81ff0fd05b1e0d850b8a788627859.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=j3PhU0F6z3p1u3KOcHiNyR4CtKR65B69ly%7E3k7UI%7E1sozrZAAbPNb7qpu0Dv-HEXBDTpD9ifVVFKU24tZu%7E%7Ei8OLwpgfU-PohUeM%7E%7EMjqkAsZVA%7ET36JxfUvmvzcG-Yh3MagK0SjPC5VYkV7QTQEK77sRRCD0Bp6CmyAyEc8nVrqEas4wlemDXGN%7Em4Jfv9q4efyvAIgiJx9RU0s4graYgNxGXk2o5qwVzcnbFyw3o-inmyEoj%7EbY%7EqaLyH3Cn5DARSflsoBRReC4NMZiX0NDQwB6FYiCkSQR5wRf600QtADkdBiAf6vsGuPdyfQmDlDfEXSyWy8HXLMn0vYF06LTw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM e59a9920a197225257761f9ec8db96f6 PDF Text Text INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT EDINBURGH, APRIL 2nd, 1866 ; BY THOMAS CARLYLE, ON BEING INSTALLED AS RECTOR OF THE UNIVERSITY THERE. [AUTHORIZED REPORT] EDINBURGH: EDMONSTON AND DOUGLAS. LONDON : CHAPMAN AND HALL. .1 8 6 6. �ADDRESS. Gentlemen,—I have accepted the office you have elected me to, and it is now my duty to return thanks for the great honour done me. Your enthusiasm towards me, I must admit, is in itself very beautiful, however undeserved it may be in regard to the object of it. It is a feeling hon­ ourable to all men, and one well known to myself when I was of an age like yours, nor is it yet quite gone. I can only hope that, with you too, it may endure to the end,—this noble desire to honour those whom you think worthy of honour; and that you will come to be more and more select and discriminate in the choice of the object of it:—for I can well understand that you will modify your opinions of me and of many things else, as you go on. {Laughter and cheers?) It is now fifty-six years, gone last November, since I first entered your City, a boy of not quite fourteen; to ‘attend the classes’ here, and gain knowledge of all kinds, I could little guess what, my poor mind full of wonder and awe-struck ex­ pectation ; and now, after a long course, this is what we have come to. (Cheers?) There is something touching �6 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. and tragic, and yet at the same time beautiful, to see, as it were, the third generation of my dear old native land, rising up and saying, “ Well, you are not altogether an unworthy labourer in the vineyard; you have' toiled through a great variety of fortunes, and have had many judges: this is our judgment of you I” As the old proverb says, ‘ He that builds by the wayside has many masters.’ We must expect a variety of judges; but the voice of young Scotland, through you, is really of some value to me; and I return you many thanks for it,—though I cannot go into describing my emotions to you, and perhaps they will be much more perfectly conceivable if expressed in silence. (Cheers.) When this office was first proposed to me, some of you know I was not very ambitious to accept it, but had my doubts rather. I was taught to believe that there were certain more or less important duties which would lie in my power. This, I confess, was my chief motive in going into it, and overcoming the objections I felt to such things: if I could do anything to serve my dear old Alma Mater and you, why should not I ? (Loud cheers.) Well, but on practically looking into the matter when the office actually came into my hands, I find it grows more and more uncertain and abstruse to me whether there is much real duty that I can do at all. I live four hundred miles away from you, in an entirely different scene of things; and my weak health, with the burden of the many years now accumulating on me, and my total unacquaintance with such subjects as concern your affairs here,—all this fills me with apprehension that there is �EXTEMPORE. 7 really nothing worth the least consideration that I can do on that score. You may depend on it, however, that if any such duty does arise in any form, I will use my most faithful endeavour to do in it whatever is right and proper, according to the best of my judgment. (Cheers.) Meanwhile, the duty I at present have,—which might be very pleasant, but which is not quite so, for reasons you may fancy,—is to address some words to you, if possible not quite useless, nor incongruous to the occasion, and on subjects more or less cognate to the pursuits you are engaged in. Accordingly, I mean to offer you some loose observations, loose in point of order, but the truest I have, in such form as they may present themselves; certain of the thoughts that are in me about the business you are here engaged in, what kind of race it is that you young gentlemen have started on, and what sort of arena you are likely to find in this world. I ought, I believe, according to custom, to have written all that down on paper, and had it read out. That would have been much handier for me at the present moment—(A laugh);— but, on attempting the thing, I found I was not used to write speeches, and that I didn’t get on very well. So I flung that aside; and could only resolve to trust, in all superficial respects, to the suggestion of the moment, as you now see. You will therefore have to accept what is readiest; what comes direct from the heart; and you must just take that in compensation for any good order or arrangement there might have been in it. I will endea­ vour to say nothing that is not true, so far as I can manage; and that is pretty much all I can engage for. (A laugh.) �8 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. Advices, I believe, to young men, as to all men, are very seldom much valued. There is a great deal of ad­ vising, and very little faithful performing ; and talk that does not end in any kind of action is better suppressed altogether. I would not, therefore, go much into advising; but there is one advice I must give you. In fact, it is the summary of all advices, and doubtless you have heard it a thousand times; but I must nevertheless let you hear it the thousand-and-first time, for it is most intensely true, whether you will believe it at present or not:—namely, That above all things the interest of your whole life depends on your being diligent, now while it is called to-day, in this place where you have come to get education ! Diligent: that includes in it all virtues that a student can have: I mean it to include all those qualities of conduct that lead on to the acquirement of real instruction and improve­ ment in such a place. If you will believe me, you who are young, yours is the golden season of life. As you have heard it called, so it verily is, the seed-time of life; in which, if you do not sow, or if you sow tares instead of wheat, you cannot expect to reap well afterwards, and you will arrive at little. And in the course of years, when you come to look back, if you have not done what you have heard from your advisers,—and among many counsellors there is wisdom,—you will bitterly repent when it is too late. The habits of study acquired at Universities are of the highest importance in after-life. At the season when you are young in years, the whole mind is, as it were, fluid, and is capable of forming itself into any shape that the owner of the mind pleases to allow it, or con­ �HONESTY OF MIND. 9 strain it, to form itself into. The mind is then in a plastic or fluid state ; but it hardens gradually, to the consistency of rock or of iron, and you cannot alter the habits of an old man: he, as he has begun, so he will proceed and go on to the last. By diligence I mean among other things, and very chiefly too,—honesty, in all your inquiries, and in all you are about. Pursue your studies in the way your conscience can name honest. More and more endeavour to do that. Keep, I should say for one thing, an accurate separation between what you have really come to know in your minds and what is still unknown. Leave all that latter on the hypothetical side of the barrier, as things afterwards to be acquired, if acquired at all; and be careful not to admit a thing as known when you do not yet know it. Count a thing known only when it is imprinted clearly on your mind, and has become transparent to you, so that you may survey it on all sides with intelligence. There is such a thing as a man endeavouring to persuade himself, and endeavouring to persuade others, that he knows things, when he does not know more than the outside skin of them; and yet he goes flourishing about with’ them. (Hear, hear, and a laugh?) There is also a process called cramming, in some Universities (A laugh),—that is, getting up such points of things as the examiner is likely to put questions about. Avoid all that, as entirely unworthy of an honourable mind. Be modest, and humble, and assiduous in your attention to what your teachers tell you, who are pro­ foundly interested in trying to bring you forward in the right way, so far as they have been able to understand it. �10 e INAUGURAL ADDRESS. Try all things they set before you, in order, if possible, to understand them, and to follow and adopt them in propor­ tion to their fitness for you. Gradually see what kind of work you individually can do; it is the first of all pro­ blems for a man to find out what kind of work he is to do in this universe. In short, morality as regards study is, as in all other things, the primary consideration, and overrules all others. A dishonest man cannot do anything real; he never will study with real fruit; and perhaps it would be greatly better if he were tied up from trying it. He does nothing but darken counsel by the words he utters. That is a very old doctrine, but a very true one; and you will find it confirmed by all the thinking men that have ever lived in this long series of generations of which we are the latest. I daresay you know, very many of you, that it is now some seven hundred years since Universities were first set up in this world of ours. Abelard and other thinkers had arisen with doctrines in them which people wished to hear of, and students flocked towards them from all parts of the world. There was no getting the thing recorded in books, as you now may. You had to hear the man speaking to you vocally, or else you could not learn at all what it was that he wanted to say. And so they gathered to­ gether, these speaking ones,—the various people who had anything to teach;—and formed themselves gradually, under the patronage of kings and other potentates who were anxious about the culture of their populations, and nobly studious of their best benefit; and became a body­ �UNIVERSITIES. 11 corporate, with high privileges, high dignities, and really high aims, under the title of a University. Possibly too you may have heard it said that the course of centuries has changed all this ; and that ‘ the true Uni­ versity of our days is a Collection of Books.’ And beyond doubt, all this is greatly altered by the invention of Print­ ing, which took place about midway between us and the origin of Universities. Men have not now to go in person to where a Professor is actually speaking; because in most cases you can* get his doctrine out of him through a book; and can then read it, and read it again and again, and study it. That is an immense change, that one fact of Printed Books. And I am not sure that I know of any University in which the whole of that fact has yet been completely taken in, and the studies moulded in complete conformity with it. Nevertheless, Universities have, and will continue to have, an indispensable value in society; —I think, a very high, and it might be, almost the highest value. They began, as is well known, with their grand aim directed on Theology,—their eye turned earnestly on Heaven. And perhaps, in a sense, it may be still said, the very highest interests of man are virtually intrusted to them. In regard to theology, as you are aware, it has been, and especially was then, the study of the deepest heads that have come into the world,—what is the nature of this stupen­ dous universe, and what are our relations to it, and to all things knowable by man, or known only to the great Author of man and it. Theology was once the name for all this; all this is still alive for man, however dead the name may grow! In fact, the members of the Church keeping �12 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. theology in a lively condition—(Laughter)—for the benefit of the whole population, theology was the great object of the Universities. I consider it is the same intrinsically now, though very much forgotten, from many causes, and not so successful—(A laugh)—as might be wished, by any manner of means I It remains, however, practically a most important truth, what I alluded to above, that the main use of Universities in the present age is that, after you have done with all your classes, the next thing is a collection of books, a great i library of good books, which you proceed to study and to read. What the Universities can mainly do for you,—what I have found the University did for me, is, That it taught me to read, in various languages, in various sciences ; so that I could go into the books which treated of these things, and gradually penetrate into any department I wanted to make myself master of, as I found it suit me. Well, gentlemen, whatever you may think of these historical points, the clearest and most imperative duty lies on every one of you to be assiduous in your reading. Learn to be good readers,—which is, perhaps, a more difficult thing than you imagine. Learn to be di scrim in ative in your reading; to read faithfully, and with your best attention, all kinds of things which you have a real in­ terest in, a real not an imaginary, and which you find to be really fit for what you are engaged in. Of course, at the present time, in a great deal of the reading incumbent on you, you must be guided by the books recommended by your Professors for assistance towards the effect of their �READING. 13 prelections. And then, when you leave the University, and go into studies of your own, you will find it very important that you have chosen a field, some province specially suited to you, in which you can study and work. The most unhappy of all men is the man who cannot tell what he is going to do, who has got no work cut out for him in the world, and does not go into it. For work is the grand cure of all the maladies and miseries that ever beset mankind,— honest work, which you intend getting done. If, in any vacant vague time, you are in a strait as to choice of reading,-^-a very good indication for you, perhaps the best you could get, is towards some book you have a great curiosity about. You are then in the readiest and best of all possible conditions to improve by that book. It is analogous to what doctors tell us about the physical health and appetites of the patient. You must learn, however, to distinguish between false appetite and true. There is such a thing as a false appetite, which will lead a man into vagaries with regard to diet; will tempt him to eat spicy things, which he should not eat at all, nor would, but that the things are toothsome, and that he is under a momentary baseness of mind. A man ought to examine and find out what he really and truly has an appetite for, what suits his constitution and condition; and that, doctors tell him, is in general the very thing he ought to have. And so with books. As applicable to all of you, I will say that it is highly expedient to go into history; to inquire into what has passed before you on this Earth, and in the Family of Man. �14 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. The history of the Romans and Greeks will first of all concern you; and you will find that the classical know­ ledge you have got will he extremely applicable to eluci­ date that. There you have two of the most remarkable races of men in the world set before you, calculated to open innumerable reflections and considerations; a mighty advantage, if you can achieve it;—to say nothing of what their two languages will yield you, which your Professors can better explain; model languages, which are universally admitted to be the most perfect forms of speech we have yet found to exist among men. And you will find, if you read well, a pair of extremely remarkable nations, shining in the records left by themselves, as a kind of beacon, or solitary mass of illumination, to light up some noble forms of human life for us, in the otherwise utter darkness of the past ages; and it will be well worth your while if you can get into the understanding of what these people were, and what they did. You will find a great deal of hearsay, of empty rumour and tradition, which does not touch on the matter; but perhaps some of you will get to see the old Roman and the old Greek face to face; you will know in some measure how they contrived to exist, and to perform their feats in the world. I believe, also, you will find one important thing not much noted, That there was a very great deal of deep reli­ gion in both nations. This is pointed out by the wiser kind of historians, and particularly by Ferguson, who is particu­ larly well worth reading on Roman history,—and who, I believe, was an alumnus of our own University. His book is a very creditable work. He points out the profoundly �ROMANS AND GREEKS. 15 religious nature of the Roman people, notwithstanding their ruggedly positive, defiant, and fierce ways. They believed that Jupiter Optimus Maximus was lord of the universe, and that he had appointed the Romans to become the chief of nations, provided they followed his commands,—to brave all danger, all difficulty, and stand up with an invin­ cible front, and be ready to do and die; and also to have the same sacred regard to truth of promise, to thorough veracity, thorough integrity, and all the virtues that ac­ company that noblest quality of man, valour,—to which latter the Romans gave the name of ‘ virtue’ proper (yirtus, manhood), as the crown and summary of all that is en­ nobling for a man. In the literary ages of Rome, this re­ ligious feeling had very much decayed away; but it still retained its place among the lower classes of the Roman people. Of the deeply religious nature of the Greeks, along with their beautiful and sunny effulgences of art, you have striking proof, if you look for it. In the tragedies of Sophocles, there is a most deep-toned recognition of the eternal justice of Heaven, and the unfailing punish­ ment of crime against the laws of God. I believe you will find in all histories of nations, that this has been at the origin and foundation of them all; and that no nation which did not contemplate this wonderful universe with an awestricken and reverential belief that there was a great unknown, omnipotent, and all-wise and all-just Being, superintending all men in it, and all interests in it,—no nation ever came to very much, nor did any man either, who forgot that. If a man did forget that, he forgot the most important part of his mission in this world. �16 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. Our own history of England, which you will naturally take a great deal of pains to make yourselves acquainted with, you will find beyond all others worthy of your study. For indeed I believe that the British nation,—including in that the Scottish nation,—produced a finer set of men than any you will find it possible to get anywhere else in the world. (Applause?) I don’t know, in any history of Greece or Rome, where you will get so fine a man as Oliver Cromwell, for example. (Applause?) And we, too, have had men worthy of memory, in our little corner of the Island here, as well as others; and our history has had its heroic features all along; and did become great at last in being connected with world-history:—for if you examine well, you will find that John Knox was the author, as it were, of Oliver Cromwell; that the Puritan revolution never would have taken place in England at all, had it not been for that Scotchman. (Applause.) That is an authentic fact, and is not prompted by national vanity on my part, but will stand examining. (Laughter and applause^) In fact, if you look at the struggle that was then going on in England, as I have had to do in my time, you will see that people were overawed by the immense impedi­ ments lying in the way. A small minority of God-fearing men in that country were flying away, with any ship they could get, to New England, rather than take the lion by the beard. They durst not confront the powers with their most just complaints, and demands to be delivered from idolatry. They wanted to make the nation altogether con­ formable to the Hebrew Bible, which they, and all men, �ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH HISTORY. 17 understood to be the exact transcript of the Will of God ; —and could there be, for man, a more legitimate aim ? Nevertheless, it would have been impossible in their circumstances, and not to be attempted at all, had not Knox succeeded in it here, some fifty years before, by the firmness and nobleness of his mind. For he also is of the select of the earth to me,—John Knox. (Applause?) What he has suffered from the ungrateful generations that have followed him should really make us humble ourselves to the dust, to think that the most excellent man our country has produced, to whom we owe everything that distin­ guishes us among the nations, should have been so sneered at, misknown, and abused. (Applause?) Knox was heard by Scotland; the people heard him, believed him to the marrow of their bones : they took up his doctrine, and they defied principalities and powers to move them from it. “We must have it,” they said; “ we will and must!” It was in this state of things that the Puritan struggle arose in England; and you know well how the Scottish earls and nobility, with their tenantry, marched away to Dunse Hill in 1639, and sat down there: just at the crisis of that struggle, when it was either to be suppressed or brought into greater vitality, they encamped on Dunse Hill,—thirty thousand armed men, drawn out for that occasion, each regiment round its landlord, its earl, or whatever he might be called, and zealous all of them ‘ For Christ’s Crown and Covenant.’ That was the signal for all England’s rising up into unappeasable determination to have the Gospel there also ; and you know it went on, and came to be a contest whether the Parliament or the King should rule; whether it B �18 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. should he old formalities and use and wont, or something that had been of new conceived in the Souls of men, namely, a divine determination to walk according to the laws of God here, as the sum of all prosperity; which, of these should have the mastery: and after a long, long agony of struggle, it was decided—the way we know. I should say also of that Protectorate of Oliver Crom­ well’s, notwithstanding the censures it has encountered, and the denial of everybody that it could continue in the world, and so on, it appears to me to have been, on the whole, the most salutary thing in the modern history of England. If Oliver Cromwell had continued it out, I don’t know what it would have come to. It would have got corrupted probably in other hands, and could not have gone on; but it was pure and true, to the last fibre, in his mind; there was perfect truth in it while he ruled over it. Machiavelli has remarked, in speaking of the Romans, that Democracy cannot long exist anywhere in the world; that as a' mode of government, of national management or administration, it involves an impossibility, and after a little while must end in wreck. And he goes on proving that, in his own way. I do not ask you all to follow him in that conviction—(hear),—but it is to him a clear truth; he considers it a solecism and impossibility that the universal mass of men should ever govern them­ selves. He has to admit of the Romans, that they con­ tinued a long time; but believes, it was purely in virtue of this item in their constitution, namely, of their all having the conviction in their minds that it was solemnly �THE PROTECTOR. 19 necessary, at times, to appoint a Dictator; a man who had the power of life and death over everything, who degraded men out of their places, ordered them to execution, and did whatever seemed to him good in the name of God above him. He was commanded to take care that the republic suffer no detriment. And Machiavelli calculates that this was the thing which purified the social system, from time to time, and enabled it to continue as it did. Probable enough, if you consider it. And an extremely proper function surely, this of a Dictator, if the republic was composed of little other than bad and tumultuous men, triumphing in general over the better, and all going the bad road, in fact. Well, Oliver Cromwell’s Protectorate, or Dictatorate if you will let me name it so, lasted for about ten years, and you will find that nothing which was contrary to the laws of heaven was allowed to live by Oliver. (Applaus'e.) For example, it was found by his Parliament of Notables, what they call the ‘Barebones Parliament,’—the most zealous of all Parliaments probably (laughter),—that the Court of Chancery in England was in a state which was really capable of no apology; no man could get up and say that that was a right court. There were, I think, fifteen thousand, or fifteen hundred (Laughter),—I really don’t remember which, but we will call it by the last num­ ber, to be safe (Renewed laughter);—-there were fifteen hundred cases lying in it undecided; and one of them, I remember, for a large amount of money, was eightythree years old, and it was going on still; wigs were wagging over it, and lawyers were taking their fees, and �20 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. there was no end of it. Upon view of all which, the Barebones people, after deliberation about it, thought it was expedient, and commanded by the Author of Man and Fountain of Justice, and in the name of what was true and right, to abolish said court. Really, I don’t know who could have dissented from that opinion. At the same time, it was thought by those who were wiser in their generation, and had more experience of the world, that this was a very dan­ gerous thing, and wouldn’t suit at all. The lawyers began to make an immense noise about it. (Laughter?) All the public, the great mass of solid and well-disposed people who had got no deep insight into such matters, were very adverse to it: and the Speaker of the Parliament, old Sir Francis Rous,— who translated the Psalms for us, those that we sing here every Sunday in the Church yet; a very good man, and a wise and learned, Provost of Eton College afterwards,— he got a great number of the Parliament to go to Oliver the Dictator, and lay down their functions altogether, and declare officially, with their signature, on Monday morning, that the Parliament was dissolved. The act of abolition had been passed on Saturday night; and on Monday morning, Rous came and said, “We cannot carry on the affair any longer, and we remit it into the hands of your Highness.” Oliver in that way became Protector a second time. I give you this as an instance that Oliver was faithfully doing a Dictator’s function, and of his prudence in it, as well. Oliver felt that the Parliament, now dismissed, had been perfectly right with regard to Chan­ cery, and that there was no doubt of the propriety of abolishing Chancery, or else reforming it in some kind �sources of history. 21 of way.. He considered the matter, and this is what he did. He assembled sixty of the wisest lawyers to be found in England. Happily, there were men great in the law; men who valued the laws of England as much as anybody ever did; and who knew withal that there was something still more sacred than any of these. (A laugh,^ Oliver said to them, “ Go and examine this thing, and in the name of God inform me what is necessary to be done with it. You will see how we may clean out the foul things in that Chancery Court, which render it poison to everybody.” Well, they sat down accordingly, and in the course of six weeks,(there was no public speaking then, no reporting of speeches, and no babble of any kind, there was just the business in hand,)—they got sixty propositions fixed in their minds as the summary of the things that re­ quired to be done. And upon these sixty propositions, Chancery was reconstituted and remodelled; and so it got a new lease of life, and has lasted to our time. It had become a nuisance, and could not have continued much longer. That is an instance of the manner of things that were done when a Dictatorship prevailed in the country, and that was how the Dictator did them. I reckon, all England, Parliamentary England, got a new lease of life from that Dictatorship of Oliver’s; and, on the whole, that the good fruits of it will never die while England exists as a nation. In general, I hardly think that out of common history books you will ever get into the real history of this country, or ascertain anything which can specially illu­ �■ INAUGURAL ADDRESS. minate it for you, and which it would most of all behove you to know. You may read very ingenious and very clever books, by men whom it would be the height of in­ solence in me to do other than express my respect for. But their position is essentially sceptical. God and the Godlike, as our fathers would have said, has fallen asleep for them; and plays no part in their histories. A most sad and fatal condition of matters; who shall say how fatal to us all' A man unhappily in that condition will make but a tem­ porary explanation of anything:—in short, you will not be able, I believe, by aid of these men, to understand how this Island came to be what it is. You will not find it re­ corded in books. You will find recorded in books a jumble of tumults, disastrous ineptitudes,, and all that kind of thing. But to get what you want, you will have to look into side sources, and inquire in all directions. I remember getting Collins’s Peerage to read,—a very poor performance as a work of genius, but an excellent book for diligence and fidelity. I was writing on Oliver Crom­ well at the time. (Applause?) I could get no biographical dictionary available; and I thought the Peerage Book, since most of my men were peers or sons of peers, would help me, at least would tell me whether people were old or young, where they lived, and the like particulars, better than absolute nescience and darkness. And accordingly I found amply all I had expected in poor Collins, and got a great deal of help out of him. He was a diligent dull London bookseller, of about a hundred years ago, who compiled out of all kinds of parchments, charter-chests, archives, books that were authentic, and gathered far and �COLLINS’S PEERAGE. 23 wide wherever he could get it the information wanted. He was a very meritorious man. I not only found the solution of everything I had ex­ pected there, but I began gradually to perceive this im­ mense fact, which I really advise every one of you who read history to look out for, if you have not already found it. It was that the Kings of England, all the way from the Norman Conquest down to the times of Charles I., had actually, in a good degree, so far as they knew, been in the habit of appointing as Peers those who deserved to be appointed. In general, I perceived, those Peers of theirs were all royal men of a sort, with minds full of justice, valour, and humanity, and all kinds of qualities that men ought to have who rule over others. And then their genea­ logy, the kind of sons and descendants they had, this also was remarkable:—for there is a great deal more in genea­ logy than is generally believed at present. I never heard tell of any clever man that came of entirely stupid people. (Laughter^) If you look around, among the families of your acquaintance, you will see such cases in all directions;— I know that my own experience is steadily that way; I can trace the father, and the son, and the grandson, and the family stamp is quite distinctly legible upon each of them. So that it goes for a great deal, the hereditary prin­ ciple,—in Government as in other things; and it must be recognised so soon as there is any fixity in things. You will remark, too, in your Collins, that, if at any time the genealogy of a peerage goes awry, if the man that actu­ ally holds the peerage is a fool,—in those earnest practical times, the man soon gets into mischief, gets into treason �24 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. probably,—soon gets himself and his peerage extinguished altogether, in short. (Laughter?) From those old documents of Collins, you learn and ascertain that a peer conducts himself in a pious, highminded, grave, dignified, and manly kind of way, in his course through life, and when he takes leave of life:—his last will is often a remarkable piece, which one lingers over. And then you perceive that there was kindness in him as well as rigour, pity for the poor; that he has fine hospitalities, generosities,—in fine, that he is throughout much of a noble, good and valiant man. And that in general the King, with a beautiful approximation to accuracy, had nominated this kind of man; saying, “ Come you to me, sir. Come out of the common level of the people, where you are liable to be trampled upon, jostled about, and can do in a manner nothing with your fine gift; come here and take a district of country, and make it into your own image more or less; be a king under me, and understand that that is your function.” I say this is the most divine thing that a human being can do to other human beings, and no kind of thing whatever has so much of the character of God Almighty’s Divine Government as that thing, which, we see, went on all over England for about six hundred years. That is the grand soul of England’s history. (Cheers?) It is historically true that, down to the time of James, or even Charles I., it was not under­ stood that any man was made a Peer without having merit in him to constitute him a proper subject for a peerage. In Charles i.’s time, it grew to be known or said that, if a man was born a gentleman, and cared to �BOOKS. 25 lay out £10,000 judiciously up and down among courtiers, lie could be made a Peer. Under Charles H. it went on still faster, and has been going on w7ith ever-increasing velocity, until we see the perfectly breakneck pace at which they are going now (A laugh?), so that now a peerage is a paltry kind of thing to what it was in those old times. I could go into a great many more details about things of that sort, but I must turn to another branch of the subject. First, however, one remark more about your reading. I do not know whether it has been sufficiently brought home to you that there are two kinds of books. When a man is reading on any kind of subject, in most depart­ ments of books,—in all books, if you take it in a wide sense,—he will find that there is a division into good books and bad books. Everywhere a good kind of book and a bad kind of book. I am not to assume that you are unacquainted, or ill acquainted with this plain fact; but I may remind you that it is becoming a very im­ portant Consideration in our day. And we have to cast aside altogether the idea people have, that, if they are. reading any book, that if an ignorant man is reading any book, he is doing rather better than nothing at all. I must entirely call that in question; I even venture to deny it. (Laughter and cheers?) It would be much safer and better for many a reader, that he had no concern with books at all. There is a number, a frightfully increasing number, of books that are decidedly, to the readers of them, not useful. (?H?ear?) But an ingenuous reader will learn, also, that a certain number of books were written by a su­ �26 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. premely noble kind of people,—not a very great number of books, but still a number fit to occupy all your reading industry, do adhere more or less to that side of things. In short, as I have written it down somewhere else, I conceive that books are like men’s souls; divided into sheep and goats. (Laughter and cheers.) Some few are going up, and carrying us up, heavenward; calculated, I mean, to be of priceless advantage in teaching,—in forwarding the teaching of all generations. Others, a frightful multitude, are going down, down; doing ever the more and the wider and the wilder mischief. Keep a strict eye on that latter class of books, my young friends!— And for the rest, in regard to all your studies and read­ ings here, and to whatever you may learn, you are to remember that the object is not particular knowledges,— not that of getting higher and higher in technical perfec­ tions, and all that sort of thing. There is a higher aim lying at the rear of all that, especially among those who are intended for literary or speaking pursuits, or the sacred profession. You are ever to bear in mind that there lies behind that the acquisition of what may be called wisdom; —namely, sound appreciation and just decision as to all the objects that come round you, and the habit of behaving with justice, candour, clear insight, and loyal adherence to fact. Great is wisdom; infinite is the value of wisdom. It cannot be exaggerated ; it is the highest achievement of man: ‘ Blessed is he that getteth understanding.’ And that, I believe, on occasion, may be missed very easily; never more easily than now, I sometimes think. If that �ENDOWMENTS. 27 is a failure, all is failure!—However, I will not touch further upon that matter. But I should have said, in regard to hook-reading, if it he so very important, how very useful would an excellent library be in every University! I hope, that will not be neglected by the gentlemen who have charge of you; and, indeed, I am happy to hea.r that your library is very much improved since the time I knew it, and I hope it will go on improving more and more. Nay, I have sometimes thought, why should not there be a library in every county town, for benefit of those that could read well, and might if permitted? True, you require money to accomplish that;—and withal, what perhaps is still less attainable at present, you require judgment in the selectors of books; real insight into what is for the advantage of human souls, the exclusion of all kinds of clap-trap books which merely excite the astonishment of foolish people (Laughter), and the choice of wise books, as much as possible of good books. Let us hope the future will be kind to us in this respect. In this University, as I learn from many sides, there is considerable stir about endowments; an assiduous and praiseworthy industry for getting new funds collected to encourage the ingenuous youth of Universities, especially of this our chief University. (Hear, hear?) Well, I entirely participate in everybody’s approval of the movement. It is very desirable. It should be responded to, and one surely expects it will. At least, if it is not, it will be shameful to the country of Scotland, which never was so rich in money as at the present moment, and never stood �28 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. so much iu need of getting noble Universities, and insti­ tutions to counteract many influences that are springing up alongside of money. It should not be slack in coming forward in the way of endowments (A laugh) ; at any rate, to the extent of rivalling our rude old barbarous ancestors, as we have been pleased to call them. Such munificence as theirs is beyond all praise; and to them, I am sorry to say, we are not yet by any manner of means equal, or ap­ proaching equality. (Laughter?) There is an abundance and over-abundance of money. Sometimes I cannot help thinking that probably never has there been, at any other time, in Scotland, the hundredth part of the money that now is, or even the thousandth part. For wherever I go there is that same gold-nuggeting (A laugh?),—-that ‘ unex; ampled prosperity,’ and men counting their balances by the million sterling. Money was never so abundant, and nothing that is good to be done with it. (Hear, hear, and a laugh?) No man knows,—or very few men know,—what benefit to get out of his money. In fact, it too often is secretly a curse to him. Much better for him never to have had any. But I do not expect that generally to be believed. (Laughter?) Nevertheless, I should think it would be a beneficent relief to many a rich man who has an honest purpose struggling in him, to bequeath some house of refuge, so to speak, for the gifted poor man who may' hereafter be born into the world, to enable him to get on his way a little. To do, in fact, as those old Norman kings whom I have been describing; to raise some noble poor man out of the dirt and mud where he is getting trampled on unworthily, by the unworthy, into some kind �A DEEPER WANT. 29 of position where he might acquire the power to do a little good in his generation! I hope that as much as possible will be achieved in this direction; and that efforts will not be relaxed till the thing is in a satisfactory state. In regard to the classical department, above all, it surely is to be desired by us that it were properly supported,—that we could allow the fit people to have their scholarships and subventions, and devote more leisure to the cultivation of particular departments. We might have more of this from Scotch Universities than we have; and I hope we shall. I am bound, however, to say that it does not appear as if, of late times, endowment were the real soul of the matter. The English, for example, are the richest people in the world for endowments in their Universities; and it is an evident fact that, since the time of Bentley, you cannot name anybody that has gained a European name in scholarship, or constituted a point of revolution in the pursuits of men in that way. The man who does so is a man worthy of being remembered; and he is poor, and not an Englishman. One man that actually did constitute a revolution was the son of a poor weaver in Saxony; who edited his Tibullus, in Dresden, in a poor comrade’s garret, with the floor for his bed, and two folios for pillow; and who, while editing his Tibullus, had to gather peasecod shells on the streets and boil them for his dinner. That was his endowment. (Laughter?) But he was recognised soon to have done a great thing. His name was Heyne. (Cheers?) I can remember, it was quite a revolution in my mind when I got hold of that �30 INAUGURAL address. man’s edition of Virgil. I found that, for the first time, I understood Virgil; that Heyne had introduced me, for the first time, into an insight of Roman life and ways of thought; had pointed out the circumstances in which these works were written, and given me their interpreta­ tion. And the process has gone on in all manner of developments, and has spread out into other countries. On the whole, there is one reason why endowments are not given now as they were in old days, when men founded abbeys, colleges, and all kinds of things of that description, with such success as we know. All that has now changed; a vast decay of zeal in that direction. And truly the reason may in part be, that people have become doubtful whether colleges are now the real sources of what I called wisdom; whether they are anything more, anything much more, than a cultivating of man in the specific arts. In fact, there has been in the world a suspicion of that kind for a long time. (A laugh.') There goes a proverb of old date, ‘ An ounce of mother-wit is worth a pound of clergy.’ {Laughter^) There is a suspicion that a man is perhaps not nearly so wise as he looks, or because he has poured out speech so copiously. {Laughter.) When ‘the seven free arts ’ which the old Universities were based on, came to be modified a little, in order to be convenient for the wants of modern society,—though perhaps some of them are obsolete enough even yet for some of us,—there arose a feeling that mere vocality, mere culture of speech, if that is what comes out of a man, is not the synonym of wisdom by any means ! That a man may be a ‘ great speaker,’ as eloquent as you like, and but little real substance in him,—espe­ �FINE SPEECH. 31 cially, if that is what was required and aimed at by the man himself, and by the community that set him upon becoming a learned man. Maid-servants, I hear people complaining, are getting instructed in the ‘ologies,’ and are apparently becoming more and more ignorant of brew­ ing, boiling, and baking (Laughter); and above all, are not taught what is necessary to be known, from the highest of us to the lowest,—faithful obedience, modesty, humility, and correct moral conduct. Oh, it is a dismal chapter all that if one went into it,— what has been done by rushing after fine speech! I have written down some very fierce things about that, perhaps considerably more emphatic than I could now wish them to be; but they were and are deeply my conviction. (Hear, hear?) There is very great necessity indeed of getting a little more silent than we are. It seems to me as if the finest nations of the world,—the English and the Ameri­ can, in chief,—were going all off into wind and tongue. (Applause and laughter?) But it will appear sufficiently tragical by-and-by, long after I am away out of it. There is a time to speak, and a time to be silent. Silence withal is the eternal duty of a man. He won’t get to any real understanding of what is complex, and what is more than aught else pertinent to his interests, without keeping silence too. ‘Watch the tongue,’ is a very old precept, and a most true one. I don’t want to discourage any of you from your Demosthenes, and your studies of the niceties of language, and all that. Believe me, I value that as much as any �32 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. one of you. I consider it a very graceful thing, and a most proper, for every human creature to know what the implement which he uses in communicating his thoughts is, and how to make the very utmost of it. I want you to study Demosthenes, and to know all his excellences. At the same time, I must say that speech, in the case even of Demosthenes, does not seem, on the whole, to have turned to almost any good account. He advised next to nothing that proved practicable; much of the re­ verse. Why tell me that a man is a fine speaker, if it is not the truth that he is speaking ? Phocion, who mostly did not speak at all, was a great deal nearer hitting the mark than Demosthenes. (Laughter?) He used to tell the Athenians, “You can’t fight Philip. Better if you don’t provoke him, as Demosthenes is always urging to you to do. You have not the slightest chance with Philip. He is a man who holds his tongue ; he has great disciplined armies; a full treasury; can bribe any­ body you like in your cities here; he is going on steadily with an unvarying aim towards his object; while you, with your idle clamourings, with your Cleon the Tanner spout­ ing to you what you take for Wisdom— ! Philip will in­ fallibly beat any set of men such as you, going on raging from shore to shore with all that rampant nonsense.” Demosthenes said to him once, “ Phocion, you will drive the Athenians mad some day, and they will kill you.” “ Yes,” Phocion answered, “ me, when they go mad; and as soon as they get sane again, you I ” (Laughter and applause?) It is also told of him how he went once to Messene, on some deputation which the Athenians wanted �FINE SPEECH. 33 him to head, on some kind of matter of an intricate and contentious nature: Phocion went accordingly; and had, as usual, a clear story to have told for himself and his case. He was a man of few words, but all of them true and to the point. And so he had gone on telling his story for a while, wheii there arose some interruption. One man, interrupting with something, he tried to answer; then another, the like ; till finally, too many went in, and all began arguing and bawling in endless debate. Where­ upon Phocion struck down his staff; drew back altogether, and would speak no other word to any man. It appears to me there is a kind of eloquence in that rap of Phocion’s staff which is equal to anything Demosthenes ever said: “ Take your own way, then; I go out of it altogether.” (Applause?) Such considerations, and manifold more connected with them,—innumerable considerations, resulting from obser­ vation of the world at this epoch,—have led various people to doubt of the salutary effect of vocal education altogether. I do not mean to say it should be entirely excluded; but I look to something that will take hold of the matter much more closely, and not allow it to slip out of our fingers, and remain worse than it was. For, if a ‘good speaker,’ never so eloquent, does not see into the fact, and is not speaking the truth of that, but the untruth and the mistake of that,—is there a more horrid kind of object in creation ? (Loud cheers?) Of such speech I hear all manner of people say, “ How excellent!” Well, really it is not the speech, but the thing spoken, that I am anxious about! I really care very little how the man I �34 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. said it, provided I understand him, and it be true. Ex­ cellent speaker ? But what if he is telling me things that are contrary to the fact; what if he has formed a wrong judgment about the fact,—if he has in his mind (like Phocion’s friend, Cleon the Tanner) no power to form a right judgment in regard to the matter? An excellent speaker of that kind is, as it were, saying, “ Ho, every one that wants to be persuaded of the thing that is not true; here is the man for you!” (Great laughter and applause?) I recommend you to be very chary of that kind of excellent speech. (?Renewed laughter?) Well, all that sad stuff being the too well-known product of our method of vocal education,—the teacher merely operating on the tongue of the pupil, and teaching him to wag it in a particular way (Laughter),—it has made various thinking men entertain a distrust of this not very salu­ tary way of procedure; and they have longed for some less theoretic, and more practical and concrete way of working out the problem of education;-—in effect, for an educa­ tion not vocal at all, but mute except where speaking was strictly needful. There would be room for a great deal of description about this, if I went into it; but I must con­ tent myself with saying that the most remarkable piece of writing on it is in a book of Goethe’s,—the whole of which you may be recommended to take up, and try if you can study it with understanding. It is one of his last books; written when he was an old man above seventy years of age: I think, one of the most beautiful he ever wrote; full of meek wisdom, of intellect and piety; which �THE EDUCATION OF THE FUTURE. 35 is found to be strangely illuminative, and very touching, by those who have eyes to discern and hearts to feel it. This about education is one of the pieces in Wilhelm, Meister’s Travels; or rather, in a fitful way, it forms the whole gist of the book. I first read it many years agoand, of course, I had to read into the very heart of it while I was translating it (Applause); and it has ever since dwelt in my mind as perhaps the most remark­ able bit of writing which I have known to be executed in these late centuries. I have often said that there are some ten pageS of that, which, if ambition had been my only rule, I would rather have written, been able to write, than have written all the books that have appeared since I came into the world. (Cheers?) Beep, deep is the meaning of what is said there. Those pages turn on the Christian religion, and the religious phenomena of the modern and the ancient world: altogether sketched out in the most aerial, graceful, delicately wise kind of way, so as to keep him­ self out of the common controversies of the street and of the forum, yet to indicate what was the result of things he had been long meditating upon. Among others, he introduces in an airy, sketchy kind of way, with here and there a touch,—the sum-total of which grows into a beautiful picture,—a scheme of entirely mute education, at least with no more speech than is ab­ solutely necessary for what the pupils have to do. Three of the wisest men discoverable in the world have been got together, to consider, to manage and supervise, the function which transcends all others in importance; that of building up the young generation so as to keep it �36 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. free from that perilous stuff that has been weighing us down, and clogging every step;—which function, in­ deed, is the only thing we can hope to go on with, 'c we would leave the world a little better, and not the worse, of our having been in it, for those who are to follow. The Chief, who is the Eldest of the 'three, says to Wil­ helm : “ Healthy well-formed children bring into the world with them many precious gifts; and very frequently these are best of all developed by Nature herself, with but slight assistance, where assistance is seen to be wise and profitable, and with forbearance very often on the part of the overseer of the process. But there is one thing which no child brings into the world with him, and without which all other things are of no use.” Wilhelm, who is there beside him, asks, “And what is that?” “All want it,” says the Eldest; “perhaps you yourself.” Wilhelm says, “Well, but tell me what it is?” “ It is,” answers the other, “ Reverence (EhrfurcM); Re­ verence! Honour done to those who are greater and better than ourselves; honour distinct from fear. Ehrfurcht; the soul of all religion that has ever been among men, or ever will be.” And then he goes into details about the religions of the modern and the ancient world. He practically distinguishes the kinds of religion that are, or have been, in the world ; and says that for men there are three reverences. The boys are all trained to go through certain gesticulations; to lay their hands on their breast and look up to heaven, in sign of the first reverence; other forms for the other two: so they give their three reverences. The first and �THE EDUCATION OF THE FUTURE. 37 simplest is that of reverence for what is above us. It is the soul of all the Pagan religions; there is nothing better in th# antique man than that. Then there is reverence for what is around us,—reverence for our equals, to which he attributes an immense power in the culture of man. The third is reverence for what is beneath us; to learn to recognise in pain, in sorrow and contradiction, even in thoee things, odious to flesh and blood, what divine meanings are in them; to learn that there lies in these also, and more than in any of the preceding, a priceless blessing. And he defines that as being the soul of the Christian religion,—the highest of all religions; ‘ a height,’ as Goethe says (and that is very true, even to the letter, as I con­ sider), ‘ a height to which mankind was fated and enabled to attain; and from which, having once attained it, they can never retrograde.’ Man cannot quite lose that (Goethe thinks), or permanently descend below it again; but always, even in the most degraded, sunken, and unbe­ lieving times, he calculates there will be found some few souls who will recognise what this highest of the religions meant; and that, the world having once received it, there is no fear of its ever wholly disappearing. The Eldest then goes on to explain by what methods they seek to educate and train their boys; in the trades, in the arts, in the sciences, in whatever pursuit the boy is found best fitted for. Beyond all, they are anxious to dis­ cover the boy’s aptitudes; and they try him and watch him continually, in many wise ways, till by degrees they can discover this. Wilhelm had left his own boy there, per­ haps expecting they would make him a Master of Arts, X �38 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. or something of the kind; and on coming back for him, he sees a thunder-cloud of dust rushing over the plain, of which he can make nothing. It turns out to be a tempest of wild horses, managed by young lads who had a turn for horsemanship, for hunting, and being grooms. His own son is among them || and 'he finds that the breaking of colts has been the thing he was most suited for. (Laughter?) The highest outcome, and most precious of all the fruits that are to spring from this ideal mode of educating, is what Goethe calls Art:—of which I could at present give no definition that would make it clear to you, unless it were clearer already than is likely. (A laugh?) Goethe calls it music, painting, poetry: but it is in quite a higher sense than the common one ; and a sense in which, I am afraid, most of our painters, poets, and music men, would not pass muster. (A laugh?) He considers this as the highest pitch to which human culture can go; infinitely valuable and ennobling; and he watches with great in­ dustry how it is to be brought about, in the men who have a turn for it. Very wise and beautiful his notion of the matter is. It gives one an idea that something far better and higher, something as high as ever, and indubitably true too, is still possible for man in this world.—And that is all I can say to you of Goethe’s fine theorem of mute education. I confess it seems to me there is in it a shadow of what will one day be; will and must, unless the world is to come to a conclusion that is altogether frightful: some kind of scheme of education analogous to that; presided over by the �THE EDUCATION OF THE FUTURE. 39 wisest and most sacred men that can be got in the world, and watching from a distance: a training in practicality at every turn; no speech in it except speech that is to be followed by action, for that ought to be the rule as nearly as possible among men. Not very often or much, rarely rather, should a man speak at all, unless it is for the sake of something that is to be done; this spoken, let him go and do his part in it, and say no more about it. I will only add that it is possible,—all this fine theorem of Goethe’s, or something similar ! Consider what we have already ; and what ‘ difficulties ’ we have overcome. I should say there is nothing in the world you can conceive so difficult, prima facie, as that of getting a set of men gathered together as soldiers. Rough, rude, ignorant, dis­ obedient people; you gather them together, promise them a shilling a day; rank them up, give them very severe and sharp drill; and by bullying and drilling and com­ pelling (the word drilling, if you go to the original, means ‘beating,’ ‘steadily tormenting’ to the due pitch), they do learn what it is necessary to learn; and there is your man in red coat, a trained soldier; piece of an ani­ mated machine incomparably the most potent in this world; a wonder of wonders to look qt. He will go where bidden; obeys one man, will walk into the can­ non’s mouth for him; does punctually whatever is com­ manded by his general officer. And, I believe, all manner of things of this kind could be accomplished, if there were the same attention bestowed. Very many things could be regimented, organized into this mute system;—and perhaps in some of the mechanical, com­ �40 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. mercial, and manufacturing departments, some faint in­ cipiences may be attempted before very long. For the saving of human labour, and the avoidance of human misery, the effects would be incalculable, were it set about and begun even in part. Alas, it is painful to think how very far away it all is, any real fulfilment of such things! For I need not hide from you, young gentlemen,—and it is one of the last things I am going to tell you,—that you have got into a very troublous epoch of the world; and I don’t think you will find your path in it to be smoother than ours has been, though you have many advantages which we had not. You have careers open to you, by public examinations and so on, which is a thing much to be approved of, and which we hope to see perfected more and more. All that was entirely unknown in my time, and you have many things to recognise as advantages. But you will find the ways of the world, I think, more anarchical than ever. Look where one will, revolution has come upon us. We have got into the age of revolutions. All kinds of things are coming to be subjected to fire, as it were: hotter and hotter blows the element round everything. Curious to see how, in Oxford and other places that used to seem as lying at anchor in the stream of time, regardless of all changes, they are getting into the highest humour of mutation, and all sorts of new ideas are afloat. It is evident that what­ ever is not inconsumable, made of asbestos, will have to be burnt, in this world. Nothing other will stand the heat it is getting exposed to. And in saying that, I am but saying in other words that �AN AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 41 we are in an epoch of anarchy. Anarchy plus a constable! (Laughter?) There is nobody that picks one’s pocket without some policeman being ready to take him up. (?Renewed laughter?) But in every other point, man is becoming more and more the son, not of Cosmos, but of Chaos. He is a disobedient, discontented, reckless, and altogether waste kind of object (the commonplace man is, in these epochs); and the wiser kind of man, —the select few, of whom I hope you will be part,—has more and more to see to this, to look vigilantly forward ; and will require to move with double, wisdom. Will find, in short, that the crooked things he has got to pull straight in his own life all round him, wherever he may go, are manifold, and will task all his strength, however great it be. But why should I complain of that either ? For that is the thing a man is born to, in all epochs. He is born to expend every particle of strength that God Almighty has given him, in doing the work he finds he is fit for; to stand up to it to the last breath of life, and do his best. We are called upon to do that; and the reward we all get, —which we are perfectly sure of if we have merited it,—is that we have got the work done, or at least that we have tried to do the work. For that is a great blessing in itself; and I should say, there is not very much more reward than that going in this world. If the man gets meat and clothes, what matters it whether he buy those neces­ saries with seven thousand a year, or with seven million, could that be, or with seventy pounds a year? He can get meat and clothes for that; and he will find intrinsi­ �42 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. cally, if he is a wise man, wonderfully little real differ­ ence. (Laughter?) On the whole, avoid what is called ambition; that is not a fine principle to go upon,—and it has in it all de­ grees of vulgarity, if that is a consideration. ‘ Seekest thou great things, seek them notI warmly second that advice of the wisest of men. Don’t be ambitious; don’t too much need success; be loyal and modest. Cut down the proud towering thoughts that get into you, or see that they be pure as well as high. There is a nobler ambition than the gaining of all California would be, or the getting of all the suffrages that are on the Planet just now. (Loud and prolonged cheers?) Finally, gentlemen, I have one advice to give you, which is practically of very great importance, though a very humble one. In the midst of your zeal and ardour,— for such, I foresee, will rise high enough, in spite of all the counsels to moderate it that I can give you,—remember the care of health. I have no doubt you have among you young souls ardently bent to consider life cheap, for the purpose of getting forward in what they are aiming at of high; but you are to consider throughout, much more than is done at present, and what it would have been a very great thing for me if I had been able to consider, that health is a thing to be attended to continually; that you are to regard that as the very highest of all temporal things for you. (Applause?) There is no kind of achievement you could make in the world that is equal to perfect health. What to it are nuggets and millions ? The French financier �HEALTH. 43 said, “ Why, is there no sleep to be sold !” Sleep was not in the market at any quotation. {Laughter and applause?) It is a curious thing, which I remarked long ago, and have often turned in my head, that the old word for ‘holy’ in the Teutonic languages, heilig, also means ‘healthy.’ Thus Heilbronn means indifferently ‘holy-well,’ or ‘health­ well.’ We have, in the Scotch too, ‘ hale,’ and its deriva­ tives; and, I suppose, our English word ‘whole’ (with a ‘w’), all of one piece, without any hole in it, is the same word. I find that you could not get any better defini­ tion of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy.’ Completely healthy; mens sana in corpore sano. {Applause.) A man all lucid, and in equilibrium. His intellect a clear mirror geometrically plane, brilliantly sensitive to all objects and impressions made on it, and imaging all things in their correct proportions; not twisted up into convex or concave, and distorting everything, so that he cannot see the truth of the matter-without endless groping and manipulation: healthy, clear, and free, and discerning truly all round him. We never can attain that at all. In fact, the operations we have got into are destructive of it. You cannot, if you are going to do any decisive intellectual operation that will last a long while; if, for instance, you are going to write a book,—you cannot manage it (at least, I never could) without getting decidedly made ill by it: and really one nevertheless must; if it is your business, you are obliged to follow out what you are at, and to do it, if even at the expense of health. Only remember, at all times, to get back as fast as possible out of it into health; and regard that as the real equilibrium �44 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. and centre of things. You should always look at the heilig, which means 1 holy’ as well as ‘healtny.’l I And that old etymology,—what a lesson it is against certain gloomy, austere, ascetic people, who have gone about as if this world were all a dismal prison-house. It has indeed got all the ugly things in it which I have been alluding to ; but there is an eternal sky over it; and the blessed sunshine, the green of prophetic spring, and rich harvests coming,—all this is in it, too. Piety does not mean that a man should make a sour face about things, and refuse to enjoy wisely what his Maker has given. Neither do you find it to have been so with the best sort, —with old Knox, in particular. No; if you look into Knox you will find a beautiful Scotch humour in him, as well as the grimmest and sternest truth when necessary, and a great deal of laughter. We find really some of the sunniest glimpses of things come out of Knox that I have seen in any man; for instance, in his History of the Reformation,—which is a book I hope every one of you will read (Applause), a glorious old book. On the whole, I would bid you stand up to your work, whatever it may be, and not be afraid of it; not in sor­ rows or contradictions to yield, but to push on towards the goal. And don’t suppose that people are hostile to you or have you at ill-will, in the world. In general, you will rarely find anybody designedly doing you ill. You may feel often as if the whole world were obstructing you, setting itself against you: but you will find that to mean only, that the world is travelling in a different way from you, and, rushing on in its own path, heedlessly treads on you. �A LAST WORD. 45 That is mostly all: to you no specific ill-will;—only each has an extremely good-will to himself, which he has a right to have, and is rushing on towards his object. Keep out of literature, I should say also, as a general rule (Laughter), —though that is by-the-by. If you find many people who are hard and indifferent to you, in a world which you consider to be inhospitable and cruel, as often indeed happens to a tender-hearted, striving young creature, you will also find there are noble hearts who will look kindly on you; and their help will be precious to you beyond price. You will get good and evil as you go on, and have the success that has been appointed you. I will wind up with a small bit of verse which is from Goethe also, and has often gone through my mind. To me, it has something of a modern psalm in it, in some mea­ sure. It is deep as the foundations, deep and high, and it is true and clear :—no clearer man, or nobler and grander intellect has lived in the world, I believe, since Shakspeare left it. This is what the poet sings;—a kind of road-melody or marching-music of mankind : ‘ The Future hides in it Gladness and sorrow; We press still thorow, Nought that abides in it Daunting us,—onward. And solemn before us, Veiled, the dark Portal; Goal of all mortal:— Stars silent rest o’er us, Graves under us silent. �46 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. While earnest thou gazest, Comes boding of terror, Comes phantasm and error; Perplexes the bravest With doubt and misgiving. But heard are the Voices, Heard are the Sages, The Worlds and the Ages “ Choose well, your choice is Brief, and yet endless. Here eyes do regard you, In Eternity’s stillness; Here is all fulness, Ye brave, to reward you ; Work, and despair not.” ’ Work, and despair not: Wir heissen euch hoffcn, We bid you be of hope!’—let that be my last word. Gentlemen, I thank you for your great patience in hearing me ; and, with many most kind wishes, say Adieu for this time. EDINBURGH I THOMAS CONSTABLE, PRINTER TO THE QUEEN, AND TO THE UNIVERSITY. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Inaugural address at Edinburgh, April 2nd, 1866; by Thomas Carlyle, at being installed as Rector of the university there Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlyle, Thomas [1795-1881.] Description An account of the resource Place of publication: Edinburgh; London Collation: 46 p. ; 20 cm. Notes: 'Authorised Report' [title page]. Later published under the title 'On the Choice of Books'. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Edmonston and Douglas; Chapman and Hall Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5189 Subject The topic of the resource Education Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (Inaugural address at Edinburgh, April 2nd, 1866; by Thomas Carlyle, at being installed as Rector of the university there), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Addresses Education Reading Speeches Thomas Carlyle https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/36abd9fa0ad790661618c7e66c8807f4.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=MfZB6TwyE6fcd3WNf-XXrAmF6GACJGItL-YmLSCawLUd-mhsWVo-87-Gcw9QQMQ-BZrv4NW4Ch5y-QpiMC-h%7EJjUKs91N3DWsJvdFCYP%7EZUoUOTSZImb82B8gK9UJ4pU4Mc-H%7EE1EsUHySKlOCVzlzARbQHPzedY%7E0OciTUkYy5XuTc6WVlBaW1AtZ3uR29tdjqoogD56yC2wulf6Bp0ClwkFzNLF%7ENiGnm6lmcJG1%7Eia7cNDPYibYwKVbWhvSL1nS1bCVjJEpAdQsW%7E46quG%7EKVlZBe37IBaoZapZhstzu1iXshIBVLfq6tWMUAyCvCmZ9k8j-o6mCLDjs3P%7EboBQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 704caa7fe95bd1dd4f235dd501e10d08 PDF Text Text THE TRUTHSEEKER, VOL. IV.] DECEMBER, 1866. [No. 44. THE CLOSING YEAR. Once more we come to the end of our labours for another year ; and once more, with the few words we are accustomel to write on such occasions, we have to commend these labours to the generous consideration of all who have borne us company on the way. The year that is now ending has not been as fruitful of change as previous years, for it seems that we have now found the audience that can hear all we have to say. As a matter of busi­ ness, our undertaking must still be regarded as a failure; our contributors still write for love, and the conductor of “ The Truthseeker ” is still solely responsible for the yearly loss which rewards his toil. It is very likely that a committee could be formed who would undertake to relieve him of this responsi­ bility, but it is felt that perfect freedom can be best secured by maintaining the present position of affairs • and, so long as convincing proofs exist, as they do now, that t , ^>eed sown is bringing forth good fruit, any work or sacrifice, within possible limits, will still be cheer­ fully and even thankfully welcomed. And yet we appeal for help. These words will be read by more than two thousand persons, nearly all of whom will be sincerely interested in our efforts, or even quite at one with us in our ideas. To these we say;—and we have earned a right to say it;—Give us your hearty sympathy and earnest help in carrying out the task we have set before us. We need not point out the legitimate and proper ways in which such an undertaking as this can be sup­ ported. We ask for no personal favour and plead for no “nursing” of this Review, willing as we are to stand or fall on our own merits or failures. We only repeat the word of last December, —“ The seeking of the Truth sometimes scatters us, but concerning one thing we should at least be united—the pre­ servation of the faintest light that illumines, or the feeblest sentinel that guards the way.” Thanking many known and unknown friends for kind and generous words that have helped us greatly, we have now only to prepare for another year of work, with undiminished faith, and a good hope that will “ Still bear up and ateer right onward.” �262 THOUGHTS FOR THE HEART AND LIFE. (Fob Advent Time.) “ Rapent ye therefore and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out; when the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord. And He shall send Jesus Christ who, before, was preached unto you.”—Acts iii, 19-20. We have come round once more to the first days in Advent. From afar we once more see the star of the childChrist appear ; and the blessed atmos­ phere of Christmas, which is itself a kind of benediction, is slowly gathering round us, It was a wise and pious feel­ ing that led the fathers of the English Church to provide a month of prepara­ tion that we might not be surprised by a sudden Christmas, or lose the sweet charm of anticipation and the prolonged pleasures of the day. To-day, then, we stand on the threshold—we come into the outer court of the Holy Place, and all around us gather the pure memories of the time. And to the eye of the reverent believer there is an angel everywhere with a message suited to the day. The earnest woman who hastened at early dawn to the sepulchre found angels waiting where her dear Lord had been: and so to us will the angels appear when, with loving haste, we turn our feet to seek the Lord. And this is what seems to me their message to us now— purest and heavenliest message for Advent time—“ Repent ye therefore and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out, when the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord.” And a dear and loving message from on high it is,—a message which if it fills us with contrition will fill us also with consolation,—a message which calls us to repent, but which calls us to sweet refreshing from the presence of the Lord. I want no theory of the Church to prove to me that this message is inspired: no miracle could prove that to me as itself could do. It brings with it its own evidence in its power to heal and to bless me : it is not merely in­ spired, it is an inspiration : it is not only alive but it gives life. We are called by these words, then, to make this month of Advent time a month of heart-searching and of heart-refreshing; and, that we may do so, look upon their wondrous wisdom and heavenly beauty. First, the angel of Advent time calls us to Repent;—a word that suggests the commencement of all heart-change, that goes to the root of all lieart-sin. Why are we so far from God and Heaven ? Why do we need an Advent time, and a Christ who shall save His people from their sins ? Why do we need the re­ deeming angel with his heavenly mes­ sage of love and peace ? Simply because we are estranged from God by sin. And so the first strain of this Advent song is in the minor key—“ O sons of men, Repent!” Ah ! how often does God so begin even His dearest messages ! In­ tending to end in love and joy and glad­ ness even to exultation, how often does He begin with some touching minor strain, that opens the heart, that lures us from our sin, that teaches us how to repent! We may not come suddenly to the joy of our Lord: first sorrow then salvation : first repentance, then peace. And so the angel seems to meet us on �THOUGHTS FOB THE HEART AND LIFE. the threshold; seeming to bar our pas­ sage with sober hand—“Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground.” Put off thy follies, thy vanities, thy pride, thy envy, thy jealousy, thy malice, thy selfishness ; make the heart ready for Him who is to dwell therein, its rightful Lord and King—Repent. Dear friends, let us listen to this good angel —to this first word that falls from its lips, and let Advent time once more be consecrated by the cleansing of our hearts before God. Think of all the old offences of the year, of all the undue anxiety about gain, of all the un­ generosity, of all the hard, unyielding, temper of the year ; and now, with this sweet messenger of Advent time—this new angel from Heaven to lead the way—let us enter in, with silent feet and bowed head; and if the dear God will suffer us to lay before His altar all these sins and stains and scars of the year, let us sorrow before Him with lowly hearts and bid our better nature live. But this is another step in the Hea­ venly way: and this, too, is named here, as the angel’s second word—“ Repent and be converted.” For repentance is not all: repentance is negative. Con­ version is affirmative. Repentance says —This is that for which I grieve : con­ version says—This is that for which I long. Repentance is stopping on the wrong road, conversion is turning into the right road. Hence that beautiful word of Christ—“Except ye be con­ verted and become as little children ye shall not enter into the kingdom of Heaven.” For this is indeed, con­ version,—to become as little children, 263 living in all pure simplicity, putting aside all our artificial evils and con­ tracted sins, and letting the pure na­ ture that belongs to every man have sway. And though this angel of Advent time may seem inexorable, asking too much of mortal man, we may be sure it asks no more than we need to have asked of us,—we may be sure that it is needful for us that the heavenly message of peace should begin with a call to purity : for, before the pure light of Advent time can stream into our hearts, the brood of evils that have nestled there must all depart, and the longing soul must be prepared to receive the better life. So then conversion as well as repentance is asked of us, that we put down the old and take up the new—that we not only see the wrong but follow the right,—that we not only bid farewell to the offences of the year but joyfully welcome the new Evangel of a better life to come. We must not only bury the old grudge, but we must stretch forth the generous, open hand: we must not only sacrifice pride, but go on to taste the sweets of all humility : we must not only check our feverish pursuit of gain, but learn to prize the better riches of a furnished mind, a virtuous spirit, and a religious soul: we must not only lay our burden down at God’s altar with regretful hearts that we had sinned, but lift up this prayer with passionate entreaty—“ Lead me, O God, and teach me, unite my heart to fear Thy name.” Thus much the Heavenly messenger demands of us— that we enter not into the Heavenly Temple with soiled and stained hearts, with unchastened spirits, with lofty tempers, with unsubdued wills,—that �264 THOUGHTS FOR THE HEART AND LIFE. we may not be inwardly darkened against the glorious light of Advent time,—that we may make the heart ready for the Christ that is to be. And now, the tone is changed; ano­ ther key is struck; and the angel of mercy ceases this plaintive cry for repentance and conversion; and, these being accomplished, the face of the messenger beams with a serener radi­ ance, as these words fall on the pre­ pared ear,—“and the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord.” Dear friends, we cannot believe these words too well,—we cannot hear them too often: for God who calls us to repentance calls us to refresh­ ing, and has appointed blessings to wait upon us while we lie before Him humbled in the dust. But here is the secret. It is not that He demands re­ pentance and contrition before He will give these times of refreshing, but it is that this refreshing is the fruit of the repentance to which we are called. And this is why Christmas time is a time of generosity and kindliness,—a time of pleasure and pure delight. We feel more generous then, more forgiving, more open-hearted, more child-like; and we wonder what it is that gives the charm. Alas ! that we should be in doubt about it: it is only what Christ said,—only they can enter the Kingdom of Heaven who are like little children, and the Kingdom of Heaven is “within you;” and ’tis the child-like, gentle, holy heart that enters into its own holy of holies, and finds its priest and home and altar there. Hence, the angel’s message is only the announcement of nature’s law—a Heavenly transla­ tion of an earthly condition—“ the times of refreshing” shall come when repentance and conversion have led the way. And is it not so ? Is there not a refreshment [in loving forgiveness, when we refuse to remem­ ber old offences, and let the dear light of Advent time create a new world of sympathies and delights ? What a sad life it is that is filled with envy, and wrath, and a spirit of resistance and avarice, and assertion of self ? What a loss of all that is dear and beau­ tiful in life ! What a blighting of all pure affections, and generous feelings, and noble thoughts ! What a creation of a perennial fountain of bitter waters in the soul! and in what a gloom must the spirit live—one long, black, cheer­ less winter day! But what new joys and pure delights are born when the ice melts, when the hard hand relaxes, when the stubborn temper yields, when the heart yearns to do an unselfish thing, and flies to make a sacrifice ra­ ther than to snatch a victory ! What a new joy rises upon the whole man! What a release of all the frost-bound affections and imprisoned kindnesses of the poor starved soul! What a new world of life and beauty! The eye can see now, and the ear is open, and the heart is sensitive, and the times of re­ freshing have come to the recovered soul. Is there not a refreshment even in the very tears of contrition, when the wanderer comes back, and the soul re­ gains its own true home ? and are not the regrets, the remorse, the very shame of the spirit, precious and dear, since they tell of a great deliverance and a true return ? And then what times of refreshment come when the new virtue clothes the �THOUGHTS FOR THE HEART AND LIFE. soul like some pure vesture brought by angel-hands—when the spirit feels that it is pure, and at peace with God and man—when, one by one, like the stars at night, the virtues of the soul appear, and blot out at last the dreary expanse with their glorious array! What a re­ freshment when the soul can return to God’s altar, no more with the bitter cry of repentance, but with the subdued and peaceful voice of lowlyhearted gratitude,—“ Not unto us, Oh Lord, not unto us, but unto Thy name be all the praise !” Like that sad demoniac who sat at last clothed and in his right mind at the Saviour’s feet: like the worn and weary prodigal, when he had proved his penitence, and shown that he was worthy of the forgiving kiss of peace : like the wounded Mag­ dalen, when all Heaven dawned on her Borry heart with those consoling words, “ Thy sins be forgiven thee, go in peaceso to our hearts—to each in his degree, if we be truly penitent—comes this sweet evangel, this first strain of the full angel-melody that shall fill the air with Heavenly music soon, “Peace on earth, goodwill towards men.” And that word brings us to yet another note in the perfect harmony of this heavenly message. For listen to its fulness—“the times of refreshing shall come from, the presence of the Lord.” Yes, there is all the secret! It is the presence of the Lord that works all this glorious change. Once believe in that, and old things will pass away, and all things will be­ come new: and we shall seek no more our true delight in our own poor deeds and plans, but in Him whose beautiful presence is in itself a salvation, and who “gives to His beloved in their sleep.” 265 Thus from that presence the refresh­ ment comes; for He beholds our con­ trition, and accepts our penitence, and consecrates our tears, and fills us with a nameless peace, when we put on our beautiful garments, and stand before Him as sons at home. It is the presence of the Lord that makes Advent time a time of purity, and peace, and holy joy ; and it is this presence of the Lord that would turn earth into Heaven for us everywhere, if we had eyes to see and hearts to love Him: “Old friends, old scenes, will lovelier be, As more of Heaven in each we see : Some softening g.eam of love and prayer Shall dawn on every cross and care.” And now, to complete this Advent song —to bring us nigh to the very Holy of Holies—to shed abroad the true light and glory of the time, hear these words: “And He shall send Jesus, who before was preached unto you.” Thus in Him all is fulfilled, to bring as to sincere re­ pentance, to teach us true conversion, to give us immortal refreshment, and to bring us nigh to the presence of the un­ seen Lord. Behold, then, the m earn ng of Advent-time. It heralds the coming of one who is the revealer of God and the Saviour of man—of one who comes to open our eyes and touch our hearts— to do for us all that the love and wisdom of an unseen God designed. For it is the Father who sends the Son, that we might know all the mighty meaning of an unseen Father’s love. Come then, holy and blessed Re­ deemer of the world—come to our longestranged hearts, and win them all for God! And Thou, Father and Saviour, who art so nigh to us, and who didst send Thy Son only that He might open our hearts to see Thee, vouchsafe to us �266 SHE FOUR GOSPELS. the purest fellowship with Thy Hea­ venly messengers; and into all our hearts let this dear message fall:— "Come, oh ye children of time, and hear once more the psalm of the blest Evan­ gel—‘ Repent, believe, and live, that the times of refreshing may come to your fainting souls !’ ” THE FOUR GOSPELS: The History of their Transmission, their Evidences and their Peculiarities. LECTURE 'Sjlll.—An Enquiry into the History, Claims, and Peculiarities of the Gospel according to St. John. Turning now to the last of the four gospels, the least careful reader will feel that he is treading on new ground, and breathing another atmosphere. “In the other gospels,” he will say, " I saw pecu­ liarities, and detected distinctions, but here everything seems changed. The story is a different one: the very Christ himself seems no longer the same.” This will be felt even by one who can only read the gospel in our English ver­ sion, and who is unacquainted with the history of thought in the ancient world and in the early Christian Church. But all this will be much more sensibly felt by those who know something both of the original tongue and of the peculiari­ ties of thought and expression associated with ancient philosophical systems. The very first phrase in the gospel, the whole, indeed, of what has been called the prologue to the gospel—marks it out as a specialty, as something to be stu­ died in connection with the prevailing religious speculations of the age which produced it. For that " In the beginning was the Word” could only have been written by one who had grown familiar with the philosophy which delighted in these very words. Thus, the question as to the authorship of this gospel be­ comes a very important one: but up to this very hour it remains an open ques­ tion—one upon which fresh light is being poured almost every day. The John to whom this gospel is as­ cribed seems to have been one of Christ’s favourites—in all probability the disci­ ple described as the one "whom Jesus loved.” He was, moreover, one of the two or three Christ took with Him on great and solemn occasions : so also he was one of the few who ventured near to witness the last moments of his dear Master and Friend; and it was to him Christ looked when, with touching thought and affection, He bade him be a true son in His stead to the mother who also stood by. He it was who, it is said, wrote the three tender epistles that con­ trast so wonderfully with the gigantic strength of the Epistles of St. Paul. He it was also of whom it was said that, when old age prevented him speaking, at length, of the Master he loved so well, he used to be carried into the church by younger hands, to repeat over and over again, day after day, the burden of his epistles—" Little children I love one another.” Nor is it a contradiction to this glimpse of the character of St. John to be reminded that he was one of the two brothers whom Christ called Boanerges, or Sons of Thunder; for all greatly loving �TH® FOUR GOSPHLS. men have in them much potential thun­ der. Thus Paul who, in an hour of peril, cried to his sorrowing friends, “ What mean ye, to weep and to break my heart!” added, “ For I am ready, not to be bound only, but also to die at Jeru­ salem for the name of the Lord Jesus.” And Luther, who knew how to defy all the crowned and mitred heads in Europe, had a nature that was pathetically ten­ der and affectionate. In our own time Theodore Parker was another illustratration of this apparent contradiction— that the Son of Thunder is the disciple whom Jesus loves. That this gospel, then, was written by John was the ancient belief of the fathers of the Christian Church, so far as they have mentioned it at all. Thus Irenaeus distinctly states that John wrote this gospel “ to extirpate the errors” of the Gnostics. Eusebius, the historian, testifies that “ John, who is the last of the evangelists, having seen that, in the three former gospels, corporeal things had been explained, and, being urged by his acquaintance and inspired of God, composed a spiritual gospel.” But no one is to be censured who is unable to receive this opinion, since it is very doubtful whether in the lifetime of John, and by John, such a gospel could have been written. I shall have to point out, presently, the very peculiar character of this gos­ pel—the evident familiarity of the writer of it with the phrases and the forms of thought of philosophical systems pre­ vailing both before Christ (as, of course, separate from Christianity) and long after Christ (as allied to the new faith.J Well might it be asked, “ Is it indeed John who is able to write in Greek these lessons of abstract metaphysics, to which neither the synoptics nor the Talmud offer any analogy ?” The same questioner has acutely remarked that if Jesus really spoke as these discourses in the fourth gospel represent Him as speaking, it is more than suprising “that but a single one of his hearers (and bio­ graphers) should have so well kept the secret.” “ The Gospel according to St. John,” then, may, in reality, be the gospel ac­ cording to the school of John, written, not by the apostle himself, but by some devoted disciple who, preserving the traditions handed down by John, used these and other “ remains” of the vener­ able and venerated apostle to combat and yet to satisfy the growing heresies o£ the day that attempted to pour the new wine of Christianity into the old bottles of a metaphysical system of thought , of which John would know little, and for which he would have cared less. It is not at all impossible; indeed, it is quite likely, that some follower of John, or, perhaps, at a farther remove, some Christian thinker acquainted with the philosophy of Alexandria, wrote this gospel, never intending to “palm it off” upon the Church as the work of St. John, but simply publishing it as another version of the life of Him to whom the whole Church ardently de­ sired to make subject all the “kingdoms of this world.” Certain it is that this gospel seems to depart from the simpli­ city of the earlier records, giving a new reading, as it were, in a new light, of the great life : and it is not easy to see how such a life could have been written by one who had seen the Lord—who had known Him as the guest at Bethany and �268 THE TOUR GOSPELS. the despised one of Jerusalem—who had been trained, notin the schools of Egypt, but by the side of Christ. One thing we must note, by the way, that the gospel was evidently written for Gentile readers. The Hebrew names, such as Rabbi, Cephas, Messiah, &c., are all translated into Greek equivalents. The feasts of the Jews, moreover, are called Jewish, as though the writer stood outside Palestine. In the same way, explanatory clauses are often inserted which could hardly have been necessary for Jewish readers. Respecting the style of writing pecu­ liar to this gospel, what we have chiefly to notice, is its remarkable simplicity; this being all the more remarkable be­ cause it concerns itself with the profoundest metaphysical and spiritual subjects. In other hands, this gospel might easily have become so dull that ordinary readers would never have cared to read it, or so involved that few would have been able to profit by it. But, as it is, is not too much to say that we should look in vain amongst early Chris­ tian records for a narrative at once so simple in its style and yet so lofty in its aim,—so artless and unpretending and yet so original and profound. This is all the more remarkable because there is nothing in this gospel, as to the style of it, to lead us to suppose that the author of it was either a practised writer or a great reader of classical Greek. I have already intimated that the pe­ culiar charactei’ of the gospel is to be seen at once in what has been called the prologue or proem—the opening verses of the ¡st chapter. Now this prologue has been misunderstood by thousands who have not sufficiently taken into ac­ count the relation of the peculiar phraseology employed here to the philo­ sophical systems that prevailed before and after the time of Christ. The word “ Logos,” here translated Word, was no new term, but one that had long been used by the philosophical winters of in­ fluential schools of thought. It was older than Christ, and the writer of this gospel found it ready made to his hand. He was coining no new phraseology,— he was starting no new idea. He did not set out of his own accord to call Christ “ 0 Logos,” or the Word; but he begins where others left off—he takes up the common language of the schools, he stands with the philosophers, and, like Paul in another case, the Word they dimly knew or profitlessly theorised over he proposed to preach unto them: “ Be­ hold in Him,” he cries, “ behold in Him the Logos of whom ye speak.” The truth, then, is, that the Evange­ list sets out to prove the very opposite of what is generally supposed to be proved here. We are told that in this prologue we have a triumphant proof of the Deity of Christ, but what we really have is a wonderfully clear testimony as to the essential and perfect unity of God. If these lectures were theological instead of critical or descriptive, it would be easy to shew this at length, but I may just point out that what the writer is here combating is the idea that the word or creative power is a being sepa­ rate from God. The truth is that the one great object of these opening verses is to assert, (in opposition to the philoso­ phical speculations that were gradually introducing into the Church the mons­ trosity of a second God,) that God was �THB FOUR OO9PSL». one—that the Word was not something or some one apart from God,—that it never began to be as a separate being— that it was therefore “in thebeginning with God,”—His very inmost Thought and Life—Himself. Yes ! the Word was God, and not a separate being as the philosophers had maintained, and as the so-called orthodox divines of our own time now maintain. And, in Christ, the Word was “made flesh”—the image of the invisible God was projected upon the manifested man, and so, as even Dean Al­ ford admits, “Christ is the Word of God— because the Word dwells in and speaks from Him, just as the light dwells in and shines from, and the Life lives in, and works from Him.” Thus, though the man Christ Jesus was not pre-existent, the Logos was ; for Christ was of Time but the Logos which was manifested in Him -was of Eternity—that was “ in the beginning with God”—that “was God;” and in Christ we see “ the glory ” of it, even in Him who was “ full of grace and truth.” The idea of a Logos or word, then, as having an independent existence apart from God,—as being, in fact, a second person,—was the idea the Evangelist combated as repugnant to Christian thought. For the philosophers, reflect­ ing upon the Infinite God and the crea­ tion of the world of matter and finite man, had called into being this idea of a second or mediate Deity, in their at­ tempts to conceive of the creation of all things. This mediate Deity was at first, not a definite and distinct person, but an impersonation of power or wisdom— a personification of the Eternal idea—an image of the Divine mind, by which (or by whom) all other things were made or 269 became. Thus, the Word was the image of the invisible God, “ the beginning of the creation of God; ”—and this was how the philosophers sought to bridge over the infinite and awful interval be­ tween the seen and the unseen, the eter­ nal and the temporal, God and man. It was thus that the idea of a Logos or Word arose (long before Christ came). Men could not logically conceive of God as creating the world tillhe had “passed” as it were “ out of Himself; ” and so man’s apparent necessity led to the con­ ception of God’s all-creative Worda personification the worst fruit of which was that it put far away the face of God as the immediate Guide and Friend of man. Upon this, the Christian teacher comes in with his sublime declaration that man is born of God—that God is all, and that the Word, which has been deemed so great a necessity, was and is no other than God Himself. Seeming to partly agree with the philosophers and their doctrine of the Logos, and taking up and repeating their lan­ guage, he yet comes to quite another conclusion,—that we are all the sons of God who receive Him in the spirit of His Son. That this essential Unity of God was not broken but rather manifested and set forth by the coming of Christ is seen in the attitude Christ loved to preserve towards God, and in that great declara­ tion “that the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us,” and that they who beheld the glory of Christ beheld the glory of a beloved son full of His Father’s “ grace and truth.” This ex­ position of these phrases is borne out by I some of the most ancient Fathers of the | early Christian Church. These opening �270 THE FOUB GOSPELS, verses of the Gospel, then, contain for us a priceless truth. The Word of God is that inspiring Breath—that all per­ vading Life of God—which blesses "every man that cometh into the world”: —a Life which will be in us and in all men as we are able to receive it. It is clear, then, that this Gospel was written not for ordinary enquirers, or for Christian learners, but for believers who had got far beyond the elementary teach­ ings of the Church—who knew the facts, so fully and so constantly reported by every Christian teacher who opened his lips. We have no longer the reporter but the apologist, the Christian philoso­ pher. For narrative, we have analysis; for remembrance, we have meditation; and for a simply told story, we have an earnest exposition of ideas. Thus this Gospel differs from the other three in being concerned with what we may either call the deeper utterances and manifestations of Christ, or the philoso­ phy of a later time and of a new culture respecting Him. The weight of pro­ bability is certainly in favour of the latter supposition; and this is borne out by the fact that, as time went on, the growing Church would naturally de­ mand and supply a class of writings which would be something more than a mere narrative of events. But, even on this supposition, (though it may exclude the authorship of John), it may still be held that these more contemplative writings were the proper and legitimate development of what had gone before. And, indeed, in this Gospel we seem to come nearer to the holy of holies—to the inner life of things—to the vital significance of what the others could only report, half from without. We seem to see here in growth what the other Gospels give us in the seed. But this does not lay bare, after all, the most striking peculiarity of this Gospel, which consists rather in the strange and mysterious fact that the scene of the whole seems laid in a region outside of our common world, and that the writer deals even more with the eternal than the temporal—more with heavenly than with earthly things. Thus it is the Gospel of John which gives us nearly all those mysterious sayings that connect Christ’s earthly with His heavenly life—that seem to attribute to Him a pre-existence in Heaven—nay! an actual existence in Heaven even while men spurned Him upon the earth. For does Dot this Gospel make Christ speak of Himself as, even here, “in the bosom of the Father ” ? But, as I have already intimated, this was mysteriously, yet simply enough, connected with the great truth presented all through the Gospel, that Christ was the manifesta­ tion of God; or the being in and through whom was manifested the eternal Word. Thus the Christ of this Gospel is the sent of God; the Son of The Infinite Father, the Word of Life, the Bread of Heaven, the Life of the world, whose flesh is “meat indeed,” and whose blood is " drink indeed.” In a word, He is, throughout, the manifes­ tation of the Divine Wisdom, Power, and Love, destined to overcome the dis­ order and evil of the world. Hence we are told in the Epistle of St. John that “ for this purpose the Son of God was manifested, that he might destroy the works of the devil.” Hence, again, we have a running contrast all through be­ tween the Father and the world, be­ �the four gospels. tween that which is from above and that which is from beneath, between the Light and Darkness, Life and Death. Thus a miracle of feeding is worked in connection with a discourse concerning the Bread of Life, and the eyes of the blind are opened in connection with a reference to the Light of the World; and everything is set forth as a manifes­ tation of the Divine glory which in this honoured being shone, “ full of grace and truth.” The great end, the inner design, then, of this writer is, as I have said, to set forth the wonderful truth indicated in the sublime prologue to the Gospel—the complete and conscious realisation of the Divine Life by man, as a child of God, born “ not of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God.” And yet, in all, we never lose sight of “the man Christ Jesus.” It is in this Gospel we see Him seated “wearied with His journey,” by the well, asking drink of the woman of Samaria. It is in this Gospel we have that touching appeal to the twelve—that faltering, loving enquiry of a truly human soul, when some “went back, and walked no more with him”—“ Will ye also go away ?” It is in this Gospel we read the beautiful story of His friendship with Lazarus, and Mary, and Martha : and here, alone, we find the touching record that “Jesus wept.” Thus, all through the Gospel, with all the mystery attending the revelation of the Divine life in Christ, we are brought very near to the tender heart and gentle spirit of the man in and by whom that Life was manifested. And so, if we could only judge more after the spirit, and less after the 271 flesh, we should see the mystery made clear. It is true that we have here the reve­ lation of an “Eternal Life which was the Father,” but it is the revelation of that Life in humanity. The first half of that great truth, standing alone, is dead or bewildering; but when under­ stood in its divine completeness we see, with a great thankfulness, the signifi­ cance of the whole;—we see a Father who, because He is a Father, has re­ vealed Himself to us in a Son,—we see a Divine Life that seeks to manifest itself in our human life,— we see a Di­ vinity that comes to restore our hu­ manity,—we see, not that; God is put farther off from men by the interpo­ sition of a second mysterious being who stands between God and man, but that God is really brought nigh to us in the person of one whose humanity was found a fitting vehicle for the revelation of “that Eternal Life which was with the Father, but which is now “mani­ fested unto us :” and which only seeks to be manifested in us. For the witness who told us this, also told us that “now are we the sons of God,” and that “of His fulness have all we received, and grace for grace.” Thus, heaven and earth, the human and the divine, God and man, meet, in a very real and glorious sense, in this picture of Christ, who is no longer a being separated ftom us as an object of mystery and wonder, but in­ deed our brother, who came from God, and was one with God, because in His holy soul, as in a prepared and sacred temple, dwelt “all the fulness of God.” The revelation of Christ, then, in this Gospel, is not the revelation of a mys­ tery of God in man, apart from God in �272 THE FOUR GOSFEL8. humanity, but the revelation of God in we must admit that they are utterly un­ man as the great fact of humanity:— like anything we find in the other the Christ being really our representa­ gospels ; so much so, indeed, that we are tive, our Head, our elder brother, almost forced to the conclusion that if through whom, as the revealer1 of our the discourses of Matthew are genuine, true life and our true relationship to those of John are very doubtful, since it God, we may humbly lay claim, in our is hardly possible both could have fallen degree, to all that was His, “without from the same lips. At the same time, measure.” Thus, instead of Christ it is only fair to add, that many see, in being something essentially different these discourses, reminiscences of “ the from us, He is in truth the very oppo­ deeper spiritual verities relating to His site of this,—He is our revealer;—as own divine person and mission,” which truly the revealer of man as of God: Christ unfolded to His chosen ones and the Divine Life which He manifests, “ when conversing privately with them.” He manifests as the root and ground of If we accept this theory, as accounting for our human life—as a Life which ever the difference between the public dis­ seeks to realise itself in humanity, that courses of Christ given by the first three man may know he is of God, and that he evangelists, and these inner and more also, by right of his humanity, is “a spiritual discourses preserved by John, partaker of the Divine Nature.” O this we shall be prepared to give due weight is a great truth!—happy are they to tn the opinion of one who, maintaining whom it is " spirit and life,” and who this theory and defending also the see in the sonship of Christ, not some­ authenticity of the gospel as the actual thing to marvel at as a great mystery testimony of John, says—“ I think it— that separates Him from us, but some­ probable, that the character and diction thing to love and welcome as a pledge, of our Lord’s discourses entirely pene­ a surety, and an illustration of our trated and assimilated the habits of thought of His beloved apostle ; so that own! Such being the special character of! in his first epistle he writes in the very this Gospel we are not surprised to find' tone and spirit of those discourses; that it is, in effect, a life of Christ un­ and, when reporting the sayings like the other three. Here, for instance, of his own former teacher the Baptist, . we find those discourses and conversa­ he gives them (consistently with the tions, at once so touching and so pro­. deepest inner truth of narration,) the found, which are peculiar to this Gospel;; forms and cadences so familiar and discourses and conversations which are! habitual to himself.” best and most fully represented by thosej And now, I can only name, in con» wonderful Chapters, the 13th to the 17th,, elusion, the passages in this Gospel that recording at such length the dis­ have been marked as doubtful by many ■ t The touching courses and the pathetic prayer that reliable authorities. preceded the betrayal of the garden and record at the end of the 7th and the 1 the sorrows of the cross. Of these, and beginning of the 8th Chapters, that 1 similar discourses found in this gospel, “ every man went unto his own house,” , �THB FOUR GOSPELS. but that “ Jesus went unto the Mount of Olives,” is generally regarded as an interpolation, since it forms part of a fragment which, in originalMSS, appears in various forms and in various places. The account which immediately follows it, of the sinful woman brought to Christ for judgment, forms the princi­ pal portion of that fragment, the true place for which may be the Gospel of Luke and not this Gospel at all. It was, in all probability, one of those’ ancient and well-received fragments which, as being too precious to be lost, was “ in or soon after the 4th century adopted into the sacred text.” The mar­ vellous statement in Chapter 5, respect­ ing the pool at Bethesda, that " an angel came down at a certain season into the pool and troubled the water,” is also pronounced, even by conservative critics, as “ doubtful,” the “ internal evidence, (as well as the external,) being very strong against the whole ” though Strauss who, (one half suspects,) is glad to retain the legend to help him to dis­ credit the Gospel, says that “ the most convincing critical grounds are in favour of the genuineness of this verse.” The whole of the last Chapter is also very different in its character from the rest of the Gospel, and is evidently by another hand, though some, who are anxious to maintain the authorship of John, have supposed that it was added by himself long after the writing of the Gospel, which fittingly and clearly ends ■with the 20th Chapter. 273 Here I close our brief and rapid ex­ amination of the History of the MSS of the New Testament, and the pecularities of the four Gospels. I have done little more than indicate objects of study and point out fields of enquiry— exhausting nothing and attempting to finally settle nothing, believing that our wisdom will be best shewn by re­ taining many as open questions, to be, for ages yet, the objects of enquiry and the subjects of change. And yet, let me hope, I have given to earnest, seekers after truth such information and indicated such well ascertained facts as will help to make the prosecution of this enquiry a pleasure and a profit to all who have a mind to go on with it. Nor can I let my last words here be any other than words of humble thank­ fulness to God that, amid all the changes and mischances of troublous times He has so well preserved these precious records for our reverence, our study, and our love. Perfect they are not: infallible they have never been• but they are what thousands now in heaven have felt them to be—“ a lamp to their feet, a light to their path,” and a comfort to their souls :—they are what the Evangelist of whom I have now spoken said his Gospel was meant to be —a record of words and deeds “written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that, believing, ye might have life through His name.” �¿74 THE DIVINITY (concluded OF JESUS from page IV. The relative divinity of Jesus was made then an integral part of the orthodox dogma at the end of the third century. But there was still much to be done be­ fore this divinity was proclaimed in the absolute form towards which Christian thought gravitated, and which it would earlier have attained if the facts, the apostolic witnesses, the Jewish mono­ theistic spirit, in fact all that was of a primitive character had permitted. Orthodoxy, in the second half of the third century, consisted in regarding the Son as a Divine Being, but subordinate. Upon this contradictory basis, minds, according to their particular tendency, were either urgent for the subordination by the love of monotheism and to give a good account of the evangelical history and apostolic doctrine; or insisted upon his divinity to satisfy the ardent piety which could not tdb highly esalt Christ. This oscillation originated two doctrines which have ever been struggling, the one to destroy the other, viz., those of Arius and of Athanasius. Arius and his numerous partisans, generally discip.es of the exegetic school of Antioch, more frequently simple presbyters than bishops (and this fact, in general too little remarked, very strongly influenced the beginning and conclusion of the struggle), wished to definitely fix the subordination; and we must acknow­ ledge that they did it in the only way that could satisfy intelligence within CHRIST. 248.) the limits of the system generally ad­ mitted. If the Son is subordinate to the Father, said they,he is not absolutely God; consequently he has not that which the Father has, therefore we must say he is not equal to the Father. Not being equal, he is not of the same essence; for if he possesses the Divine essence, this essence being perfect, he ought to be perfect himself, and there is therefore two Gods, equal in everything, which is polytheistic and absurd. On the other hand, at the side of the uncreated essence there can only be created essences, and that which is said to be created is said to be a being born in time. Thus the Son is not eternal, he is a creature, the first, the most excel­ lent of creatures, but still a creature. “ There was a time when the Son was not:” behold here that which, in accord with Tertullian, Arius proclaimed as the base of his system. “ He is of another essence than the Father: ” behold here the fundamental idea which Origen held. Athanasius, on the contrary, retains from Tertullian the idea that the Son and the Father are of the same essence, and from Origen that the Son is eternal. Both find then, in the old orthodoxy, the elements of their own systems ; and if one acknowledged that Arius had more reason than Athanasius, in maintaining that the New Testament and all tradi­ tion of the first three centuries had always taught that the Son is inferior and subordinate to the Father (a prin- �THE DIVINITY OF JESUS CHRIST. oiple which they have only to advo­ cate to be Arian)—Athanasius in his turn was more with the tide of the Christian idea, which from the beginning had not ceased to approach Jesus to God. Such is in reality, the true reason for the triumph of the doctrine of Athana­ sius. Doubtless we ought not to forget thenumerous causes which contributed to this result. It was fatal to the cause of Arius, that the first grand ecumenic Council, under the pressure it is true of the Emperor Constantine, had pro­ nounced solemnly against him. Con­ stantine who perceived afterwards, that in favouring the Episcopate he was giving to himself a redoubtable rival, altered his opinion and recalled Arius from exile, but the first prestige was against him. The Arian Emperors who succeeded him did more harm than good to his doctrine by their despotic measures, initiated it is true, and even surpassed by the intolerance of the orthodox Emperors. Then, the Arian party, because that it represented the opposition to ecclesiastical authority and mysticism, was in general that of free thought, consequently it was always less united than its adversaries, more opposed also to the superstitious, ascetic, monkish customs, which invaded the church. Vigilance, Arius, Jovinian, these Protestants of the fourth cen­ tury, were more or less Arian: but that which would recommend in our own days Arianism to our esteem would only make it lower in the opinion of the majority then. All this was, however, only accessory. The multitude, who comprehended nothing of the debates of the doctors, understood very well that, in the eyes of Arius, Jesus was less 276 than in the eyes of the orthodox. It would seem then, to them, that these last were better Christians. It is just the same now when a great majority of fervent Catholics have declared them­ selves in favour of the Immaculate Con­ ception, without knowing very exactly what it is that is discussed; but more because the profound devotion to Mary finds greater satisfaction in affirming than in denying. In short, in the bosom of the Roman Church, the gradual glori­ fication of the Mother of Christ follows, although much more slowly, a march analogous to that which the church of the first centuries followed in elaborat­ ing the deity of her Son. Already more than one Catholic author has made serious attempts to add Mary in one way or another to the Trinity. #*#«*## Let us pass on to the later develop­ ments which the orthodox dogma had yet to receive. The unity of God was compromised by the dogma of Nicea, and it became necessary that Christian speculation should apply itself to this subject of greatest importance, in order to try to reconcile the divinity of the Son with that of the Father. At the same time the church had preserved, by its prolonged struggle with Gnosticism, a lively sentiment of the reality of the flesh and of the human nature of Jesus: and yet it was important to the glory of <his man that it was he himself who was God, and not that he had served occa­ sionally as form or instrument of divi­ nity. But how had God been able, while remaining God, to participate really in the infirmities of human nature ? And how could they affirm that he had been truly i man, without denying by the same that �276 THE DIVINITY OF JISV3 CHRIST. he was truly God ? The persons who in our day, love to oppose to these indis­ creet questions, the conclusion of not receiving what is to be drawn from the mystery, forget that this mystery is not primitive, imposed by the nature of things, but that it was elaborated know­ ingly and freely by the theology of the fourth and fifth centuries. From the moment that the equality of the Son and Father was acknowledged, the divinity of the Holy Spirit, of which the dist’nct personality had been little by little admitted, in spite of frequent oppositions, ought also to be proclaimed absolute. This was the work of the Council of Constantinople 381, which condemned in Macedonius the opposite doctrine. To Augustine (the fifth cen­ tury) was reserved the honour of found­ ing dogmatically (eliminating all idea, of subordination), the numerical unity of the three divine persons; without succeeding, however, and for good cause, notwithstanding the turns and evasions of his subtle genius, in satisfying a somewhat obstinate reason. But the East had already solved the problems concerning the union of God and man in Christ Jesus. How could God, as a perfect being, have been man ? Were not there two persons in Jesus, then, one divine, the other human ? and could they admit that two persons had con­ stituted a single leing, endowed with one conscience, ore will? Apollinarjs Bishop of Laodicea, hal believed him­ self able to solve the difficulty by admit­ ting that the Word had held in Jesus, the place of rational soul. This was without doubt, conforming to the doc­ trine of the fourth gospel; but it was also a denial of the integrity of the human person. Thus Apollinaria and his partisans were completely beaten and finally condemned. Nestorius tried to solve the question by taking the other side. According to him, Jesus was a complete man, the Word or the Son was truly God, but in him the two natures, the divine and the human, were quite plainly conjoined, but in a way, for example, that does not enable us to call Mary mother of God. This last trait did him a great injury, and, for the rest, it was not difficult to see that in pressing this point still farther one would arrive at Unitarianism. Jesus is a man, who finds himself with the Word in a close connection of spiritual union, but the Word has not quitted the heavenly glory to become man in him. His fiery adversary, Cyril of Alexandria, pretended on the contrary, that the two natures made only one, and that their properties were integrally passed the one into the other; but this led on to the denial of the human nature, in the absorption of it in the divine nature» for if we can conceive that the finite passes into the infinite, it is not the same with the inverse passage. Nestorius, since 428 Bishop of Constantinople, was condemned in 430 and died in misery 440, but not without leaving a school which became even a church, existing till the present day in the East. Cyril was more fortunate, but did not wholly succeed in making his views triumph, for they were condemned in the person of Eutyches by the Council of Chalcedon (451), although in 449 the ecumenic Council of Ephesus, called later Council of Brigands, had given him a verdict. The Egyptians nevertheless declared themselves for the unity of the nature �THE DIVINITY O» JESUS CHMST. in the sense of Cyril and Eutyches, and caused a schism. In the seventh cen­ tury the Emperor Heraclius having attempted to reconcile them with ortho­ doxy, in proposing to them a formula according to which if there had been two natures in Christ, there was in him only one will, there resulted from it a new and very bitter debate, in which the rival pretensions of Rome and Constan­ tinople entered into play and which terminated by the condemnation of Monotheism. In fact this would have ruined the dogma of the two natures by suppressing the human will in the per­ son of Jesus Christ. It was then resolved at the Council of Constantinople, 680, that there were two wills, one divine, and the other human, in Jesus Christ; but that this was necessarily and con­ stantly subject to that; a resolution, we must avow it, which only suppressed the difficulty and which is the very opposite of a solution. It is in order to be quite exact that we have thus recapitulated this tedious history, extremely dreary to follow, in all its details, but which, losing itself more and more in all its subtleties, shows that the immanent law of all this dogmatic vegetation is just what we have said—deification as complete as possible of Jesus, with a repugnance for everything which would annihilate him in absorbing him in the divinity, and also for everything that would lessen him in taking from him something which might belong to his divine glory. Thus under­ stood, orthodoxy is logical, I will even say faithful to the end of the secret principle which directs it. On the whole, it avows with naive audacity the contra­ dictions which it has piled up one upon 277 another in the famous creed Quicunque, or A thanasian ; which is called by this last name, because it is regarded as being a resume of the opinions of the illustrious Bishop ; but of which in reality Augustine ought rather to claim the paternity, since it appeared at the end of the sixth century, in the west, was written in latin, and proceeded evi­ dently from a spirit nourished by the works of the great African Doctor. This creed became ecumenic, in fact it ex­ pressed very well the paradoxical faith of the Church, V. The Creed Quicunque is the full-blown flower of traditional orthodoxy. We may say it is orthodoxy itself in its strictest sense. We have not the least right to call ourselves or to believe our­ selves orthodox, if we do not admit completely the tenor of each of the clauses of which it is composed. This creed once fixed, there was nothing more to be done upon the subject of the Divinity of Jesus Christ; and,- in fact, since that moment, except the addition of filioque in the article on the Holy Spirit, an addition which was one of the complaints of the Eastern against the Latin Church, and except a quarrel soon forgotten of adoptianism (a kind of revived Nestorianism), the doctrine of Quicunque reigned undisputedly during the middle ages. Scholasticism found in it a marvellous theme on which to exercise its subtlety. Besides, as we may easily comprehend, the doctors of the schools either fell into Sabelhanism when they wished to shew how three divine persons make only one God, or they give in to full tritheism when they would shew how one single God exists �278 THE DIVINITY OF JESTS CHRIST. in three distinct persons. The realist who sacrificed the plurality to the unity would be rather Sabellian; and, inversely, the nominalists would be often tritheists. But, let us add, their intentions were always strictly ortho­ dox. It is in the school of Abelard alone that we find the feeble desires of opposi­ tion to the orthodox dogma more or less declared. The Socinians especially gathered together quite an arsenal of arguments against the orthodox dogma of the Divinity of Jesus Christ, many of which remain to this day without re­ futation, and we may add that, since the last century, the number of Uni­ tarian Christians, both within and without the constituted protestant church, has not ceased to increase. It is certain that, except by mixing up with the contradictory definition of the Quicunque philosophic ideas without real connection with it, there are no other means of persuading ourselves that we believe positively in that which it contains, than to submit blindly and without inquiry to the authority of tradi­ tion; since, if we wish to reason, we ought to break off with a symbol which affirms repeatedly and consciously a contradiction. To call God a being who exists not by Himself, but who is engen­ dered or proceeds from another; above all to add that this being is not unequal in anything to God, who possesses in Himself the eternal cause of His being, is evidently to declare the absolute is the relative, or that the relative is the absolute ; it is to fall headlong into a strife of words. On the other hand, that which distinguishes liypostatically the divine persons is either an imperfection or a perfection; in the first case, it is false to say of one being possessing an imperfection that he is God; in the second case the perfection of one supposes defect in the other two. But we will leave controversy and remain historians. We may be permitted to conclude, as a matter of fact, that the Dogma of the Trinity has a history in the bosom of Christianity, and that nothing is more improper than to mix it up with the Gospel as is constantly done. Pious souls, easily enkindled for the cause of religious traditions, do not always con­ sider how much injury they inflict upon Christianity by binding it in an in­ dissoluble manner to certain doctrines which are after all only one or the other of its historic forms. Even from theii’ point of view is it not much better that such men as Milton, Newton, Priest­ ley, Channing, Theodore Parker, and many others should be able to call themselves and believe themselves to be Christians whilst rejecting the Trinity, than that they should give up the Gospel altogether ?***** Let them know decidedly, they have no longer any right to identify this dogma with the Gospel, or to conclude that the Gospel falls or rises with it. Letthem compare,for one single moment, the form and basis of the Quicunque with the teaching of Jesus, and they will feel as though there were two spirits there,—almost two religions. As to the present epoch: if in Jesus, the God goes away, the man shines forth with a splendour more glorious than ever. For, in spite of the good inten­ tions of orthodoxy, it is a fact that, of the two natures agreed to by the Councils, the divine nature ceases not to confiscate to its profit the human nature, �MARGERY MILLES. And this ought to be. A man is only God on the condition of being most truly man; and a God is man only on the condition of being most truly God. But in the first case he is elevated; in the second he humbles himself. Piety, then, of itself, tends to do wrong to hu­ man nature rather than to the divine nature ; and thus, in the Church of the middle ages, Christ had become so much God that it was necessary to Christianity to provide a mediator, which was found in the Mother of Christ. If modern Christianity is called (as all facts fore­ tell) to undo by little and little the in­ tricate web of dogmatic definitions of the first five centuries, it will simply re­ turn to the consciousness which Jesus had of himself; that is to say of his divine vocation to found upon earth the religion of pure love. And, if we take a thorough account of what this implies, when we picture what the world would be if this divine principle pervaded all, (which it has never yet done,) we should not be able to deny to Jesus ¿79 the glory of having placed, by word and example, the foundation of the vastest edifice in which men may be converted to adore God in spirit and in truth. The history of the church testifies to the incalculable power that such a prin­ ciple has communicated to the teaching and the person of him who was the in­ carnation of it, and, reciprocally, of the incompetency of Christianity to elevate itself high enough to seize it in its purity and to apply it with fidelity and resolu­ tion to the collective and individual life. In like manner, the special history of the dogma of the divinity of Jesus Christ proves that, contrary to his positive intentions, men attach much more importance to the forming precise definitions as to his person and origin, than to the conforming themselves to his spirit: but this proves also how great has been the impression produced on humanity by him whose memory has not been left to repose until men have com­ pletely deified him. MARGERY MILLER. [Some time ago the following poem was read by Mr. Home, at a meeting of spiritualists. It was ahnounced as “given through the mediumship of “Lizzie Doten.” But, whether by spirit in the flesh or out of the flesh, we know of none much more worthy to be read at Christmas time.J Old Margery Miller sat alone, One Christmas eve, by her poor hearthstone, Where dimly the fading tirelight shone. Full eighty summers had swiftly sped. Full eighty winters their snows had shed, With silver-shcun, on her aged head. Her brow was furrowed with signs of care, For 0 ! life’s burden waB hard to bear. Poor old Margery Miller ! Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, Had her friends like birds of summer, flown ? One by one had her loved ones died— One by one had they left her side— Fading like flowers in their summer pride. Poor old Margery Miller ! Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, Had God forgotten that she was His own ? �280 MARGERY MILLER. No castle was hers with a spacious lawn ; Her poor old hut was the proud man’s scorn; Yet Margery Miller was nobly born. A brother she had who once wore a crown, And deeds of greatness and high renown From age to age had been handed down. Poor old Margery Miller ! Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, Where was her kingdom, her crown, her throne? Margery Miller, a child of God, Meekly and bravely life’s path had trod, Nor deemed affliction “a chastening rod.” Her brother, Jesus, who went before, A crown of thorns in his meekness wore, And what, poor soul, could she hope formore ■ Poor old Margery Miller ! Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, Strange that her heart had not turned to stone! Aye ! there she sat, on that Christmas eve, Seeking some dream of the past to weave, Patiently striving not to grieve. 0 I fer those long, long, eighty years, How had she struggled with doubts and fears? Shedding in secret, unnumbered tears. Poor old Margery Miller! Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, How could she stifle her sad heart's moan ? Soft on her ear fell the Christmas chimes, Bringing the thought of the dear old times, Like birds that sing of far-distant climes. Then swelled the floods of her pent-up grief— Swayed like a reed in the tempest brief, Her bowed form shook like an aspen leaf Poor old Margery Miller I Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, How heavy the burden of life had grown I “ 0 God I” she cried, “ I am lonely here, Bereft of all that my heart holds dear ; Yet Thou dost never refu.e to hear. 0! if the dead were allowed t o speak I Could I only look on their faces meek. How it would strengthen my heart so weak !” Poor old Margery Miller I Sitting alone, Unsought, unknown, What was that light which around her shone ? Dim on the hearth burned the embers red, Yet soft and clear, on her silvered head, A light like the sunset glow was shed. Bright blossoms fell on the cottage floor, “ Mother” was whispered, as oft before, And long-lost faces gleamed forth once more. Poor old Margery Miller ! No longer alone, Unsought, unknown, How light the burden of life had grown! She lifted her withered hands on high, And uttered the eager, earnest cry: “ God of all mercy ! now let me die. Beautiful Angels I fair and bright, Holding the hem of your garments white, Let me go forth to the world of light.” Poor old Margery Miller I So earnest grown I Was she left alone? His humble child did the Lord disown ? O I sweet was the sound of the Christmas bell! As its musical changes rose and fell, With a low refrain or a solemn swell. But sweeter by far was that blessed strain, That soothed old Margery Miller’s pain, And gave her comfort and peace again. Poor old Margery Miller ! In silence alone, Her faith had grown ; And now the blossom had brightly blown. Out of the glory that burned like flame, Calmly a great white Angel came— Softly he whispered her humble name. “ Child of the highest.” he gently said, “Thy toils are ended, thy tears are shed, And life immortal now crowns thy head.” Poor old Margery Miller ! No longer alone, Unsought, unknown, God had not forgotten she was His own. A change o’er her pallid features passed; She felt that her feet were nearing fast The land of safety and peace, at last. She faintly murmured “God’s name be blest I” And, folding her hands on her dying breast, She calmly sank to her dreamless rest. * Poor old Margery Miller! Sitting alone, Without one moan, Her patient spirit at length had flown. Next morning a stranger found her there, Her pale hands folded as if in prai er, Sitting so still in her old arm-chair. He spoke but she answered not again, For, far away from all earthly pain, Her voice was singing a joyful strain. Poor old Margery Miller I Her spirit had flown To the world unknown, Where true hearts never can be alone, �381 BRIEF NOTICES The Inquirer, The Theological Review, The Christian Spectator, The Christian Unitarian, The Monthly Journal of the American Unitarian Association, and The Phrenological Journal have been regularly received during the year. The Inquirer has increased in interest and usefulness. Wisely opening its columns for the discussion of great prin­ ciples, and taking broad and thoroughly liberal views in its various utterances concerning them, it has more than retained its position as the competent and generally accepted organ of the Unitarian Church. The Theological Review, while main­ taining its character for ability, seems to be quietly changing its vocation. In­ stead of reviews, it seems to prefer in­ dependent (and sometimes gets contra­ dictory) essays, accompanied by the signatures or initials of the various writers who are alone responsible for them. This may have its uses, but it has serious disadvantages, and certainly prevents the Review taking that kind of aim which men generally believe will best hit the mark. But we cannot have everything in one thing, and what we lose in unity and directness we shall probably gain in breadth and diversity, i At all events, it is satisfactory to see I that the Review is doing a good and I wholesome work in an able and honest OF BOOKS. we have been glad to see its willingness to tell all the truth concerning subjects that have too long received very indiffer­ ent treatment even from independent Independents. Amid papers of strangely unequal merit, we notice a few that are singularly beautiful and thoughtful. We are sorry, however, to hear that it is about to pass into other, and, we fear, less liberal, hands. The Christian Unitarian is confirmed in its office as the misi epresenter of all who fail to come up to the requirements of its one narrow condition of Church Communion. The monthly journal of the American Unitarian Association is the able and business-like organ of that flourishing Society. The numbers for July and August contain a remarkably interesting report of the forty-first anniversary of the Association. The Phrenological Journal is an Ameri­ can monthly of considerable merit. It is full of good-tempered and wholesome counsel, and presents what we may call the ethics of phrenology in a very favour­ able light. “ The Religious Weakness of Protestantism.” By Francis W. New­ man. Ramsgate : Thomas Scott. Mr. Newman has here re-printed, with a few changes, a review intended to show, to use the words of an anec­ dote at the end, that Christianity has I way. The Christian Spectator this year has no future. Christianity, based on the been edited by an advanced mind, and miraculous, has, according to Mr. New- �282 NOTICES OF BOOKS. man, nothing to say even to this age. It Misrepresentations op the Rev. C. is an anachronism, if not an imperti­ H. Craupurd.” A letter by David nence: end he is right, regarding Christi­ Maginnis. London: Whitfield, Green anity a3 that “Protestantism” which and Son.—The Rev. C. H. Craufurd is pretends to appeal to the reason it only clearly one of those unfortunate beings insults, and clamours for “the right of whose training in an Established Church private judgment,” but smites the pri­ has been too much for them. Without vate judger or the public truth-teller on meaning any harm, perhaps, the poor the mouth. But Mr. Newman’s “Pro­ man half unconsciously falls into the testantism” is one thing, and the Pro­ habit of despising all dissenters, and testantism that is ready to develop and then of damning all heretics. The next that is going on to develop the princi­ step is an easy one : for after you have ples of the Reformation is another. given a man over to the devil what Mr. Newman rather summarily dis­ does it matter what you say of him or misses those who do not base Christi­ do to him ? Hence we find this eccle­ anity on the miraculous—who do not siastical person coming out with gems swear by the “wonders” of the New of this sort:—“‘The fool hath said in his Testament, or the “mysteries” of the heart, there is no God.’ I am greatly Church—who reject the Trinity, and afraid there are many such fools amongst deny the orthodox atonement, and go us . . . And, observe, I am not on with St. Paul to know Christ “in the speaking of heathen fools, or Unitarian newness of the Spirit” and not in the fools, but of those who profess to be “ollness of the letter.” And yet surely, Christians :” (just as though Unitarians these are worth reckoning when we did not “ profess to be Christians”.) look out upon the gathering hosts, And again, still careful to assure us closing in for future conflicts. Mr. that Unitarians are “ fools”, he tells Newman says well what he has to say us of “ their poor shallow intellects, against the “miraculous conception” their unscholarly pens, their prating and the physical resurrection of Christ : tongues.” And all this because they and many will think that he is unan­ will not say that Christ is “God the swerable on thé subject of “miracles” Son.” And this is the kind of thing generally. We do not think so ; but Mr. Maginnis has to “vindicate” him­ feel perfectly content in leaving that self and his friends from. Heaven help a perfectly open question : and this us I—it is almost a pity to waste time we do all the more because of that over such nonsense. It seems like hang­ fatal error which desperately stakes the ing a gnat or breaking a fly on the existence of Christianity upon the truth wheel. But even this is, perhaps, neces­ of miracles. We have a Christ Jesus, sary,—with modifications, The pam­ the Son of God and brother of man, phlet, however, is well done, and is, in come what -will : and, to be brought tone and spirit, an admirable contrast to heme to God in the spirit of sonship, is the amazing production of this “rector” all we seek—is all we need. of a place we never heard of before, and of “ Unitarians vindicated against the J which we shall probably never hear again. �NOTICES OE BOOKS. 283 “Dogma versus Morality ; a Reply to mercies of God! ” Then, in love to !| Church Congress.” By Charles Voysey. God, in doing good to man, and ^B.A. London : Trubner and Co.—This in the hearts hungering and thirsting |is a sermon by Mr. Voysey concerning after righteousness, they will see what |the rapturously applauded declaration “ religion ” really is. “Haggai.” By James Biden. Gosport: .¡made at the “Church Congress” at i York, that “ it is better to have a reli- J. P. Legg. We have heard from this ■ gion without morality than morality writer before; but he does not improve. without religion.” The absurdity of His present pamphlet is a curious and this irreligious utterance is well exposed. incoherent attempt to explain certain What the speaker meant by “ religion” ancient prophecies, mixed up with a we all know; an 1 alas ! what the British chaotic story about an old seal and an public mean by it we all know: but the ancient spoon which somehow do some­ time is fast coming when, for rapturous thing towards proving the writer to applause, such monstrous sayings as be “of royal origin.” But, what with that we have quoted will be received Darius, Zerubbabel, Ezekiel, King Ed­ with blank surprise if not with sheer ward, Haggai, and the old spoon, we can ¡disgust. Well does Mr. Voysey say, “If make nothing of it. ¡religious belief” (that is, as we should “Unitarianism : What claims hasit to ¡say, creed-making and creed-believing) respect and favour?” By Joseph Barker. ' “ and the cause of morality should ever London: E. Stock. [Second notice.] ¡come into open collision, I know well In justice to a respectable publisher we which must give way. A creed crowned return to this disreputable pamphlet with the victories of twice two thousand just to say that we have received a com­ years cannot stand a day when brought munication informing us that the pub­ into open contrast (or rather con­ lisher’s name was attached to it before he flict) with the eternal law of God.” was aware of the character of its con­ The Scribes are putting the issue tents ; but that he has now declined to very plainly before us; and we are have anything more to do with it. As a heartily glad of it. Is it to be dead last word, we may state that Mr. Barker, Tradition or living Inspiration ?—Creed at the end of his pamphlet, publishes or Conscience?—Ritualism or Righteous­ what he calls a correspondence between ness ?—Dogma or Morality ? We are himself and certain Unitarian ministers. not afraid to accept the issue thus It is simply a reprint of his own letters, brought home to us; nor are we afraid without a word on the other side, from that the English people will ultimately the letters that convicted him of crook­ go wrong on this question. They will edness, the exposure of which has led to presently say, “ Take your religion, this sad display of “ envy, hatred, and with its mystifications and its impossi­ malice, and all uncharitableness,” from bilities, and leave us to our excommuni­ which “. Good Lord, deliver us.” cated morality, and to the uncovenanted �«84 NOTES BY THE WAY. The long pending suit in Chancery,— Bishop Colenso against the trustees of The Colonial Bishops’ Fund,—has been settled at last. On the 6th of November, Lord Romilly, The Master of The Rolls, decided in favour of the Bishop. The contributors to the fund, he said, ought to have known the law. Bishop Colenso is Bishop of Natal, and will re­ main so till convicted by regular process of law of immorality or heresy, or till re­ moved to another see: he has been “ in the right throughout;” and the decision is—payment to the Bishop of all arrears of salary, with interest, and all his costs. As regards the status of the Bishop in Natal, Lord Romilly holds that his letters patent are valid, as constituting him a Bishop of the Church of England in Natal, but that they are invalid as regards any compulsory jurisdiction, except through the civil courts there. This is all Bishop Colenso contends for. It is for the Bishop of Capetown to say “ what next.” As for our brave and good Bishop, this is what a letter from Natal says of him:—“ The Bishop goes on steadily increasing his influence among the people—some of them almost wor­ ship him. Persons from the neighbour­ ing colony, while visiting here, of course go to hear him preach, and all express themselves astonished at what they find. They seem to have received some extra­ ordinary ideas of his conduct and ser­ mons, and are little prepared to witness the great, earnest, reverent eloquence of the preacher, and the breathless atten­ tion of the congregation,—We want all to belong to our National Church, and we hope that our church will, before long, open her arms wide enough to in­ clude a much wider range of thought and belief than she seems inclined to admit just now. I do not understand a National Church trying to exclude differences and even shades of differences of opinion.” After having been unanimously recom­ mended to the Chair of Mental Philo­ sophy and Logic, by the Senate of University College, London, the Council have thought well to reject Mr. Marti­ neau, and thus to deprive the University of the services of one whom they cannot hope to match in ability or surpass in conscientiousness and liberality: the only discoverable, and we may venture to say the only possible, reason for this being that Mr. Martineau is a distin­ guished Unitarian. What this has to do with mental philosophy and logic nobody knows; and what the end of this rather shabby business may be-no­ body knows; but it is clear that the Council have seriously imperilled the reputation of a University that was be­ lieved to be the cradle of advanced liberality, and not the refuge of thread­ bare bigotry. It cannot matter much to Mr. Martineau how the affair event­ ually ends; for he would bring to the vacant chair as much honour as he would receive from it; but, for the sake of a University that has hitherto borne a good name, we hope some way may yet be found to reverse a decision which can only wound the truth in the house of its friends, � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Truthseeker. Vol. IV. No. 44, December 1866 Description An account of the resource Place of publication: [New York] Collation: 261-284 p. ; 21 cm. Notes: From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Printed in double columns. Contents: The Closing Year; Thoughts for the Heart and Life; The Four Gospels; The Divinity of Jesus Christ (concluded from page 248); the poem 'Margery Miller'; Brief notices of books; Notes by the Way (which salutes the settlement of the Colenso suit and is scathing about the University of London's rejection of James Martineau as chair, Department of Mental Philosophy and Logic). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available [The Truthseeker] Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5270 Subject The topic of the resource Periodicals Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource [Unknown] Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (The Truthseeker. Vol. IV. No. 44, December 1866), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/aa19434f3518a22cad502c742e6105ce.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=PAOYEZK2TxAsW1NGNYB-pCSYCb5HDlTjC86DqfO8S%7E7itbacf0SIzjCHgaLtsXXQM0HY2pduoc1QTx%7EOor5diSaONAts7KBy8wVCbQUihHhXc-HmUZ3GuR4yi-WgupJ%7Ek4rWaLQXzACxsHzmP2x0eh%7EdaFqW9xGMOhp1Gfd8VQSKxOfnwTYzUSPx6SVzo1j8zWjnrvaxnoMwQelWfiFmzKW2bxKrXSzzhIZC0g7iXX2Vt8Ts%7E-f02IhfOZntzlXX1%7E-NCVLnwcXyCOup1Oqit8LkouuQPzigvVrBRLQVmQ9d1EdgzeBYdV6Fc1R8a%7ELCt5sZ-gMPKTp-2xTd02rf3Q__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM e042f23b8be771139b0964cf8630dd5e PDF Text Text ������������������������ Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An address to the people of Cambridge from the School Committee concerning a recent case of corporal punishment in the Allston Grammar School Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cambridge (Mass) School Committee Description An account of the resource Place of publication: Cambridge, Mass. Collation: 24 p. ; 23 cm. Notes: Mr Henry W. Muzzey presented the report. Published by order of the Board. From the library of Dr Moncure Conway. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Press of John Wilson and Son Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G5182 Subject The topic of the resource Education Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/"><img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /></a><span> </span><br /><span>This work (An address to the people of Cambridge from the School Committee concerning a recent case of corporal punishment in the Allston Grammar School), identified by </span><a href="https://conwayhallcollections.omeka.net/items/show/www.conwayhall.org.uk"><span>Humanist Library and Archives</span></a><span>, is free of known copyright restrictions.</span> Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Conway Tracts Corporal Punishment Education School Discipline https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/25778/archive/files/f1996b4dd4444564122fdf3e7355c11a.pdf?Expires=1782345600&Signature=UIY5QSNZrfp5odFX-n-WuJDkq9DsZzhCc6FQNfeTG1jJih4eO1OAzl4xJdOpqBJc422BdNkf9Ts20jOmSSEe4M5AdorGSmch8TnFm4lbt%7EjDFxXzA44l1ajGIHjr8Q0xHXP9cjwTDmcItVXIOZ3walMNLFkBoUnJPOEu4pwd0DMQx%7E1uJfa9rHVgQcQbqL0SuWz%7EAP%7EhZsNo4ffGbNbALpFrVR9ywldwq5gdo0kuKg9V-8hPkucNmJ8Unz1FKDCPkjZYeVJu9yCnhLiIcRm31ziyUPeorDRGOFxRaosVOFHRwp5M9wV3P1o3zdRHR0-g258EWgD1iXbDNR7pUrR7LQ__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM 6359ee87bb05ae53e704e7fdb952d40a PDF Text Text Weakness ELIGIOUS OF PROTESTANTISM. BY FRANCIS W. NEWMAN, Emeritus Professor of University College, London; and formerly Fellow of Balliol College, Orford. PUBLISHED BY THOMAS SCOTT, MOUNT PLEASANT, RAMSGATE. 1866. Price *d.,post free. 7 �It is proper to say that this tract appeared originally in a Review. No moderate change would suffice to make the tone natural to the author when writing in his own sole name. It has been thought better to leave the impersonal character which it bore from the first. Nevertheless, allusions to passing events which would now be misleading, are omitted or altered; one passage which was changed to please the Editor, is restored more nearly as it was at first written; and an erroneous para­ graph has been corrected. August, 1866. E. W. N. �THE RELIGIOUS WEAKNESS OF PROTESTANTISM. TT is humiliating to every Protestant to look on the map of Europe, and see the vast surface which is covered by Catholicism, and the numerical weakness of its nobler adversary. In less than forty years from its feeble origin, Protestantism made its widest European conquests; and thenceforward began to recede, nor ever again recovered the lost ground. Through the whole of the eighteenth century Protestant doctrine might have been preached with little molestation in the greater part of Europe, yet nowhere did it extend itself. Neither in Ireland, where a victorious Government was long bent to reduce Catholicism by severe and unjust law (in which they were far less successful than Catholic kings in their bigoted violences); nor in France, where unbelief laid the national religion prostrate and stripped the Church of its revenues; nor in the dominions of the Emperor Joseph II., who resolutely put down Eomish pretensions, while remaining in communion with the Church; nor even in his kingdom of �6 The Religious Weakness Hungary, where the two religions co-existed in much good-will; nor under the Prussian monarchy, and elsewhere in Germany; nor in Tuscany, under the enlightened Leopold II.;—in short, nowhere at all has Protestantism, even while she had a fair field and lea/ve to speak truth, been able to win anything perceptible on the field of history from her Papal antagonist. We submit, that this is a phenomenon too broad, too uniform, too decidedly marked, for any reasonable man to pass by as insignificant. And it is the more remarkable, because side by side with this religious weakness, Protestantism has more and more dis­ played its political and social superiority. Noto­ riously the Protestant cantons of Switzerland are superior in industry, neatness, and abundance to the Catholic cantons of the same land; while climate, soil, and race are the same. A similar distinction has often been observed between Catholic and Protestant farmers in Ireland. England, the largest Protestant State in Europe, has been the richest and perhaps the best ordered country, certainly that which stretches its power farthest. Nowhere else, not even in despotic countries, is the executive Government more energetic through the prompt obedience and concur­ rence of the citizens; nowhere else, not even in Switzerland or the United States, do the citizens exercise their right to criticize and to thwart the Government with a more loyal submission of the ruling powers; nowhere is there less desire of violent revolution than there has been for two cen­ turies together in Protestant Great Britain (for the �of Protestantism. 7 ejecting of one Catholic king does not here concern our argument); nowhere is there a country, which, in proportion to its millions, is fuller of all the elements, mental and material, which kings desire and patriots extol. In Canada, where the two religions come into equal competition, the superior energy of Protest­ antism in everything that constitutes the grandeur of nations is manifest. Now it is a familiar fact, that such worldly superiority does in itself tend to the progress (at least to the superficial extension) of the religion in which it is found. It cannot be said that Catholics, like Turks, are so fanatically wedded to their creed as to be proof against all refutations; for it is notorious that in Catholic Spain, France, Germany, a disbelief in the national religion is very widely spread through the higher and middle ranks —a disbelief which sometimes pervades the ruling powers themselves. Yet, though they may cast off the Romish faith, they seldom or never adopt that of Protestants. Probably all men who are thoughtful enough to abandon the Catholic Church, are also well informed enough to be aware what are the true causes of the energy, wealth, and intelligence of the Protestant nations ; that it does not arise from the positive creed which they still hold, but from the private liberty which accompanies this creed or from the energetic public administration which this liberty enforces and maintains. In fact France, though nominally Catholic, vies to a great degree with England in all national developments; and the causes are �8 The Religious Weakness evidently either purely political, or inhere, not in religious faith, but much rather in religious scepticism. Out of that unbelief, which by the great French revolution of the last century broke down the power of the Church, has arisen much of the vigour of modem France ; no part of it can be reasonably ascribed to the positive creed. Evidently then it is to the negative side of Protestantism that Protestant nations owe their energy and freedom, so far as the cause is ecclesiastical at all. It will further be observed that Russia, having a creed which from a Protestant point of view is in its essence neither better nor worse than Romanism, and being without the individual freedom which is to us so precious, nevertheless is on the whole flourishing within and powerful without, because of the energy of its central executive; an energy which is upheld by summary proceedings of the Royal House from within to secure an able occupant of the throne. In short, on the very surface of history is a broad fact, which is perpetually overlooked by the panegyrists of ecclesias­ tical Protestantism—namely, that while all Europe was still Catholic, every State was prosperous in a near proportion to its freedom, and the freest dis­ played exactly those points of superiority of which England or Prussia may now boast. Look to the Spain of Ferdinand and Isabella—a nation profoundly Catholic ; in fact, more Catholic then than now—for unbelief had not as yet pervaded its higher ranks, as in later days. The Parliaments of Arragon, of Castile, of Valencia were more spirited than those �of Protestantism. 9 of England at the same time. The municipalities were as well ordered and as independent; the local authorities as active and as responsible to the local community; the public law as efficiently sustained; the industry was as intelligent, as persevering, and as highly rewarded by wealth: or rather, in all these matters Spain then took the lead of England. Her poetry and other literature was in advance of ours; she had a celebrated school of painting, while we were strange to such art. By the patriotism, high spirit, intelligence, faithfulness, and mutual trust of Span­ iards, Spain then stood at the head of all Europe, and lent to her subsequent monarchs—Charles of Ghent, and his son Philip II.—an enormous power which their despotism first lessened and soon undermined. Spain has undergone no change of religion. Evidently then, it is not Catholicism which in itself has been her bane; but the despotism which, to sustain the Catholicism, has crushed her intelligence and forbid­ den her activity. Nearly the same remarks may be made on Bohemia. Turning to another country, Belgium, we see a people which—although not without violence from its princes preserved to Catholicism in the struggle of the Reformation—has yet on the whole retained its local freedom with singular success under Catholic and despotic houses ; and since 1830 has become a wholly independent State, with a free Royal Constitution. Thus, to speak roughly, we may say that Belgium has never lost either her freedom or her Catholicism. And she has all along been a highly industrious, energetic, prospering country— �IO ¥he Religious Weakness not indeed intellectually prominent, for this has been prohibited by the ascendant ecclesiasticism—yet her general state suffices to prove that the material well­ being of England does not spring from that Protesttantism in which she differs from Belgium, but from that freedom which she has in common with Belgium. Thus we cannot claim that Catholics will impute any of these exterior advantages, of which we boast, to our remaining ecclesiasticism, or regard them as an honour to the positive side of our national creed. Nay, nor can we impute to this cause any part of our mental superiority to Belgium or to Sicily; and for this plain reason, that on the one side the ecclesiastical organs have done their worst to crush our intellectual vigour; and on the other our Puri­ tanical school has done its worst to scold it down. For every stupid and mischievous error a hard fight has been maintained by theologians, in proportion to their “ orthodoxy.” Take, for instance, the super­ stition concerning witches and possession by devils. The truth of the latter is still guaranteed in the Canons of the Church of England, which regulate the casting out of devils by license of the bishop. The reality of witchcraft was publicly maintained on Scriptural evidence alike by clergymen and by judges. Chief Baron Hale (a very religious man) not only argued for it Scripturally from the judgment-seat in 1665, but had two women hanged for witches. Education and free thought prevailed, against the positive evidence of the Bible; �of Protestantism. i1 in favour of which the celebrated John Wesley still struggled. “ It is true,” says he, “ that the English in general, and indeed most of the men of learning in Europe, have given up all accounts of witches and apparitions as mere old wives’ fables. I am sorry for it The giving up of witch­ craft is in effect giving up the Bible................... .... I cannot give up to all the Deists in Great Britain the existence of witchcraft, till I give up the credit of all history, sacred and profane.” His contemporary, the celebrated Dr Johnson, a High Churchman and anxiously orthodox, was a believer in the “ Cock-lane ghost ” of those days. Certainly no one can think that the theory of “ the Bible and the Bible only,” &c., has led Protestants to resign the Witch of Endor.—Again, if there is any one national enormity which more than all others tends to repress mental energy, it is religious perse­ cution. Of this there has been far less among the Protestant countries—to their undoubted benefit; and yet, certainly, we have not to thank Protestant theology for it. The practice of Calvin was substan­ tially the theory of all the orthodox reformed Churches. If the hierarchy or Presbyterians of Eng­ land and Scotland could have had their will, mental freedom would have been crippled in Great Britain as effectually as in France or even in Spain. The Independents won, by the sword of Cromwell, with political also a religious freedom before unheard of in these lands; yet for heretics who went beyond them, it was long before the law provided safety, much less �12 The Religious Weakness gave them their natural equality. In every step of progress towards freedom, it is lamentable to say that English “ orthodoxy ” has always been found on the side of resistance. Not only were the Test and Cor­ poration Acts sustained by the Church influence, and were abolished in 1828 by a lay Parliament, whose Protestantism had but few positive elements of the Reformed Theology; but even much later, when the Dissenters’ Chapel Act was passed—an Act which, in its practical aim, did but hinder the Unitarian revenues, chapels, and burying-grounds from being taken from the hereditary possessors (often children or grandchildren of the donors), and given up to be scrambled for by strangers, with a certainty that the whole must be swallowed up in lawyers’ fees;—in that crisis, when Peel and Lyndhurst, and even Glad­ stone, stood up for the Unitarians, all the “ ortho­ doxy ” of England stirred itself to resist this act of equity. It is to our laity, and to that part especially which has little ostensible religious character, that every successive victory over bigoted intolerance is due. Hence it is to the negative, not to the positive side of Protestantism, that we must ascribe our mental energy and intelligence. Undoubtedly, these negative elements have been of vast national moment, by liberating the energies of individuals; whereby knowledge has risen into science, industry into systematic art, wealth and skill have increased, labour has organized itself, and an unusually large part of the nation has employed itself on fruitful thought and invention. But in all �of Protestantism. 13 this there has been little or nothing of properly re­ ligious influence. The more Protestantism has been developed into its own characteristic prosperity, the more Atheistic is the aspect of public affairs. It has not known at all better than its Romish rival how to combine religious earnestness with tolerant justice, and has become just only by passing into indifference to religion. Its divines often attack Romanism by insisting on the vast spread of unbelief within the pale of that Church; while they are astonishingly blind to the very same phenomenon within all the national Protestant Churches. This is not a recent fact, as some imagine. Indeed, since the Restoration, it is difficult to name the time at which it may reasonably be thought that the existing English statesmen had any grave and practical belief in the national religion. Montesquieu, who passed for a free thinker in France, found that in England (near a century and a half ago) he had far too much religion for our great-grandfathers. Equally in the Lutheran Churches of Germany and of Sweden, also in the Calvinistic Churches of Switzerland and elsewhere, the same face of events has presented itself: the clergy tend either to lose all spiritual character, or to take refuge in Unitarianism; the laity, in proportion to their cultivation, have been prone to entire unbelief. Under that measure of mental freedom which the great rebellion against Charles I. brought in, and by aid of the growing indifference to religion in France and elsewhere, physical science has in the last two centuries grown up. From this, more than from �14 "The Religious Weakness anything else, has proceeded the political superiority of Europe to the Turks, the Persians, the Chinese. It has given to us safe oceanic navigation—a vast command of the useful metals and all material of war —the steam-engine and all its developments —with a miscellany ever increasing of practical applications of chemistry. Indeed, the relative strength of differrent nations, which is ill measured by any religious test, such as Catholicism or Protestantism, and is not accurately measured even by a political test, such as freedom or despotism, yet (numbers being equal) is well measured by the development of physical science. Russia is stronger than China, though having but a quarter of the population; yet the form of government in China is as despotic, the people is as obedient, and far more conveniently situated, on the noblest rivers, in highly advantageous concentra­ tion, with a better soil and climate, and a splendid oceanic coast. Russia has but one advantage, and that one thing is all-important: she has introduced the physical sciences of the West, and has turned to Imperial service the skill of our ablest minds. Two centuries ago, before physical science had effected anything practical, the Protestant States had no perceptible superiority over the Catholic; now, they have on the whole a superiority, but it is' proportioned chiefly to the development and application of science. Perhaps then in truth it is more to the science of matter than to Pro­ testant theology, that we ought to attribute whatever advantages we can boast in material strength. �of Protestantism. 15 Meanwhile, no one can overlook the portentous fact, that this physical science—to which we owe so much of what some would claim for the credit of Protestantism—is intensely repugnant and destruc­ tive to the theology of the Reformation, and con­ stantly drives to results not only anti-Christian, but even Atheistic. Dr Pusey and Mr Sewell are forward to aver this. Mr Sewell declares his aversion to the glaring light of science, and well understands its antagonism to the belief in miracles. It is not that many scientific men will go to the fall length of asserting that no imaginable evidence could be strong enough to prove a miracle; yet, certainly, that no such evidence as is pretended by divines can ever prove such miracles as they allege. Science teaches us to study every question d priori, with a view to judge how much d posteriori evidence will suffice for its decision. If a statement is beforehand highly probable, we need but moderate and ordinary testi­ mony to create belief in it; if it be decidedly improbable, we want first-rate and clear testimony; if it be intensely improbable, we need testimony direct, conclusive, and unimpeachable. Let us pass from this principle to the two great miracles which lie at the foundation of orthodox Christianity; we mean, of course, the miraculous conception and the resurrection of Jesus; and let us calmly consider how they would be treated if they were now for the first time heard of, and brought to the test of ordinary scientific evidence. It is not our fault, if the discussion of the former �i6 The Religious Weakness topic somewhat shock religious decorum. In heathen­ ism indecent fables are not uncommon; to have to refute such things is disagreeable. If the refutation prove disagreeable to the votary also, all unprejudiced bystanders will say that he must blame those who invented the creed, not him who refutes it; and surely the same topic applies here. We are ordered to believe that a certain person was born without a human father; and when we ask, on what proof, we have handed to us, in the first instance, the book called Matthew, in which it is alleged that Joseph, the ostensible father of Jesus, discovered his betrothed wife to have premature signs of maternity ; that he was disposed to repudiate her privately, in order to save her shame; when, lo! he had a dream; a dream ! informing him that there was no shame in the matter, but great glory; it was a holy miracle ; the father of her child was no human being, but was the Spirit of God. Such is the account in Matthew. We should fear to insult an English magistrate, by expecting him to believe a similar story concerning some English peasant girl, on the ground that her betrothed lover had had a dream to that effect, which tranquillized his mind after a painful struggle. Not only no English magistrate, no judge, no jury, would believe such a tale on such evidence; but no clergy­ man would believe it, no bishop, no archbishop : this we may assert with absolute freedom and certainty, however large demands of easy faith they make on others. The least that even an archbishop could re­ quire would be, some security,—or say, some plausible �of Protestantism. pretence for believing—that it was not a common dream, but a properly miraculous vision; and that the man to whom it was vouchsafed should display some superiority of mind, which might, if not justify our trust in his power to discriminate between dreams and visions, yet palliate our credulity in so trusting him. Who then was Joseph ? Why should we believe him so easily ? Who indeed was Joseph ? We know nothing of him except that this story was told of him at a later time. Nay, we cannot even attain any moderately good proof that he evei’ had such a dream, or pro­ fessed to have had it: for it is on the face of the narrative that he passed as father of Jesus, and that there was no public suspicion that that was an error, some thirty years later, at which time Joseph has vanished out of the narrative and is supposed to have been dead. We have then a second question: Who is it that tells us that Joseph ever narrated such a dream, ever professed painful suspicions, and re­ ceived such a solution of them ? The reply is: We know little or nothing about him. It is usual now to call him Matthew; and if Matthew was really the writer’s name, if he even wrote within fifty years after the dream, it helps very little to prove that Joseph was his informant, or had ever heard the tale. It has been observed (and the remark seems decisive) that no young woman of ordinary good sense or right feeling could have failed to reveal everything of this critical nature to her betrothed from the first moment. That she should allow him B �i8 The Religious Weakness to have unjust and dishonouring suspicions, and remain silent, is quite unnatural: it is conduct of which no plausible explanation can be given. And now, we are expected to believe a mighty and car­ dinal miracle on evidence which would not suffice in the laxest court of law to establish an ordinary fact. If the possession of an estate depended on priority of existence, and the evidence offered were, that aman called Matthew, who died last year, had left a MS. which stated that a certain Joseph had a dream, and that in this dream an angel of the Lord told him that “ James was born before Joses ; ” we say, no ecclesiastical tribunal in Europe would believe this very credible statement on such evidence. There are many persons so thoughtless, or se unreasonable, as to assume that religious credulity is safer and more pious than incredulity. As if for the instruction of such, the Romanist steps in, to show them by his example to what results their easy faith leads. For centuries together Spain was eminent in the Romish world for its devotion to the Virgin,, to whom the Spaniards have ascribed a prerogative which they entitle “ immaculate conception.” Protestants in general, misled by the phrase, suppose it to assert the same miracle concerning the birth of Mary (whose mother is ecclesiastically known as St Ann), as Matthew and Luke assert concerningthe birth of Jesus. The writer of these lines has been rebuked by two Catholics for this very error; and as they were very explicit, he supposes they were �of Protestantism. J9 correct. They explained, that the miracle in the case of St Ann was, not that the Holy Spirit acted on her womb to supersede a human father, but so combined his influence on that organ with that of the real father, as to hinder the introduction of “ original sin ” by the father’s act! Within the last few years we have seen this doctrine raised into a dogma of the church by the Pope; and Protestants cry out, that the dogma is very disgusting, and that it has no basis of proof; for of St Ann nobody knows anything. We cannot defend the doctrine from such attacks; but we doubt whether the “ orthodox ” Protestant has fairly earned a right to make them. His own dogma is equally baseless, not less puerile or more edifying. If he insists that it is pious to believe rumours or speculations of this nature, in which the gossip of all heathenism abounds, he does his best to throw open the floodgates of measureless credulity and indecent fable. A curious story, not much known, is alluded to by Dr Campbell, of Aberdeen, in the fourteenth of his celebrated “ Lectures on Ecclesiastical History.” So late as the pontificate of Clement XI., in the begin­ ning of the last century, a preacher in Rome, intend­ ing to honour St Ann, applied to her the title “ Grandmother of Godwhich, being new, appeared highly offensive, and was suppressed by the Pope; who doubtless foresaw that, if it were permitted, we should next hear of “ God’s grandfather, uncle, aunt, and cousins.” “The second Council of Nice, in quoting the Epistle of James, do not hesitate (says Dr C.) to �20 The Religious Weakness style the writer God’s brother (a5eX0o0eov).” “ The sole spring of offence is in the first step,” viz., the calling the Virgin Mary “ Mother of God.” For, he adds, to distinguish between “ the mother of the mother,” and “ the grandmother,” is impossible. As a protestant, he of course disapproves of the received Romish phraseology; yet, clear as he generally is, he leaves us in doubt whether he disap­ proves of saying (p. 253) that the Virgin is “ the mother of him who is God,” equally with the other formula, that she is “the mother of God.” He has just .informed us that under Pope Hormisdas and some of his successors there was a fierce strife, * whether we ought to say, “ One of the Trinity suffered in the flesh,” or “ One person of the Trinity suffered in the flesh.” Unless such controversies are to be regarded as rightful and necessary, what are they but a red/uctio ad alsurdum of Anglican orthodoxy ? We pass to the second great miracle, the Resurrec­ tion, to which the Ascension is a sort of complement. Here it is possible that men of science will admit (though we have no right to make concessions in their name), that evidence is vmaginable adequate to prove facts of such a nature—which are not negative (as in the case of miraculous conception), but posi­ tive. Suppose a man’s head were cut off, or his * “There were four different opinions. One set approved of both expressions; a second condemned both; a third maintained the former expression to be orthodox, the latter heterodox; and a fourth affirmed the reverse. In this squabble, emperors, popes, and patriarchs engaged with great fury.”—Dr Campbell. �of Protestantism. 21 body burned to ashes; after either of these events, duly testified, no man of science could be incredulous of the real death. Again, suppose that after such death testimony were offered that the same person was still alive. Inasmuch as only from information and experience do we hitherto disbelieve that a man once dead ever resumes animal life in the same form, it would seem that an amount of first-rate testimony is imaginable^ which might force us to modify the uni­ versality of this doctrine: nevertheless, the evidence needs to be very cogent. We must have decisive proof of the death, and decisive proof of the renewed animal life: a failure on either side would make the whole vain. If, for instance, a person fainted and seemed to die from exhaustion or loss of blood, and, after this, came overwhelming evidence that he was still alive ; it would not have the slightest tendency to prove that he was risen from the dead, but only that the death had not been real. Now the very peculiar phenomenon in the Biblical narrative of the Resurrection is, that of the two propositions, both of which are equally essential, it is hard to say which of the two is less satisfactorily sustained : so that those who find it every way impossible to believe the miracle, are at the same time left uncertain whether or not the alleged death was reaL Crucifixion was notoriously the most tedious of deaths, and was for this very reason selected by the Carthaginians and Romans as a mode of long torment and ignominy. The loss of blood endured by it is so trifling, that the �no The Religious Weakness victim dies only by exhaustion and thirst, or by the sufferings of muscular spasm. From the article “ Cross,” in the ‘ Penny Cyclopaedia,’ we extract the following:— “ As death (from crucifixion) in many cases did not ensue for a length of time, guards were placed to prevent the relatives or friends of the crucified from giving them any relief, or taking them away whilst alive, or removing their bodies after they were dead. .... Even when it (crucifixion) took place by nailing, neither the wounds themselves nor the quantity of blood lost would be sufficient in all cases to bring on speedy death. During the reign of Louis XV. several women (relig­ ious enthusiasts, called Convulsionaires) voluntarily underwent crucifixion. Dr Merand .... relates that he was pre­ sent at the crucifixion of two females, named Sister Rachel and Sister Felicite. They were laid down, fixed by nails five inches long driven firmly through both hands and feet into the wood of which the crosses were made. The crosses were then raised to a vertical position. In this manner they remained nailed, while other ceremonies of these fanatics proceeded. Sister Rachel, who had been first crucified, was then taken down; she lost very little blood. Sister Felicite was after­ wards taken from her cross. Three small basons, called palettes, full of blood, flowed from her hands and feet. Their wounds were then dressed, and the meeting was terminated. Sister Felicite declared that it was the twenty-first time she had undergone crucifixion." The death being ordinarily so slow, it is of great importance to know how long Jesus hung on the cross : and here the narrators are at variance. Mark says distinctly (xv. 25—34) that Jesus was crucified at the third hour, and died at the ninth hour. John as distinctly tells us that he was not yet crucified at the �of Protestantism. 23 * sixth hour (xix. 14). “ It was about the sixth hour, and Pilate saith unto the Jews, Behold your King. And they cried out, Away with him, crucify him. . . . Then delivered he unto them to be crucified. And they took Jesus, and led him away. And he bearing his cross, went forth into a ptace called ” ... <fec. &c. Thus, after Pilate’s command, was the farther process of carrying the cross out from Pilate’s judgment-seat to Golgotha; which, for anything that appears to the contrary, may have delayed the actual crucifixion for another hour. In short, accepting the narratives, there is nothing in them to show that Jesus was longer than tu)o\ hours actually on the cross. It is further manifest in them all, that Pilate most unwillingly consented to his execution, and was •driven to it only by fear. He distinctly declares him to be innocent, and tries to save him. In Matthew he takes water, and symbolically washes his hands in * To save the Biblical infallibility, some divines hold that John had a different way of counting the hours from the other Evangelists. The learned Dr Bloomfield, in his ‘ Commentary to the Greek Testament,’ thinks such a theory too rash. He says (on Mark xv. 25), “Although such discrepancies [as this between Mark and John] are (as Eritz observes) ‘rather to be patiently borne, than removed by rash measures,’ yet here we are, I conceive, not reduced to any great necessity. For although the mode of reconciling the two accounts by a sort of management [Italics in Dr B.], however it may be approved by many commentators, is not to be commended, yet . . .” in short, it is best to believe the text in John corrupt, and to alter sixth to third. Of course this is possible; but so is the opposite; and no one can rest a miracle on a voluntary correction of a text. t Strauss has discussed this whole subject carefully: ‘ Life of Jesus,’ Part in. ch. iv. § 134. [First Work, 1st edition.] He thinks the addi­ tions in John to be mythical inventiohs; but we here decline to discuss such possibilities, and (concessively) abide by the statements as given us. �24 The Religious Weakness sight of the multitude, saying, “ I am innocent of the blood of this just person : see ye to it.” A governor, who, after so humiliating a struggle, yields an inno­ cent man to public death, is not unlikely to compro­ mise with his conscience by giving secret orders to the executioners not to kill him, but to put him on to the cross for a short time, and give up his body, as if dead, to his friends, as soon as he appeared to faint. What might thus seem beforehand probable, is unex­ pectedly confirmed by John’s information (xx. 32, 33) that the soldiers, knowing that the time was in­ sufficient to kill, broke the legs of the other two who were crucified with Jesus (not a very effectual way of hastening death, but at least a security against their * resuming the trade of robbers); while they did not break the legs of Jesus. John adds, that they re­ frained because they saw him to be dead; which appears to be a mere surmise; the real reason may have been that they had secret orders from Pilate to spare Jesus. Curiously enough, John proceeds unawares to state what distinctly suggests, that Jesus was not dead when they began to take him down from the cross; for he adds, that a soldier “ pierced his side with a spear, and forthwith came out blood and water: and he that saw it (whoever this was) bare record, and his record is true,” &c. Some of the Fathers, as Strauss observes, strongly felt how opposed this is to common expe* Strauss observes that the breaking of legs nowhere else occurs in connexion with crucifixion among the Romans. He thinks that the fractures would be sure to mortify, and thus cause death. �of Protestantism. 25 Hence of death. Says Origen : “ In all other dead bodies the blood coagulates, and no pure water flows from them; but the marvel of the dead body in the case of Jesus is, blood and water poured from his side even after death.” So Euthymius: “ For out of a dead human being, though you should stab him ten thousand times, no blood will come. This pheno­ menon is supernatural, and clearly proves that he who was stabbed is higher than man.” We are too aware of the delicacy of such physiological questions, to speak so confidently ourselves. It suffices to say, that the flow of blood is most easily and naturally accounted for by supposing the circulation still to be active. Indeed, even swooning makes it hard to get blood out of a man. If he falls in battle from a sabre-cut and faints, the heart ceasing its normal action, the blood flows too feebly in the arteries to issue from the wound, which presently coagulates: and when death is complete, the stagnation must ordinarily be still greater. It is of course possible, that though crucifixion had not caused death, this spear-wound proved fatal; but the alternative is equally possible—that as he was still alive, neither did this new wound kill him. The narrative decides nothing either way. We however do learn from it that Pilate desired to save him, gave him up with a bad conscience, and subjected him to the shortest time of crucifixion which would obviate quarrel with the Jewish rulers; that Pilate’s executioners favoured Jesus in comparison with the two robbers by not breaking his legs; allowed a humane person, when �i6 ^he Religious Weakness Jesus complained of the thirst accompanying that miserable torment, to moisten his lips with vinegar, which, diluted with water, was a well-known beverage of the Roman soldiers, and is a great relief to a fevered mouth; farther, Pilate’s officers took him down from the cross, and prepared to deliver him to his friends, while there were symptoms which strongly indicate life, and after an interval so short, that (as Mark asserts) Pilate “ marvelled if he were already dead.” With so very imperfect a proof of death, it is manifest that all pains in the second part of the story to prove a Resurrection are wasted; the more so, since, according to the accounts, neither was he buried in such a way as could have tended to suffoca­ tion. His body was given over to the friendly hand of Joseph of Arimathaea, who laid him “ in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock that is to say, in a rocky vault, where a wounded man might receive surgical treatment and cordials. The evidence offered in proof that Jesus after his buii al was seen alive, has been many times ably dis­ cussed. English readers who desire to see what can be said against it, may consult Charles Hennell’s 1 Inquiry on the Origin of Christianity,’ Strauss’s ‘ Life of Jesus,’ or W. R. Greg’s ‘ Creed of Christen­ dom.’ From the last-named, we extract the followings p. 216 “ A marked and most significant peculiarity in these ac­ counts, which has not received the attention it deserves, is, * * Hennell touches the topic in a short but decisive paragraph, p. 239, second' edition. �of Protestantism. that scarcely any of those who are said to have seen Jesus after his resurrection recognised him, though long and intimately acquainted with his person. . . . (Mark xvi. 12.) ‘After that, he appeared in another form, to two of them.’ Now, if it really were Jesus who appeared to these various parties, would this want of recognition have been possible ? If it was Jesus, he was so changed that his most intimate friends did not know him. How then can we know that it was himself ? ” The defence put in by our divines does nothing but show the shifting and untangible nature of their argu­ ment. They say, that the risen Jesus had a glorified body which could pass through shut doors, and of course was sufficiently different from his former body to embarrass recognition. We began by avowing that human testimony was imaginable that might prove the restoration of a dead man to life. But we must modify the avowal, by adding, that no common testimony could ever prove the sort of resurrection here tendered to us : for if the risen body is not a body of flesh and blood, but “ glorified ” and ethereal, and so unlike the former body of Jesus that his friends identify him only by the symbolical action of breaking bread, as the two disciples at Emmaus (Luke xxiv.), their testimony is unavailing. To what do they affect to bear witness ? They do not lay before us the impressions on their sight or hearing, but merely the inferences of their mind, that the person who broke bread in a certain way must have been Jesus, though he looked v&ry unlike him.' And this leads naturally to the important point, which Mr Hennell has so well made prominent:— “ It seems probable (says he, p. 204, second edition) that the �28 The Religious Weakness original belief among the Apostles was merely that Christ had been raised from the dead in an invisible or spiritual manner : for where we can arrive at Peter’s own words, viz., in his ‘ Epistle,’ he speaks of Christ as being put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit (1 Pet. iii. 18)—OavarwGels p.tv traps! ^woiroi^dels Se nveipari. That the last phrase signifies a mode of opera­ tion invisible to human eyes, appears from the following clause, which describes Jesus as preaching, also in the spirit (eV <£), to the spirits in prison. But some of the disciples soon added to this idea of an invisible or spiritual resurrection, that Jesus had appeared to many in a bodily form................... ” Men who have seen and heard another man, have a certain power of identifying him when they see and hear him again; and when by eye or ear they do identify him, we call their declaration concerning it testimony or witness, and assign a certain weight to it. But if they declare that they do not identify him by eye or ear, but only by the inferences of their mind, it is an abuse of language to call this testimony. If the glorified spirit of a deceased friend were to appear to one of us—whether in ecstatic vision or in what seemed to be our waking senses—we could not claim that other men should accept as “ testimony ” our statement that it was he : for though they have expe­ rience of the trustworthiness of sense to recognize and identify ordinary bodies in their ordinary states, they know nothing of the trustworthiness of sense when it pretends to identify a form now ethereal and glorified with what was once a human body. And as it is not only in Peter’s epistle and in Paul’s vision (as, indeed, in Paul’s doctrine of the “ resurrection­ body”), that this idea of a merely spiritual resur­ rection of Jesus is suggested, but the same occurs in �of Protestantism. <19 all the Gospels—partly in the difficulty of recognizing Jesus, partly in his vanishing out of their sight or suddenly coming through walls and doors—the whole is removed beyond the sphere of testimony, even if the declarations were consistent and distinct, and were laid before us on the authority of the original eye­ witnesses. Thus those two cardinal events which Protestantism undertakes to prove and recognizes as its basis,—when their alleged Scriptural evidence is examined fail of satisfying the demands of ordinary scientific reason­ ing ; after which we need not wonder that Protes­ tantism cannot win intelligent converts. For it does not, like Catholicism, tell people that they must not reason at all concerning religion. On the contrary, it excites their reasoning powers — bids them to examine—professes to give proof—lays before them the Scripture as decisive—talks high of private judg­ ment—and yet gives no evidence which can bear the tests of ordinary historical and scientific inquiry. When hereto it adds unseemly threats, denouncing Divine judgment on all whose intellect rises against its imbecility, none can wonder that the freer-thinking Catholics say they may as well remain under the old Church as go into another which, while it affects to appeal to reason, is as essentially unreasonable as the old one. “ My child,” said a Catholic bishop to a Protestant in his neighbourhood, “ did I rightly hear that you called the sacred doctrine of Transubstantiation irrational ? Oh, folly! If, in order to receive the doctrine of the Trinity, you have crucified vain �30 The Religious Weakness reason, what avails to build again, that which you have destroyed, by setting reason to carp at another doctrine which is too hard for it ?” Besides the miracles which inhere in the person of Jesus, there are two great classes of miracles wrought by him, and by or in his disciples, which may deserve a few words here. First we have the casting-out of devils—a miracle very prevalent in the three first Gospels, though unknown to the fourth. No educated physician, Catholic or Protestant, can well listen with gravity to a truly orthodox discourse on this subject. Indeed, many well-informed divines are ashamed of it, and declare that popular ignorance mistook epilepsy, catalepsy, madness, and other diseases, for a possession by evil spirits. They are aware that the superstition was learned by the Jews in Babylon, and still exists in very ignorant countries ; and they tell us that the Evangelists accommodated their dialect to that of the ignorant,but made no substantial error. Hence, accord­ ing to them, as we accept the phrase, that “ the sun rises,” even if astronomically questionable; so must we tacitly interpret the “ possession by a devil ” into epilepsy, or some other disease. But such divines are rather well-informed than candid; for they cannot but be aware that it is impossible to get rid of the “ devils ” by interpretation. Divines more candid, but sometimes worse-informed, have far more cogently argued, that the discerning of Jesus, as Son of God, which is attributed to demoniacs—and still more decisively, the passing of a legion of devils from a man into a herd of swine—demonstrate the narrators �of Protestantism. to have had a definite belief in the supernatural know­ ledge, power, and personality of the “ devils ” who dwelt in the demoniacs. Thus our Protestant theo­ logians, episcopal critics and historians, reverend mathematicians, astronomers, geologists—men cer­ tainly who know what proof is—solemnly read out in church, for public edification, stories about devils, which it is hard to believe they do not know to be Babylonish frippery; and while thus glorifying fictitious follies, wonder that many who disdain hypocrisy rush headlong into the belief that most religious men are hypocrites. The second class of miracles is the speaking with tongues, which so abounds in the book of the “ Acts of the Apostles,” and on which there is ample discus­ sion in “ Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians.” We should in vain try here to abridge Mr Greg’s able summary of the phenomenon, in pp. 169—178 of the “ Creed of Christendom.” It is clear, both from the details given by Paul, and from many other conside­ rations, that these “ tongues ” were not real foreign languages, but were gibberish, such as used to be heard in the late Mi’ Edward Irving’s congregation —a gibberish which Paul felt to be “ most probably nonsensical, unworthy, and grotesque ” (Greg.)— which he desired to repress, yet did not dare to forbid. “ We are driven to the painful but unavoidable conclusion, that those mysterious and unintelligible utterances, which the Apostles and the early Christians looked upon as the effects of the Holy Spirit, the manifestation of its presence, the signs of its operation, the especial indication and criterion of its having �32 ’The Religious Weakness fallen upon any one, were in fact simply the physiologically natural results of morbid and perilous cerebral exaltation, induced by strong religious excitement acting on uncultivated and susceptible minds ; results which in all ages and nations have followed in similar circumstances and from similar stimuli; and that these signs to which Peter appealed, and to which the other brethren succumbed, as proving that God intended the Gospel to be preached to Gentiles as well as to Jews, showed only that Gentiles were susceptible to the same excitements, and manifested that susceptibility in the same manner as the Jews.”—Greg, p. 178. There are other doctrines, common to the creed of all the national Churches, which, though too cardinal to omit, are too vast to discuss here in detail. We allude especially to the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the Atonement. These are rejected from Christianity by the followers of Dr Priestley, who can fight powerfully against the “ orthodox,” when they go the full length of avowing that the Epistles of Paul were of no authority in the Church at large for two centuries, and that the fourth Gospel is full of pro­ fanities, which would have shocked the earliest Christians. But nothing can be so opposed to the creed of European Christendom as this avowal; and without disrespect to some great Unitarian writers, when we speak of Christianity or Protestantism, we do not and cannot mean their scheme of thought and religion. The accomplished and variously-gifted scholars who hold places as bishops or deans among us, will justify us in treating these difficult doctrines, with the resurrection and the miraculous conception, as essential to Protestant Christianity. But since they are aware that the laws of evidence are coeval �of Protestantism, 33 with the human mind, and that the evidence strictly and rightfully needed to establish a marvel now was always strictly and rightfully needed, even before men’s minds had ripened to discern it; we may fairly propose to one of these learned persons, in the calm retirement of his library, to put down on paper the kind of evidence which, if tendered, would satisfy his mind that the holiest and noblest man now living is the Eternal (or an Eternal) Divine Being, Creator of this world and of all worlds, future Judge of mankind, who will give eternal life to some, and award con­ demnation to others—a Being towards whom we may exercise absolute trust and hope, and supreme adora­ tion. If he seriously undertake the task we suggest, we should not be greatly surprised if his meditation threw unexpected light on Edward Irving’s apoph­ thegm, “ Intellectual evidence is the egg of infidelity or if it even reconciled him to the distinguished Mr ICeble’s advice to his friend Arnold, as homely good sense, to “ put down ” his doubts concerning the Trinity “ by main force,” and take a curacy to get rid of them. At the same time, nearly the same problem as the above rests on Unitarian Christians, whether their philosophy grovel or aspire; who after giving active aid to demolish the gorgeous fabric of magical ecclesiasm, now struggle to sustain its central shining minaret—the unapproachable, absolute, moral per­ fection of him, whom they elaborately maintain to be merely human, and limited by human conditions. But we will vary our demand. Suppose the East �34 The Religious Weakness and West so far to change places, that missionaries of Buddhism come to England to convert us to their religion. Let them proclaim, that Buddha—whom, by reason of his virtue, his followers unwisely have worshipped as God—was truly divine in goodness, the incarnate image of absolute divine purity: that, as such, his Person enters into the substance and obliga­ tions of human religion; on which account they call upon us to listen, while they preach his life, person, and pre-eminence; and, moreover, thoughtfully to study the ancient books which record his sanctity. This hypothesis is, in fact, so closely akin to the real Buddhism, that it might on any day become a case of reality. Now, we ask of Unitarian Christians on what primd facie evidence should we be bound to explore the Oriental books, and listen with religious hope to the argument, that Buddha is the Head of mankind, and unique type of perfection ? To reply that we have found such a Head already, and do not want another, may be practically good, but is scien­ tifically weak; for it avails equally to them, and would justify them in exploding the perfect Christ, because they already believe in a perfect Buddha. Is the intrinsic unplausibility of a doctrine never a reason for exploding it, without sacrifice of valuable time and research ?—or can any folly concerning an Apollo, who is physically a God and morally a liber­ tine, be more unplausible than the Unitarian notion, that Jesus was mentally a dwarf and morally a God ? The present condition of theological “philosophy ” among us (if the phrase be allowable) indicates that �of Protestantism, 35 the old school is dying out. From fifty to thirty years ago the doctrines of Paley (as regards Christian “ Evidences ”) were dominant in both Universities, and were acknowledged by High and Low Church alike. At Oxford they were especially upheld by such men as Copleston, afterwards Bishop of Llandaff; •Shuttleworth, afterwards Bishop of Chichester; "Whately, afterwards Archbishop of Dublin; Lloyd, Regius Professor of Divinity, and a little while Bishop <of Oxford; Vowler Short, now Bishop of St Asaph ; Longley, now Archbishop of Canterbury; besides •others who never emerged from the University. They were able men, some remarkably able ; they had the field to themselves, yet they could not keep it. They sincerely believed that by invoking “ his­ torical testimony ” they could recommend to the assent of every unprejudiced and intelligent mind such doctrines as we have denoted ; yet, against their learning, experience, and high authority, two young men in Oxford commenced an unexpected reaction— Pusey, Professor of Hebrew, and J. H. Newman, whose sole distinction then consisted in being a Fellow of a most distinguished College; both of whom had evidently become aware that Protestantism •could not possibly stand on its old basis. To prove by historical and learned evidence the postulate of the Evangelicals, that the Bible from end to end is infallible, they saw to be at once a hopeless and an absurd undertaking. To lay logic as the foundation, and make the doctrine of the Trinity the super­ structure, they more than hinted, was very dangerous ; �36 'The Religious Weakness indeed, some of the “ Tracts for the Times ” almost avow that no Protestant can prove the doctrine even from the Scripture. Dr Newman (led on, we sup­ pose, by polemical instincts) struck upon the method of assailing with logic all who appeal to reason (that is, common Protestants and liberals), while assuming that the true faith (his own), being founded on something higher than reason, is not bound to justify itself to reason. This gave to his school a delightful licence of attacking other people’s want of logic, while reserving to itself the privilege of being illogical at pleasure. Oxford still boasted of able men, though some of those whom we have named were withdrawn. The new “ Puseyism” soon reached the ears of the outer world, and interested all England. Baden Powell—and shall we say Hampden?—opposed it from within; Whatelv, and Arnold, and Julius Hare, and a host of Evangelicals, from without. At Cam­ bridge, at least one man of vast and various powers, keen ambition, deep and original thought—Whewell, Master of Trinity College—would have started a rival philosophy of the Christian religion, if he had been able. In morals, Sedgwick and Whewell have repudiated Paley; but we have never understood that in regard to “ Christian Evidences ” they under­ take to supersede him. Like the deep-souled Julius Hare, and the sprightly, eager Arnold, they proved unable to check the movement of Newman and Pusey, whose attacks on the vulgar Protestantism were very unshrinking. The Tractarians were, no doubt, in a false position. They overthrew �of Protestantism. 37 their allies from within, and were debarred from attacking their great enemy without; for Romanism, precisely on their ground, claims exemption from the task of reconciling its dogmas with reason : moreover, their doctrine of “ Apostolic succession ” presumes that a Roman bishop, however wicked, has a power of bestowing the Holy Spirit. In the result, Dr New­ man discovered and repented of the sin of assailing Rome. He has, nevertheless, done an effectual work in England, practically showing in what those must end who assume “ High Church ” axioms, and reason from them with consistent logic. Simultaneously, our knowledge of German theology has continually been on the advance. Dr Pusey indeed himself, in his ardent youth, was the first person to expound at Oxford the deep Biblical learning and warm piety of German theologians, who had in some points un­ happily been carried too far, but who ought never­ theless to be esteemed and honoured, and wisely used. But he appears in a very few years to have discerned that the free study of the Bible in the nine teenth century would never end in the theology of the sixteenth, and by the discovery to have been forced into a totally new career. Meanwhile, it has become notorious that the arguments of Gardner and Paley break down on the literary and historical side, in the presence of the more accurate scholarship of the Ger­ mans, to say nothing of a higher philosophy; so that our academicians, if they endeavour to discuss “ evi­ dences ” in Protestant fashion, dread to be precipi­ tated into German neology; while, if they deprecate �38 The Religious Weakness private judgment and appeal to the Church, they are fighting the battle of Rome. In such an entanglement men of backward and stagnant minds may write and speak as if nothing new had been added to our knowledge of antiquity in the last fifty years; but leading talents will no longer give their energies to develop and maintain either theory of Anglicanism— of the Low, or of the High Church. The school of Paley has now, for perhaps the last twenty years, its most prominent representative in Mr Henry Rogers, whose grave Edinburgh articles have been succeeded by elaborate effusions, called coarseness and ribaldry by some critics, sacred mirth by others. Most of our readers have probably read his conception of an Irish Adam talking brogue to the Creator against the Ten Commandments ; and will add epithets at their own discretion to MrRogers’s name. We believe that he writes from the outside of the Established Church. Within, Oxford and Cambridge are waiting for a religious philosophy. That of Professor Jowett may be very noble and very true ; but it is so different from the hereditary Pro­ testant doctrines, that the Oxonians cannot be blamed for looking askance and timidly at it. They are in general paralyzed, from an uneasy foreboding of the dangers contingent on a close reconsideration of first principles. Precisely because theologians will not reconsider first principles, but, with infinite disputes about their superstructure, are careless about their foundation, therefore it is that science tends to become Atheistic, �of Protestantism. 39 alike in Protestant as in Catholic countries. The blame of this may be justly laid upon the doctrine which elaborately seeks for marks of God in every­ thing unusual and exceptional, and denies His pre­ sence in all that is ordinary and established. We are aware that there are enlightened Protestant divines, who disapprove this position; eminently the Rev. Baden Powell, who, in the first of his “ Three Essays on the Unity of Worlds,” speaks as follows:— “ According to this mode of representation [by religious writers] ‘ nature ’ was the rule, ‘ Deity ’ the exception. The belief in nature was the doctrine of reason and knowledge; the acknowledgment of a God was only the confession of ignorance. So long as we could trace physical laws, nature was our only and legitimate guide; when we could attain nothing better, we were to rest satisfied with a God. Even learned writers on natural theology have thought it pious to argue in this way.”—p. 162, Second Edition. [Italics as in Mr Powell.] Mr Powell’s protest is right and wise; but, with deference to him, we add, it cannot be effectual unless he pull down the whole Protestant theory, of which the avowed foundation is the miraculous—the excep­ tional. It commands us, not to look within our hearts, or into human history, for the Divine, but into one miraculous book and one miraculous history. It virtually shuts God out" from inspiring us now, by the stress which it lays on the special inspi­ ration once granted by Him to a few. It lays down that the Jewish history is sacred, and other histories profane; and treats even the history of the Christian Church as too secular for the pulpit, from the day that the canon of Scripture was closed. �40 The Religious Weakness It represents that God is certainly present wherever there is miracle, but that where miracle is not, no one can be sure of the presence of God. Nothing else is meant or can be meant by the infallible and authoritative Bible, than to desecrate, in comparison to it, all the ordinary modes of learning truth, and duty, and right. In proportion to the power and activity of this theory concerning miracles and the Bible, will be the intensity with which a man embraces the exceptionable and obscure phenomena of the world as the great manifestation of Deiiy. Undoubtedly Mr Powell rightly regards this to tend to Atheism, for every step onward of knowledge is then a lessening and weakening of the Theist’s resources. But we submit to him that we are right in insisting, that a theory which places the strength of religion in the miraculous is naturally of Atheistic tendency. It entraps into Atheism those students of science, who, having no religious philosophy of their own, borrow its fundamental principles from the Church. In fact, those writers on “ Evidences,” who now seem to have the field to themselves, make no secret of their conviction that Atheism is the neces­ sary logical result of an appeal to Science, the Universe, and Man. On the one side, we see a great ecclesiast, the Rev. Dr Irons, frankly declare that, without the authoritative and supernatural revelation by miracle, Nature preaches to us nothing concern­ ing God. On the other, a would-be philosopher and liberal Christian, Mr Rogers, in his “ Eclipse of �of Protestantism. 4i Faith,” announces that the Atheist has the argument entirely in his own hands, as against the Deist, and that without the Bible the only God preached by Nature is an immoral or malignant Being. The learned and highly popular author of a work called “ The Restoration of Belief” goes so far as to insist, that one who does not acknowledge the supernatural authority of “ The Book,” not only ought to be an Atheist, but has no right to talk of “ Conscience, Truth, Righteousness, and Sin; ” and that sacrifices for Truth are in such a one “not constancy, but opinionativeness.” How can Christians avoid shud­ dering at such avowals from their own advocates ? which, if true, utterly destroy Christianity with Theism, and prepare to plunge mankind into a state of universal profligate recklessness. That the Protestant theory has no future, is indi­ cated by many marks. We have seen Arnold and Julius Hare (good, noble, able men, of peculiar acquirements) live and die without being able to make themselves understood; a pretty clear proof that the age has no susceptibility for their doctrine. The same is true of the Rev. Frederick Maurice, and of the Chevalier Bunsen. Mr Maurice is a man of acknow­ ledged goodness and largeness of heart; as Professor or Preacher, untiring in industry; devoted to raise the working classes; so copious a writer on theology that he will probably outdo Archbishop Whately in amount; and he has evidently undertaken as the work of his life to sublimate Church orthodoxy into �42 ’The Religious Weakness a transcendental philosophy. Yet, in spite of the high commendation bestowed upon his talents and discrimination by a few, to the public at large he seems to be only subtle, flimsy, and evasive. He may be wise, but the age cannot understand him. “ What does he mean ? ” is the cry which escapes from the perplexed novices who would fain admire him. Not dissimilar is the case with the accomplished Bunsen, who invests in gorgeous colours and vast pomp of intricate words a system of religious historicism, in which the common intellect can discover no solidity, no fixed shape, no firm and certain meaning. And as the new quasi-Coleridgian school proves feeble to us and dim, so neither does the old nursery rear any thriving plants. No young Whatelys show them­ selves. Nobody of high reputation now writes trea­ tises on the Trinity. Whately did but bring on him­ self a strong and dangerous imputation of “ Sabellianism,” by the remarks in his Logic on the word “Person Hampden half ruined himself by being too learned on the same subject. Men of the Evan­ gelical school, who have no philosophic reputation to lose, may publish sermons on the Atonement; but a systematic treatise on this involves much risk to a man of note. Schleiermacher’s “ Discourse on St Luke” was translated about twenty years ago (as was believed) by Dr now Bishop Thirlwall: we have never heard that it has been answered by any one. Many have claimed, that the Bishop will answer it himself, since he now disavows it. Nor does any �of Protestantism. 43 leading divine undertake to refute the works of Charles Hennell or W. R. Greg. When the wise men hold their peace under such attacks, it must be thought that they are but too conscious of the weak­ ness of their own cause. In consequence of the freedom which in Protestant countries many sects attain, we see from time to time the doctrine of personal inspiration (perhaps with some fanaticism) assert itself strongly against the ecclesiastical, which makes inspiration an exceptional thing of the past. Thus Whitfield, and thus Hunt­ ington the coalheaver, thus also Edward Irving, were distinguished. Speculators have marked out as revi­ vals such periodical recurrences of a simpler and nobler theology, but have lamented that the fresh­ ness of religious enthusiasm always decays in the second generation. Some even have elicited from this a “ law ” of nature: that the stage of languor follows that of excitement; or that the era of com­ mentators follows . that of men of genius. The existence of this “ law ” may seem plausible from the side of total unbelief; but it is difficult to understand what intelligent theory of the phenomenon can rightly recommend itself to a devout Evangelical or to any earnest Protestant. The phenomenon is not confined to our sects, nor to the ignorant and excite­ able. Neither in Geneva, nor in Scotland, nor in England, nor in Protestant Germany, could a second and third generation sustain the religious warmth of the first; nor indeed is it denied by Romanists that �44 The Religious Weakness learning is the fertile mother of heresy. Assuredly, if religion be a deep and noble principle, rightful and reasonable to man, then a particular form of religion must be involved in some very essential falsehood, if its vigour and vitality are uniformly undermined by accessions to its knowledge, or by the tranquil advance of experience. A true religion can but strike its roots deeper with cultivation of mind and increase of wisdom. That must be a fundamental fanaticism which thrives only upon action and excitement, and wastes by calm examination and learning. Alike in Catholic and in Protestant countries, the world has still to wait for a religion which shall grow stronger and stronger with every development of sound scien­ tific acquirement. Nor perhaps is this the worst: for we must add Europe has yet to wait for a religion which shall exert any good influence over public measures. A distinguished foreigner, in his own consciousness a true Christian—whose name we could not properly here bring forward—on a recent day said, in a select circle : “ I begin to doubt whether Christianity has a future in the world.” “ Why so ? ” asked one pre­ sent, in surprise at such an augury from such a quarter. “ Because,” he replied, ■ neither in India, nor in America, nor anywhere at all in Europe, does any of the governments called ‘ Christian ”—I do not say, do what is right, but—even affect and pre­ tend to take the Right as the law of action. What­ ever it was once, Christianity is now in all the great �of Protestantism. 45 concerns of nations a mere ecclesiasticism, powerful for mischief, but helpless and useless for good. Therefore I begin to doubt whether it has a future ; for if it cannot become anything better than it is, it has no right to a future in God’s world.” C. IT. BEYNELL, LITTLE PULTENET ST., HAYMARKET. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Victorian Blogging Description An account of the resource A collection of digitised nineteenth-century pamphlets from Conway Hall Library &amp; Archives. This includes the Conway Tracts, Moncure Conway's personal pamphlet library; the Morris Tracts, donated to the library by Miss Morris in 1904; the National Secular Society's pamphlet library and others. The Conway Tracts were bound with additional ephemera, such as lecture programmes and handwritten notes.<br /><br />Please note that these digitised pamphlets have been edited to maximise the accuracy of the OCR, ensuring they are text searchable. If you would like to view un-edited, full-colour versions of any of our pamphlets, please email librarian@conwayhall.org.uk.<br /><br /><span><img src="http://www.heritagefund.org.uk/sites/default/files/media/attachments/TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" width="238" height="91" alt="TNLHLF_Colour_Logo_English_RGB_0_0.jpg" /></span> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Conway Hall Library & Archives Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Conway Hall Ethical Society Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Original Format The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Pamphlet Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The religious weakness of Protestantism Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Newman, Francis William Description An account of the resource Place of publication: Ramsgate Collation: 45, [1] p. ; 19 cm Notes: Publisher's list on unnumbered page at the end. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Thomas Scott Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1866 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context G4851 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <img src="http://i.creativecommons.org/p/mark/1.0/88x31.png" alt="Public Domain Mark" /><br />This work (The religious weakness of Protestantism), identified by Humanist Library and Archives, is free of known copyright restrictions. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Language A language of the resource English Subject The topic of the resource Protestantism Christianity Protestantism